RELASI GRAMATIKAL I & II

Oleh Kelompok 5

Widyashanti Kunthara AninditaSyaja’atul Aisyah

Yucha Febria KNunung

Yuni

GRAMMATICAL FUNCTIONS

Grammatical Description

Subject

ObliqueObject

Indirect Object

Object

Adjunct

Complement

SUBJECT

Subject

Grammatical

Subject

Logical Subject

Thematic Subject

GRAMMATICAL SUBJECT

The grammatical forms that can function as the subject.

E.g. In English grammar, grammatical subjects are noun phrases,, prepositional phrases, verb phrases, and noun clauses.

Nominalised sentence (Constituent) - That Edinburgh’s New Town is magnificent is

undeniable - For you to run off with Mary would be madness.

Dummy no constituent. E.g. It is raining Nominalized sentence is extraposed. E.g. That Edinburgh’s New Town is magnificent is

undeniable It is undeniable that Edinburgh’s New Town• Existential asserts the existence of somethingEg. There are glasses in the drinks cupboard.• Deictic point something Eg. There is the glass

DEICTIC VS EXISTENTIAL

Deictic

• pronounced with non-reduced form.E.g. there is /ðɛəriz/, there are /ðɛəra/.

• There need not be a subject

• There can be questioned.

• Definite NP

Existential

• pronounced with reduced form. Eg. there is /ðəz/, there are /ðəra/.

• There must be a subject

• There can’t be questioned.

• Indefinite NP

TRANSFORMATIONAL APPROACH Distinguish underlying from surface level of

description.

Everyone believes Charlie to be handsome

Everyone believes (Charlie is handsome)

Everyone believes that Charlie is handsome

LOGICAL SUBJECT It is usually related to sentences involving an

(agent) participant. Agent is the "doer" who or what that causes the action.

E.g. William invaded England in 1066.

G L England was invaded by William in 1066.

G L

Types of typical role for subject in logical

Agentive Subject performs the action Instrumental Subject used to carry out the

action Dative Subject Goal Subject   where the action is directed

towards Source Subject where the action originated Locative Place Subject   where the action

occurs Patient Subject undergoes the action and

changes its state Neutral Subject mindlessly performs the

action

THEMATIC SUBJECT

Characterized by textual considerations – this is what the sentence is about.

Example;1. John (G,L,T) took the largest kitten2. The largest kitten (G,T) was taken by

John (L)3. The largest kitten (T), we (G,L) gave

away.

OBJECTIn active declarative sentence with unmarked word order, four grammatical features characterize the object:

1. Directly follows the verb2. Not in construction with a

preposition3. Can become the subject of the

corresponding passive sentence4. An obligatory constituent with

transitive verbs

OBJECT OF RESULT

also called an ‘effected’ or ‘factitive’ object:e.g.

Maggie moves the table The workmen are cleaning the horse cages

it can become the subject of a passive sentence, and there are no paraphrases involving preposition.

COGNATE OBJECT

The relevant NP in this object usually contains a noun morphologically derived from (and hence cognate with) the verb stem

e.g. Mother sewn a sewing. She draw a beautiful drawing. Lucky painted an awful painting.

OBJECT OF CONCERN

They are clearly neither affected (direct) nor effected (resultant) objects.

e.g. Nunung is sipping his coffee Nindi is watching Troy

THERE IS A HIERARCHY OF ‘OBJECTHOOD’. THE CONSIDERABLE EXAMPLE IS THE DIRECT OBJECT (DO). THE CHARACTERISTICS ARE:

Has a particularly close tie to the main verb Is an obligatory sentence constituent Immediately follows the main verb Will not occur in a paraphrase involving a

preposition Can be the subject of the corresponding passive

sentence

LEARN THIS EXAMPLE :1a America supplied tanks to the Israelis1b America supplied the Israelis with tanks

In 1a, tanks is a DO (direct object) while Israelis is an (OO) oblique object.On the other hand, in 1b, tanks is an OO while Israelis is a DO.

Since those sentences are close in meaning –both of them describe events of supplying tanks- we can see them as containing the same roles (agent, patient, neutral). They differs only to which role is chosen as direct object and so that presented as more central, because more closely related to the verb.

NOTE THAT THEY CANNOT OCCUR WITH A PREPOSITION IN THIS POSITION, INSTEAD OF THEY COULD BECOME THE SUBJECT OF THE CORRESPONDING PASSIVE:

2a *America supplied with tanks to the Israelis2b *America supplied to the Israelis with tanks

2c Tanks were supplied to the Israelis by America2d The Israelis were supplied with tanks by

America

FURTHERMORE, CHECK THIS SENTENCE:

2e *America supplied with tanks

But when the PP is omissible:

2f America supplied tanks2g America supplied the IsraelisThe NP in the PP is an OO because the NP in the

PP might, as it were, have become the object, had the other NP not done so. The OO is omissible, as we have observed, and cannot generally become the subject of a passive sentence:

2h *The Israeli were supplied tanks to by America

THE EFFECT OF BECOMING AN OBJECT IS IMPORTANT. THE SYNTACTIC EFFECT HAS BEEN DISCUSSED; BUT THERE IS ALSO A SEMANTIC EFFECT, WHICH VARIES FROM CASES LIKE NUMBER 2.

INDIRECT OBJECT (IO)

Exist when a verb is followed by two NPs, neither of which is associated with a preposition. See this sentence:3. Yucha gives Nindy (IO) a candy (DO)

May occur as an OO (Oblique Object), and can usually be omitted without affecting the grammaticality of the sentence, whereas the DO cannot be omitted [see the example on page 326-328]

PASSIVE FORMATION CASES ON DO AND IO

4a Nunung lent that map (DO) to Yuni (OO)4b That map was given to Yuni by NunungWhile:4c Nunung lent Yuni (IO) that map (DO)4d Yuni was lent that map by NunungBut not always:5a Nindy asked Yucha a help5b ?Yucha was asked a help by NindyAnd:6a Sister played me Dakon6b *I was played Dakon by sister

The NP that immediately follow the verb has a privileged status, both syntactically and semantically. When only one NP is available for this role (that is, in two-place propositions) there would seem to be a hierarchy of ‘objecthood’. When two NPs are available for the role in three-place propositions, the situation is more complex.

COMPLEMENT

These sentences below are Attributive complement because they describe the class membership of the subject noun, or ascribe an attribute to it:7a Cinderella was pretty7b Cinderella was a princess

Those can also be called ‘subject complement’ cause it relate back to the subject noun. Then, in 7b the noun ‘a princess’ is a ‘nominal complement’. Those complements are ‘state complements’ since they are found in stative sentences and describe states.

Those sentences below are ‘result complements’:

8a the mangoes are turning yellow8b Yucha became a bachelor of english

department

The complement cannot become the subject of a passive sentence.

The identify complement can be shown in:9a Nunung is the man with a bunch of dollar in his wallet.

The NP is always a definite NP. That sentence can be reversed:9b The man with a bunch of dollar in his wallet is Nunung.

Study this:9c Nunung is (to be identified as) the man with a bunch of dollar in his wallet.

The locative complement can be shown in:10 Yuni is in her study room

Locative complement is usually a prepositional phrase. Sometimes it use a place adverb. Corresponding on that, we can also recognize a ‘directional complement’ in sentences like:11 Nindy hid under the table12 Yucha walked across the hospital

Directional complements only occur in nonstate sentences

The italicized constituents in the sentences in 12 are also often called complements:12a Nunung comes back home safe12b Yuni talked the issue honest12c Nindy always buys her spinach fresh12d Yucha coloured her book green

12 a and 12 b are intensive to the subject, then others to the object. In some cases, they can be subtituted by adverbs. We can also make paraphrase constructions like:

12 e Nindy always buys her spinach in fresh condition

12 f Yuni was honest when she talked the issue, etc.

ADJUNCTS

Adjuncts are usually adverbials, whether they are adverb phrases, PP, adverbs, or subordinate clauses of time, place, manner, and so on, that distributionally function like adverbials.

Adjuncts are clearly a rather ‘mixed bag’, in that syntactically there are numerous subclasses which have different and overlapping distribution, and they fill a variety of semantic roles.

MORPHOLOGICAL MAPPING OF GRAMMATICAL FUNTIONS

1.Introduction2.Predicates, Arguments, and Lexical Entries

3.Theta-Roles and Lexical Entries

4.Grammatical Relations

Introduction

How are grammatical functions mapped onto morphological representations?

a. Introduce the notions of thematic roles, grammatical relations and the theory of case assignmentb. Explore the morphological effects of syntactic rules that change the canonical pairing of thematic roles with grammatical functionc. Discussion further afield through an investigation of the phenomenon of incorporation whereby the syntax requires the inclusion of one word within another

2. Predicates, Arguments, and Lexical Entries

Predicates is any word (or sequence of words) which (in a given single sense) can function as the predicator of a sentence (Hurfold James R dan Bredan Heasley: 1983)while those which attribute to them properties, processes, actions, relations or states are called predicates.Arguments is referring expressions of predicates

e.g : the gold watch lost >> lost is predicate, the gold watch is argument

my father sneezed >> sneezed is predicate, my father is argument

3.Theta-Roles and Lexical Entries

Language use syntax and inflectional morphology to encode some of the semantics relations which obtain in sentence between a predicate and its arguments.

We will use the term theta-roles (0-rules) for these semantic relations. (they are also called (abstract) case relations or thematic relations in the literature.)

Recognition of 0-rules is essentially based on the intuition which is widely shared among linguists that there is a relatively small number of syntactically relevant semantic properties that play a role in the transitivity systems of language.

Gruber (1965,1976) and Fillmore (1968) define of Theta-roles:

Agent Instrumental Patient Benefactive Theme Locative

Agent :Agent is the case of the individual (usually animate) that instigates the action identified by the verb. e.g., Mamat killed the chicken

Instrumental is the case of the inanimate instrument used to bring about the state of affairs described by the verb. e.g., mother washed with a brush

Patient is the case of the entity or individual that undergoes the process or action described by the verb. e.g. Toni punched the board

Benefactive is the case of the individual who gains from the action or process described by the verb.e.g. Andi gave his girlfriend a letter.

GRAMMATICAL FUNCTION CHANGING RULES

GF changing rules tend to have significant morphological repercussions which typically affect verbs more than other word-classes.

Some common GF changing rules1. Passive2. Antipassive3. Applicative4. Causative

PASSIVE

Often sentences expressing the same propositions can be realised in a variety of ways, depending on how grammatical relations are encoded using the syntax and morphology.

Example:

Active voiceAgent/ subjectNominativeThe VetShePassive voicePatient/ subjectNominativeEsmeraldaShe

examinedexamined

was examinedwas examined

Patient/ objectaccusativeEsmeraldaHer

by the Vetby her

ANTIPASSIVE

The antipassive is the process used in ergative languages to turn a transitive verb into an intransitive verb.

example:a. the man cut the tree with an axe

antipassiveb. The man was cutting the treewith an axe

APPLICATIVE

Benefactive/ dative shift/ indirect objecta NP in the benefactive case that has the GF of second object can be realised as a direct object when the applicative rules applies

Locativein many languages the aplicative can be used with a locative meaning whic his expressed in English using prepositions like: in, on, at, etc

Prossessor raisingwhen prossessor raising take place, an NP which function as the ‘prossessor’ modifying the head of possessive noun phrase is turned into object of the verb. The original object is shunted into a new slot and becomes the second object.

CAUSATIVE

Causative increases the valency of a verb, allowing it to take a fresh NP with a new ѳ role as it argument

Example:a. The boys will cook potatoesb. Kapere will make the boys cook potatoes Luganda language

The causative introduces a new agentive NP as subject. The original subject becomes the object and the original object become second object.

MORFOSINTAKSIS

MIRROR PRINCIPLES

THE MIRROR PRINCIPLE (MP, BAKER, 1985) The order of affixes reflects the order in which the

associated syntactic ‘operations’ apply. There is a close parallelism between morphology

and syntax Syntax operates on both words and morphemes, and

a complex word can be formed by syntactic rules, and more specifically head movement, through incorporation of a lexical root to a morpheme

Morphological derivations must directly reflect syntactic derivation (and vice versa)

The order of morphemes in a complex word reflects the natural syntactic embedding of the heads that correspond to those morphemes”

If causative creates a transitive verb from an intransitive verb and only transitive verbs can passivise, causative must apply before passive.

The morphological consequences:the causative suffix is attached first, and is closer to the verb root than the passive suffix. The syntactic derivation is isomorphic with the morphological derivation.

Mirror principle

COUNTER ARGUMENTS ON MIRROR PRINCIPLE

Mirror principle work well where affixation is cyclic such that each syntactic process trigger a round of affixation starting near the root and going outward

Mirror principle doesn’t work if the language have non-cyclic affixation

The use of mirror principle is the default case, applies if neither morphological positioning nor phonological factors dictate a particular order of morphemes

Mirror Principle is nothing but a consequence of the fact that Agree relations are subject to Relativized Minimality conditions.

RECIPROCALITATION : DERIVES AN INTRANSITIVE VERB FROM AN UNDERLYING TRANSITIVE VERBS

Before Reciprocalitation: two sentences with transitive verbs that have subjects and objects in agent and patient role who do something to each other:

Bill punched Paul – Paul punched Bill After Reciprocalitation:The two sentences are conflated and the subject of the verb refer to two or more participants and the object function is eliminated, rendering the derived verb intransitive.

Bill and Paul punched each other

THIS IS END OF THE SHOW

Thank you for the attention So far, is there any question?