Reformation & Religious Wars1500-1600

Chapter 14 - The Catholic Reform/Counter-Reform

The German Peasants’ War

• Conditions of the peasants grew worse as the 16thC began• Crop failures in 1523 & 1524 aggravated the situation• Twelve Articles• Peasants in Swabia – small region in southern Germany• Condemned both lay and ecclesiastical lords • seized common lands• Imposed new rents, taxes, services on peasants

• Violent mod violence – shouted Protestant slogans• Luther condemned peasants for taking religious freedom to mean

social freedom – Against the Murderous, Thieving Hordes of the Peasants

• Over 75,000 killed

AP Tip

• The German Peasants’ War is a good example of Luther’s relationship with the state. Luther was a fierce advocate of the individual’s freedom to interpret the Scripture, but he argued, also on the basis of Scripture, that in their political lives, people must obey the state. In this sense one can see Luther as both a revolutionary and a conservative. Insisting on obedience to rulers certainly earned him strong support from them and made Lutheranism not only an acceptable change for them but even a desirable one

The Reformation and Marriage

• Marriage• Protestant leaders married and had children• Luther and Zwingli both were husbands and fathers• Demonstrated the abandonment of celibacy • Women were to be subject to husbands, but spiritual equal• Women obey cheerfully• Men were to be kind, unless wife need physical force to obey

• Divorce• Catholic – marriage a sacrament – no divorce• Protestant – marriage a contract – divorce permitted (rare)

• Prostitution• Protestant - closed city sponsored brothels condemned prostitutes• Catholic – taxed prostitutes and gave freedom of movement

• Marriage only option for prominence and power• Protestant closure of nunneries removed an area of opportunity for women

Reformation and German Politics

• Political Impact of the Reformation• Protestantism born in The Holy Roman Empire (HRE)• Nationalism

• Promoted by Luther• German translation of Bible• Church subservient to gov. • Tax churches

• Princes saw opportunities• Confiscation of church properties• Independence from the Catholic emperor – Charles V

• Warfare• Catholic v Protestant

• 1st in several Swiss cantons (city and hinterlands)• Zwingli died in 1531 battle • Result – cantons could choose religion

• Augsburg Confession• Protestants defense of doctrine presented to emperor 1530• Charles rejected and threatened them• Protestants formed a military alliance

• Ottoman siege of Vienna 1529 – • ending 9 years later – Peace of Augsburg • Protestant victory

Reformation and German Politics

• Germany geographically divided on religious lines• North – Protestant• South – Catholic

• Charles abdicates• Failed to realize his dream of a unified Catholic empire• Divided empire• Son Phillip II – Spain & Netherlands• Brother Ferdinand I – Imperial Crown

Spread of the Protestant Reform

• 1520s• England, France, eastern Eur.

• England• Henry VIII (Tudor)

• Sought to annul marriage to Catherine of Aragon (daughter of Ferd. & Isab.)• Annulment not uncommon – Pope refused (pressured by Charles V- nephew of Cath)• Act of Supremacy – Parliament separated Eng. from the Catholic Church• Sir Thomas More and others refused to accept Act & were beheaded

• Retained many elements of Catholicism• Dissolved the monasteries• Confiscated the monastic lands• Sold to upper class – creating bound with Tudors

• Thomas Cromwell – chief minister• Reorganized government – bureaucracy to manage estates

• Hiers • Mary Tudor – restored Catholicism – burned Protestants• Elizabeth I – restored Church of Eng.• middle path regarding religion – Elizabeth Settlement

• Edward VI – ruled for 6 years – Church or Eng

Calvinism

• Calvin• Geneva • Eloquent speaker• mastery of Scripture

• Enforced morality on themselves and the entire population

• Institutes of the Christian Religion 1536• God is omnipotent & absolutely sovereign• Men/women weak – incapable of earning salvation• Predestination

• God predetermines who is saved and who is damned• Calvinists were among the elect (the saved)

• Geneva Consistory• Laity/pastors – watched over community

• Punished religious lapses• Activities

• Dancing• Drinking• Gambling

• Spread of Calvinism• Scotland – Presbyterians• France – Huguenots• England & America- Puritans or Calvinists

AP Tip

More than 100 years ago, the German sociologist Max Weber wrote a short book, The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism, which argued for an intimate connection between the rise of commercial capitalism and Protestantism. The Calvinist calling encouraged the traits of hard working, saving, and frugality, which made the growth of capitalism possible. Those countries that became Calvinist – England in the mid-17thC, Scotland & Holland, particularly – saw great economic success in the 17thC& 18thC.

The Reformation of Scotland

• Scotland open to Calvinism• Weak monarchy• Charles V & Mary Queen of Scots – staunch Catholics

• John Knox worked with Calvin in Geneva• Reform minded barons in Scottish Parliament• Estab Presbyterian Church of Scotland

AP Tip

While many Scots became Calvinists, other remained sympathetic to Catholicism. This is important to British history when the son of Mary Queen of Scots, who had been executed for treason by Elizabeth I, became King James I Of England in 1603. The Stuart sympathy for Catholicism prompted the English Revolution of the mid-17thC.

The Reformation in Eastern Europe

• Ethnic factors• Bohemia – Hussite Church• Early form of Protestantism & nationalist movement• 1520s & 1530s Lutheranism spread quickly• The Catholic Reformation has some success, but in the next century the

religious issue would spark the 30 Years’ War

• Hungary• Students brought Lutheranism • Briefly welcomed• 1523 Hungarian Diet declared it anathema (abhorrent) • 3 years later Ottoman sultan defeated the Hungarians• Hungary divided – 3 parts• Ottoman rule• Hapsburg rule• Ottoman puppet• Many nobles converted to Lutheranism• 85% of pop became Protestant

• Catholicism restored when Hungary conquered by Habsburgs 1699

The Catholic Reformation

• Paul III• The great reforming pope• Turned papal court into a center of reform• Improved the education of the clergy• Banned pluralism, simony & absenteeism• Estab new religious orders to preach to the laity

• Roman Inquisition• The Holy Office estab 1542• 6 cardinals with judicial authority over all Catholic• Charged with the eradication of heresy

New Religious Orders

• Carmelite Nun• Teresa of Avila• Immortalized in a Baroque statue by Bernini• Made a saint and 1st woman to be called doctor of the Church• Founded 14 new convents• Principles of egalitarianism, obedience, poverty & isolation• Urged women to take an active part in evang3elical work

• Ursuline order• Angela Merici• To educate women & fight heresy.• Once recognized by the Council of Trent 1565 Ursulines spread quickly

AP Tip

The importance of Teresa of Avila and Angela Merici demonstrate that religion remained a path for women to achieve significant power along with mysticism and love for the saints. While we know about a number of Protestant women, they tended to play a more subservient role.

These two women demonstrated the influence Catholic women could have and their crucial role in the success of the Counter-Reformation

New Religious Orders

• The Society of Jesus - Jesuits• Ignatius Loyola• Limited the spread of Protestantism • Stressed the spiritual needs of the people rather than theological

doctrine• Played a major role in converting natives of the New World,

bringing Christianity to Japan & China• Estab schools with humanistic curricula thru out Eur.

• Under direct authority of the pope• Highly centralized, almost military in its organization• soldiers for Christ

Religious Violence

• France• Monarchy won control over the church

• Concordat of Bologna – Catholicism the state religion• Calvinism (Huguenots)

• Popular among artisans & middle class• Lived in cities – about 10% of the pop & about ½ the nobility that wanted greater independence from the

crown• Protestants and Catholics clashed bitterly

• Both used violence as much as preaching• Protestants attacking Catholic religious images (iconoclasm)• Both attacked the other during religious ceremonies• St Bartholomew’s Day massacre

• Religious marriage of the king’s sister to the Protestant Henry of Navarre• Led to the death of 1000s of Huguenots • Sparked 15 years of civil war

• Politiques restore peace• Sm group of practical men sought a moderate path between extremes• Henry becomes King Henry the IV• Renounced Protestantism & became Catholic• Edict of Nantes 1598 gave Huguenots freedom to practice

AP Tip

• The term politique is applied to rulers like Elizabeth I as well. She, like Henry IV, put national interest over religious issues, stability and moderation over ideology.

Religious Violence

• The Netherlands• 17 provinces of Low Countries – self governing • Charles V – little gain for Protestants • Phillip II (son) – religious tension intensified• Merchants, financial & urban workers became militant Calvinists• Spanish authorities suppressed Calvinists worship & raised taxes• Riots• Phillip – pacification thru force• Council of Blood

• Duke of Alva – ruthless

• Inquisition

• Following 10 years of civil war• 10 southern provinces were controlled by Spain• 7 provinces (all Protestant) declared independence• Dutch led by William the Silent & were aided by Eng. • Spain• S failed attempt to invade Eng, the 1588 disaster of the Spanish Armada weakened Spain• 1609 Spain agreed to a truce & recognized the independence of the United Provinces

Witch Hunt

• Persecution of witches• 1480 Large scale persecution• After 1560 efforts intensified• Both Protestants & Catholics • Witches – not seen as heretics – but consorters with the devil• 100,000 to 200,000 were tried• 1/3 executed – popular spectacles• Most women• Misogyny (hatred of women) & association of women with the demonic

& nature• Weakened women’s position in society

• Often faced torture

• Witch panics – rounding up of groups of people

AP Tip

Among the elements of the witchcraft craze debated by historians are the degree to which it revealed the survival of pagan ideas, the importance of economic motives in removing large numbers of women property holders from communities, the way it was used to reinforce religious ideals and the relationship to the scientific revolution, which was beginning at the same time. Students often compare it to the Salem witch trials, but European witch craze lasted longer, involved 1000s more victims and included both Catholic and Protestant persecution.