You should spend about 20 minutes on Questions 27-38 which are based on Reading Passage 4 below.

A Workaholic EconomyFor The first century or so of the industrial revolution, increased productivity led to decreases in working

hours. Employees who had been putting in 12-hour days, six days a week, found their time on the job

shrinking to 10 hours daily, then, finally, to eight hours, five days a week. Only a generation ago social

planners worried about what people would do with all this new-found free time. In the US, at least, it seems

they need not have bothered.

Although the output per hour of work has more than doubled since 1945, leisure seems reserved largely for

the unemployed and underemployed. Those who work full-time spend as much time on the job as they did

at the end of World War II. In fact, working hours have increased noticeably since 1970 — perhaps because

real wages have stagnated since that year. Bookstores now abound with manuals describing how to

manage time and cope with stress.

There are several reasons for lost leisure. Since 1979, companies have responded to improvements in the

business climate by having employees work overtime rather than by hiring extra personnel, says economist

Juliet B. Schor of Harvard University. Indeed, the current economic recovery has gained a certain amount of

notoriety for its “jobless” nature: increased production has been almost entirely decoupled from

employment. Some firms are even downsizing as their profits climb. “All things being equal, we'd be better

off spreading around the work,’ observes labour economist Ronald G. Ehrenberg of Cornell University.

Yet a host of factors pushes employers to hire fewer workers for more hours and, at the same time,

compels workers to spend more time on the job. Most of those incentives involve what Ehrenberg calls the

structure of compensation: quirks in the way salaries and benefits are organised that make it more

profitable to ask 40 employees to labour an extra hour each than to hire one more worker to do the same

40-hour job.

Professional and managerial employees supply the most obvious lesson along these lines. Once people are

on salary, their cost to a firm is the same whether they spend 35 hours a week in the office or 70.

Diminishing returns may eventually set in as overworked employees lose efficiency or leave for more arable

pastures. But in the short run, the employer’s incentive is clear. Even hourly employees receive benefits -

such as pension contributions and medical insurance - that are not tied to the number of hours they work.

Therefore, it is more profitable for employers to work their existing employees harder.

For all that employees complain about long hours, they, too, have reasons not to trade money for leisure.

“People who work reduced hours pay a huge penalty in career terms,” Schor maintains. “It's taken as a

negative signal’ about their commitment to the firm.’ [Lotte] Bailyn [of Massachusetts Institute of

Technology] adds that many corporate managers find it difficult to measure the contribution of their

underlings to a firm’s well-being, so they use the number of hours worked as a proxy for output. “Employees

know this,” she says, and they adjust their behavior accordingly.

“Although the image of the good worker is the one whose life belongs to the company,” Bailyn says, “it

doesn't fit the facts.’ She cites both quantitative and qualitative studies that show increased productivity for

part-time workers: they make better use of the time they have, and they are less likely to succumb to fatigue

in stressful jobs. Companies that employ more workers for less time also gain from the resulting

redundancy, she asserts. “The extra people can cover the contingencies that you know are going to

happen, such as when crises take people away from the workplace.’ Positive experiences with reduced

hours have begun to change the more-is-better culture at some companies, Schor reports.

Larger firms, in particular, appear to be more willing to experiment with flexible working arrangements...

It may take even more than changes in the financial and cultural structures of employment for workers

successfully to trade increased productivity and money for leisure time, Schor contends. She says the U.S.

market for goods has become skewed by the assumption of full-time, two-career households. Automobile

makers no longer manufacture cheap models, and developers do not build the tiny bungalows that served

the first postwar generation of home buyers. Not even the humblest household object is made without a

microprocessor. As Schor notes, the situation is a curious inversion of the “appropriate technology” vision

that designers have had for developing countries: U.S. goods are appropriate only for high incomes and

long hours.        ----- Paul Walluh

Questions 27-32

Do the following statements agree with the views of the writer in reading passage 4? In boxes 27-32 on

your answer sheet write:

YES              if the statement agrees with the writer

NO                if the statement contradicts the writer

NOT GIVEN  if it is impossible to say what the writer thinks about this  Example                                                                                             Answer

During the industrial revolution people worded harder           NOT GIVEN

27    Today, employees are facing a reduction in working hours.

28    Social planners have been consulted about US employment figures.

29    Salaries have not risen significantly since the 1970s.

30    The economic recovery created more jobs.

31    Bailyn’s research shows that part-time employees work more efficiently.

32    Increased leisure time would benefit two-career households.

Questions 33-34

Choose the appropriate letters A-D and write them in boxes 33 and 34 on your answer sheet.

33 Bailyn argues that it is better for a company to employ more workers because

          A    it is easy to make excess staff redundant.

          B    crises occur if you are under-staffed.

          C    people are available to substitute for absent staff.

          D    they can project a positive image at work.

34 Schor thinks it will be difficult for workers in the US to reduce their working hours because

         A    they would not be able to afford cars or homes.

         B    employers are offering high incomes for long hours.

         C    the future is dependent on technological advances.

         D    they do not wish to return to the humble post-war era.

Questions 35-38

The writer mentions a number of factors that have resulted, in employees working longer hours.

Which FOUR of the following factors are mentioned? Write your answers (A-H) in boxes 35-38 on your

answer sheet.

List of Factors

A   Books are available to help employees cope with stress.

B   Extra work is offered to existing employees.

C   Increased production has led to joblessness.

D   Benefits and hours spent on the job are not linked.

E   Overworked employees require longer to do their work.

F    Longer hours indicate greater commitment to the firm.

G   Managers estimate staff productivity in terms of hours worked.

H   Employees value a career more than a family.

Answer:27.  No    28.  Not Given    29.  Yes    30.  No    31.  Yes   32.  Not Given    33.  C    34.  A   35.  B. Extra work is offered to existing employees.   36.  D. Benefits and hours spent on the job are not linked    37.  F. Longer hours indicate greater commitment to the firm.    38. G. Managers estimate staff productivity in terms of hours worked.

You should spend about 20 minutes on Questions 14-27 which are based on Reading Passage 21 on the

following pages.

Questions 14-19

Reading Passage 21 has eight paragraphs (A-H). Choose the most suitable heading for each paragraph

from the list of headings below.

Write the appropriate numbers (i-xi) in boxes 14-19 on your answer sheet.

NB There are more headings than paragraphs so you will not use all of them. You may use any heading

more than once.

 

List of Headings

i  Gathering the information

ii  Cigarettes produced to match an image

iii  Financial outlay on marketing

iv  The first advertising methods

v  Pressure causes a drop in sales

vi  Changing attitudes allow new marketing tactics

vii  Background to the research

viii  A public uproar is avoided

ix  The innovative move to written adverts

x  A century of uninhibited smoking

xi  Conclusions of the research

 

14  Paragraph  A

15  Paragraph  В

16  Paragraph  С

Example                         Answer

Paragraph D                      iv

17  Paragraph  E

18  Paragraph  F

19  Paragraph  G

Example                         Answer

Paragraph H                      xi

 

Looking for a Market among AdolescentsA    In 1992, the most recent year for which data are available, the US tobacco industry spent $5 billion on

domestic marketing. That figure represents a huge increase from the approximate £250-million budget in

1971, when tobacco advertising was banned from television and radio. The current expenditure translates

to about $75 for every adult smoker, or to $4,500 for every adolescent who became a smoker that year.

This apparently high cost to attract a new smoker is very likely recouped over the average 25 years that this

teen will smoke.

В    In the first half of this century, leaders of the tobacco companies boasted that innovative mass-

marketing strategies built the industry. Recently, however, the tobacco business has maintained that its

advertising is geared to draw established smokers to particular brands. But public health advocates insist

that such advertising plays a role in generating new demand, with adolescents being the primary target. To

explore the issue, we examined several marketing campaigns undertaken over the years and correlated

them with the ages smokers say they began their habit. We find that, historically, there is considerable

evidence that such campaigns led to an increase in cigarette smoking among adolescents of the targeted

group.

С    National surveys collected the ages at which people started smoking. The 1955 Current Population

Survey (CPS) was the first to query respondents for this information, although only summary data survive.

Beginning in 1970, however, the National Health Interview Surveys (NHIS) included this question in some

polls. Answers from all the surveys were combined to produce a sample of more than 165,000 individuals.

Using a respondent's age at the time of the survey and the reported age of initiation, [age they started

smoking ], the year the person began smoking could be determined. Dividing the number of adolescents

(defined as those 12 to 17 years old)who started smoking during a particular interval by the number who

were "eligible" to begin at the start of the interval set the initiation rate for that group.

D    Mass-marketing campaigns began as early as the 1880s, which boosted tobacco consumption sixfold

by 1900. Much of the rise was attributed to a greater number of people smoking cigarettes, as opposed to

using cigars, pipes, snuff or chewing tobacco. Marketing strategies included painted billboards and an

extensive distribution of coupons, which a recipient could redeem for free cigarettes .... Some brands

included soft-porn pictures of women in the packages. Such tactics inspired outcry from educational leaders

concerned about their corrupting influence on teenage boys. Thirteen percent of the males surveyed in

1955 who reached adolescence between i 890 and 1910 commenced smoking by 18 years of age,

compared with almost no females.

E    The power of targeted advertising is more apparent if one considers the men born between 1890 and

1899. In 1912, when many of these men were teenagers, the R.J. Reynolds company launched the Camel

brand of cigarettes with a revolutionary approach. ... Every city in the country was bombarded with print

advertising. According to the 1955 CPS, initiation by age 18 for males in this group jumped to 21.6 percent,

a two thirds increase over those bom before 1890. The NHIS initiation rate also reflected this change. For

adolescent males it went up from 2.9 percent between 1910 and 1912 to 4.9 percent between 1918 and

1921.

F    It was not until the mid-1920s that social mores permitted cigarette advertising to focus on women. ... In

1926 a poster depicted women imploring smokers of Chesterfield cigarettes to "Blow Some My Way". The

most successful crusade, however, was for Lucky Strikes, which urged women to "Reach for a Lucky

instead of a Sweet." The 1955 CPS data showed that 7 percent of the women who were adolescents during

the mid-1920s had started smoking by age 18, compared with only 2 percent in the preceding generation of

female adolescents. Initiation rates from the NHIS data for adolescent girls were observed to increase

threefold, from 0.6 percent between 1922 and 1925 to 1.8 percent between 1930 and 1933. In contrast,

rates for males rose only slightly.

G    The next major boost in smoking initiation in adolescent females occurred in the late 1960s. In 1967 the

tobacco industry launched "niche" brands aimed exclusively at women. The most popular was Virginia

Slims. The visuals of this campaign emphasized a woman who was strong, independent and very thin. ...

Initiation in female adolescents nearly doubled, from 3.7 percent between 1964 and 1967 to 6.2 percent

between 1972 and 1975 (NHIS data). During the same period, rates for adolescent males remained stable.

H    Thus, in four distinct instances over the past 100 years, innovative and directed tobacco marketing

campaigns were associated with marked surges in primary demand from adolescents only in the target

group. The first two were directed at males and the second two at females. Of course, other factors helped

to entrench smoking in society. ... Yet it is clear from the data that advertising has been an overwhelming

force in attracting new users.

Questions 20-24

Do the following statements agree with the information in Reading Passage 21? In boxes 20-24 write:

       YES                if the statement is true according to the passage

       NO                  if the statement contradicts the passage

       NOT GIVEN   if there is no information about this in the passage

20    Cigarette marketing has declined in the US since tobacco advertising banned on TV.

21    Tobacco companies claim that their advertising targets existing smokers.

22    The difference in initiation rates between male and female smokers at of the 19 Lh century was due to

selective marketing.

23    Women who took up smoking in the past lost weight.

24    The two surveys show different trends in cigarette initiation.

Questions 25-27

Complete the sentences below with words taken from the Reading Passage. Use NO MORE THAN THREE

WORDS for each answer. Write your answers in boxes 25-27 on your answer sheet.

Tobacco companies are currently being accused of aiming their advertisements mainly at .....

(25).....   statistics on smoking habits for men born between 1890 and 1899 were gathered in the year .....

(26)..... The ..... (27)..... brand of cigarettes was designed for a particular sex.

Click the button to Show/ Hide Answers

Answer:14 iii15 vii16 i17 ix18 vi19 ii20 NO21 YES22 YES23 NOT GIVEN24 NO25 adolescents26 195527 Virginia Slims

FIRST IMPRESSIONS COUNTA Traditionally uniforms were — and for some industries still are — manufactured to protect the worker.

When they were first designed, it is also likely that all uniforms made symbolic sense - those for the military,

for example, were originally intended to impress and even terrify the enemy; other uniforms denoted a

hierarchy - chefs wore white because they worked with flour, but the main chef wore a black hat to show he

supervised.

B The last 30 years, however, have seen an increasing emphasis on their role in projecting the image of an

organisation and in uniting the workforce into a homogeneous unit — particularly in ‘customer facing"

industries, and especially in financial services and retailing. From uniforms and workwear has emerged

‘corporate clothing’. "The people you employ are your ambassadors," says Peter Griffin, managing director

of a major retailer in the UK. "What they say, how they look, and how they behave is terribly important." The

result is a new way of looking at corporate workwear. From being a simple means of identifying who is a

member of staff, the uniform is emerging as a new channel of marketing communication.

C Truly effective marketing through visual cues such as uniforms is a subtle art, however. Wittingly or

unwittingly, how we look sends all sorts of powerful subliminal messages to other people. Dark colours give

an aura of authority while lighter pastel shades suggest approachability. Certain dress style creates a sense

of conservatism, others a sense of openness to new ideas. Neatness can suggest efficiency but, if it is

overdone, it can spill over and indicate an obsession with power. "If the company is selling quality, then it

must have quality uniforms. If it is selling style, its uniforms must be stylish. If it wants to appear innovative,

everybody can’t look exactly the same. Subliminally we see all these things," says Lynn Elvy, a director of

image consultants House of Colour.

D But translating corporate philosophies into the right mix of colour, style, degree of branding and uniformity

can be a fraught process. And it is not always successful. According to Company Clothing magazine, there

are 1000 companies supplying the workwear and corporate clothing market. Of these, 22 account for 85%

of total sales - £380 million in 1994.

E A successful uniform needs to balance two key sets of needs. On the one hand, no uniform will work if

staff feel uncomfortable or ugly. Giving the wearers a choice has become a key element in the way

corporate clothing is introduced and managed. On the other, it is pointless if the look doesn’t express the

business’s marketing strategy. The greatest challenge in this respect is time. When it comes to human

perceptions, first impressions count. Customers will size up the way staff look in just a few seconds, and

that few seconds will colour their attitudes from then on. Those few seconds can be so important that big

companies are prepared to invest years, and millions of pounds, getting them right.

F In addition, some uniform companies also offer rental services. "There will be an increasing specialisation

in the marketplace," predicts Mr Blyth, Customer Services Manager of a large UK bank. The past two or

three years have seen consolidation. Increasingly, the big suppliers are becoming ‘managing agents’, which

means they offer a total service to put together the whole complex operation of a company’s corporate

clothing package - which includes reliable sourcing, managing the inventory, budget control and distribution

to either central locations or to each staff member individually. Huge investments have been made in new

systems, information technology and amassing quality assurance accreditations.

G Corporate clothing does have potential for further growth. Some banks have yet to introduce a full

corporate look; police forces are researching a complete new look for the 21st century. And many

employees now welcome a company wardrobe. A recent survey of staff found that 90 per cent welcomed

having clothing which reflected the corporate identity.

 

Questions 28-33

The passage First Impressions Count has seven paragraphs A—G. Which paragraphs discuss the following

points? Write the appropriate letters A-G in boxes 28-33 on your answer sheet.

Example                                                                                            Answer

the number of companies supplying the corporate clothing market                D

28  different types of purchasing agreement

29  the original purposes of uniforms

30  the popularity rating of staff uniforms

31  involving employees in the selection of a uniform

32  the changing significance of company uniforms

33  perceptions of different types of dress

 

Questions 34-40

Do the following statements agree with the views of the writer of the passage? In boxes 34-40 on your

answer sheet write

YES               if the statement agrees with the writer’s views

NO                 if the statement contradicts the writer’s views

NOT GIVEN   if it is impossible to say what the writer thinks about this

34  Uniforms were more carefully made in the past than they are today.

35  Uniforms make employees feel part of a team.

36  Using uniforms as a marketing tool requires great care.

37  Being too smart could have a negative impact on customers.

38  Most businesses that supply company clothing are successful.

39  Uniforms are best selected by marketing consultants.

40  Clothing companies are planning to offer financial services in the future.

Answer:28 F29 A30 G31 E32 B33 C34 NOT GIVEN35 YES36 YES37 YES38 NO39 NOT GIVEN40 NO