B. KUMAR Visiting Consultant, RE-SOIL

CERS, Bharathidasan University Tiruchirapalli-620 023 INDIA

(Former Sct. G & Head, Surface Geochemical Prospecting and Carbon Sequestration, NGRI, Hyderabad ,India)

Ph. 91- 9849934935 (Mob.) 91-40-27175910 (Res.) E-mail: baleshk@yahoo.com

R&D Centers and Schools for Carbon Management and Sustainable Energy

Future: India’s Perspective

What is Carbon Management ? •  Carbon management is a new world wide R & D initiative for

capture and storage of CO2 to mitigate global climate change and is one of greatest environmental challenges the world community is facing. The capture of CO2 from point sources and storing it in geological formations such as depleted hydrocarbon reservoirs for oil/gas recovery, coal beds, deep saline aquifers and basalt formations are the most viable options.

•  Fossil fuel based thermal power stations are the largest point sources of CO2 emissions and are considered to be a major driver of global environmental change.

India’s Fossil fuel energy scenario is mostly driven by coal, oil and gas.

Source: Planning Commission of India

India’s Energy Scenario

Coal (52%)

Oil & Gas (11%)

Hydro (25%)

Nuclear (3%) Renewable (9%)

India’s Power Scenario

Nuclear + Renewable (2%)

Coal (51%) Oil (36%)

Hydro(2%)

Gas (9%)

Source: OIL, Infraline

World primary energy consumption

Primary energy consumption per capita

Category Basin Basinal Area (upto 200m (Sq.Km.x 103) isobath) I Cambay 53 Assam Shelf 56 Bombay Offshore 116 Krishna Godavari 52 Cauvery 55 Assam-Arakan 60 Rajasthan 126 II Kutch 48 Andaman-Nicobar 47 III Himalayan Foreland 30 Ganga 186 Vindhyan 162 Saurashtra 80 Kerala-Konkan-L.dweep 94 Mahanadi 69 Bengal 89 IV Karewa 4 Spiti-Zanskar 22 Satpura-Rewa-Damodar 46 Narmada 17 Deccan Syneclise 273 Bhima-Kaladgi 9 Cuddapah 39 Pranhita-Godavari 15 Bastar 5 Chattisgarh 32 Total 1,785 Deep Waters Kori-Comorin 850 E Narcodam 1,350

Source: DGH

SEDIMENTARY BASIN MAP OF INDIA

India’s Hydrocarbon Resources, Reserves & Production

•  India’s total hydrocarbon resources, including deep waters, are estimated to be approximately 28 billion tonnes oil & oil-equivalent gas.

•  As on April 2008, the ultimate reserves of oil & oil-equivalent gas are 3.37 billion tonnes.

•  The oil and gas production is estimated to be 34.13 (MMT) and 32.40 (OEG, MMT), respectively.

2478473779711709092960Total2781345541187611383West Bengal10620296766Uttar Pradesh

60984148473097615161Orissa201514Nagaland

45930141117Meghalaya8582162023094653Maharashtra

19232290488157513Madhya Pradesh7220463483043935417Jharkhand399754411261919373Chhattisgarh16016000Bihar3403427279Assam

90194031ArunachalPradesh

16926258460798263Andhra PradeshTotalInferredIndicatedProved

Coal Resources in Million TonnesState

2478473779711709092960Total2781345541187611383West Bengal10620296766Uttar Pradesh

60984148473097615161Orissa201514Nagaland

45930141117Meghalaya8582162023094653Maharashtra

19232290488157513Madhya Pradesh7220463483043935417Jharkhand399754411261919373Chhattisgarh16016000Bihar3403427279Assam

90194031ArunachalPradesh

16926258460798263Andhra PradeshTotalInferredIndicatedProved

Coal Resources in Million TonnesState

2478473779711709092960Total

907369106432Tertiary Coals

2469403742811698492528Gondwana Coals

TotalInferredIndicatedProved Formation

2478473779711709092960Total

907369106432Tertiary Coals

2469403742811698492528Gondwana Coals

TotalInferredIndicatedProved Formation

India's Coal Reserves

R&D Centres for Carbon Management in India

Government Sector -- Department of Science & Technology (DST) -- Directorate General of Hydrocarbons (DGH) -- Indian Institute of Petroleum(IIP), Dehradun -- National Chemical Laboratory(NCL), Pune -- National Environmental Engineering Research

Institute( NEERI) , Nagpur -- National Geophysical Research Institute

(NGRI) , Hyderabad -- National Institute of Oceanography(NIO), Goa

Public / Private Sector •  Gujarat Energy Research & Management Institute

(GERMI),Gandhinagar

•  Integrated Research and Action for Development (IRADE), New Delhi

•  Oil & Natural Gas Corporation(ONGC)

•  National Thermal Power Corporation(NTPC)

•  Shell India, Bangalore

•  Tata Energy Research Institute(TERI), New Delhi

•  Carbon Minus

Schools for Carbon Management & Energy Research in India

-- Indian Institute of Technology, Mumbai

-- Indian Institute of Management, Ahmedabad

R & D Activities on Carbon Capture in India

-- NEERI has developed and patented molecular sieve (Zeolite-5A) from fly ash technology which can be used for selective adsorption of CO2 using Pressure Swing Adsorption (PSA) technology. Research efforts have also been initiated for the production of Zeolite based photo-catalyst to convert CO2 into value products like alcohols etc. and use of Carbonic Anhydrase (CA) for acceleration of CO2 conversion into bicarbonate ion in aquatic medium. -- IIP has developed PSA technology comprising of a four step PSA cycle to capture the CO2 at 30-35° and pressures of 2.5-5.2 bars using commercially available adsorbent (F-300 activated carbon) and feed of 8-12% CO2 in nitrogen. The technology has been successful to bring down the CO2 level to 0-1.5% from 8-12 vol. %. The future studies shall focus on optimization of new PSA cycles for high purity CO2 production, development of adsorbents for CO2 capture at high temperatures and use of actual flue gas.

-- NEERI an NIO are augmenting technology for Iron Fertilization, which implies the introduction of iron to the upper ocean to increase productivity of marine food chain which in turn increases CO2 sequestration from the atmosphere into the oceans. Marine plankton growth is enhanced by physically distributing the iron particles in nutrient rich but iron deficient ocean water using suitable delivering systems based on biomaterials.

-- NEERI is working on Biomimetic Sequestration, a particular aspect of biological process for resolving a specific non biological problem. The Carbonic Anhydrase (CA) is used as a catalyst for the conversion of CO2 into bicarbonates and later to carbonates or amino acids.

R & D Activities on Carbon Capture in India

R&D Activities on Carbon Storage in India

-- Geological Carbon Dioxide Storage in Basalt Formations of India ( NGRI, DST & TERI) -- Carbon Dioxide Storage in Deep Saline Aquifers (DST) -- CO2 – EOR (ONGC)

Objective

Evaluation of Basalt Formations of India for environmentally safe and irreversible long time storage of CO2.

Geological CO2 Sequestration in Basalt

Formations of India

Ø  Deccan Basalts cover an area of 500x103 sq. km. and form one of the largest flood eruptions in the world.

Ø  Composed of typically 48 flows.

Ø  The thickness of basalts varies from few hundreds of meters to > 1.5 km.

Ø  Basalts provide solid cap rocks and thus high level of integrity for CO2 storage.

Ø  Basalts react with CO2 and convert the CO2 into the mineral carbonates that means high level of security.

Ø  Intertrappeans between basalt flows provide major porosity and permeability along with vescicular, brecciated zones with in the flows.

Ø  Tectonically the traps are considered to be stable.

Ø  Geophysical studies have revealed presence of thick Mesozoic and Gondwana sediments below the Deccan Traps.

Why are Indian Basalts attractive proposition for CO2 sequestration ?

Ø  The most common flow type of the Deccan Trap and Columbia River Basalt is the Pahoeho sheet flows. Due to the lesser viscosity and less strain it forms large horizontal sheets.

Ø  Both Deccan Flood Basalts and Columbia River Basalts are tholeiitic (cinopyroxene and plagioclase) in nature and the eruptions are of fissure type.

Ø  Both are continental basalts. Columbia River Basalt is fully continental and Deccan Traps are partly continental.

Ø  Both the basaltic flows have traveled as much as 300 to 500 km from their sources.

Ø  Chemical composition of both the basalts are similar .

Deccan basalts vs Columbia River basalts

Induction Time for Calcite Precipitation

Lab. scale & geo-chemical modeling studies by PNNL, USA

CO2(g) CO2(aq) CO2(aq) + H2O HCO3

- + H+

(Ca,Mg,Fe)x SiyOx+2y +2xH+ +(2y-x)H2O x(Ca,Mg,Fe)2+ + yH4SiO4(aq)

(Ca,Mg,Fe)2+ + HCO3- (Ca,Mg,Fe)CO3 + H+

Calcite deposition on basalt

•  Basalt is rich in Ca, Mg & Fe Silicates •  Mineralisation reaction rate is fast on geological time scale •  Mineralisation is appeared to be controlled by mixing behaviour of CO2 and not by kinetics of the reactions

Depth, (m) T, °C tp, d

800 35 964

900 38 822

1000 42 678

1100 48 534

1200 56 397

1300 67 275

Mineralization reactions in basalt formations

•  Saline aquifers at depths of ≥ 800 m provide a suitable alternative for the storage of CO2.

•  The high porosity and permeability of the aquifer sands along with low porosity cap rocks such as shales provide favorable conditions for CO2 storage.

•  The CO2 can be stored in the miscible and/or mineral phase.

•  With time, CO2 gets dissolved in the brines and reacts with the pore fluids/minerals to form geologically stable carbonates.

ICOSAR Bulletin, Vol. 2

Studies in India

•  The Department of Science & Technology , India has initiated studies aiming at identification of deep underground saline aquifers and their suitability for CO2 sequestration in Sedimentary basins of India namely Ganga, Rajasthan and Vindhyan basins.

•  The Central Ground Water Board and Geological Survey of India have established the presence of saline aquifers up to depths of ≥ 300m below ground level in the Ganga basin.

•  Deep Resistivity studies carried out at 9 sites around New Delhi have shown the presence of saline aquifers at depths of 800m and beyond, around Palwal and Tumsara.

CO2 Storage in Deep Saline Aquifers

•  In India, the Oil & Natural Gas Corp. (ONGC) has proposed CO2-EOR for Ankleshwar Oil Field in Western India.

•  The CO2 is planned to be injected @ 600,000m3/d and is sourced from ONGC gas processing complex at Hazira.

•  The experimental and modeling studies have indicated an incremental oil recovery of ~ 4 % over the project life of 35 years besides the potential to sequester 5 to 10 million tons of CO2

CO2 Injector

CO2 Pipeline from Hazira Plant

First row of oil Producer. To be closed after reaching GOR of 500 v/v

Second row of oil Producer. To be continued on production till GOR reaches 500 v/v

CO2 moves through formation mobilizing residual oil by swelling, vaporization and reduction in residual oil saturation

Ankleshwar Sands S3+4 : 69.33 MMt

Waterflood Recovery : 54% Envisaged Tertiary Recovery : 5-7%

Carbon  Management  in  ONGC • Mandate:  

–  Develop  Green  House  Gases  (GHG)  inventory  accoun>ng  and  informa>on  system  

–  Iden>fy  and  develop  GHG  programs  and  projects    –  Monitor  the  exis>ng/ongoing  registered  CDM  projects  –  Carbon  disclosure  in  the  company  balance  sheet  –  Develop  climate  protec>on  strategy  and  policy  –  Strategic  management  of  climate  change  and  business  opportunity  thereof  

–  Develop  sustainability  repor>ng    [Source  –  ONGC]  

Carbon  Management  in  ONGC •  Ac>vi>es  

– Developed  corporate  policy  on  climate  change  and  sustainability  

– Development  of  CDM  projects  – GHG  mi>ga>on  programs  for  ONGC  – GHG  accoun>ng  for  ONGC  facili>es  –  Joined  carbon  disclosure  projects  –  Sustainability  repor>ng  in  progress  – M2M  (Methane  to  Markets)  program  – R&D  on  mi>ga>on  ensued  

•   ONGC  path  towards  carbon  neutrality  

 

Carbon  Management  in  ONGC

     

NTPC  Ini>a>ves •  NTPC  is  ac>vely  engaged  in  various  global  efforts  to  mi>gate  

GHG  emissions  by  par>cipa>ng  in  forums  like  CSLF,  IEA-­‐ETP  workshops,  Indo-­‐EU  and  Indo-­‐German,  Indo-­‐UK  collabora>ons  etc.  

•  Genera>on  Capacity  Expansion  is  complemented  by  Emission  Mi>ga>on  Endeavors:  –  Sustained  effort  to  enhance  plant  efficiency  –  Suitable  realignment  of  fuel  mix  

•   Adop>on  of  advanced  cleaner  and  greener  technologies  –  New  NTPC  power  projects  to  have  online  CO2(%)  monitoring  

 [Source  –  NTPC]

Efficiency Improvement Efforts in NTPC  

NETRA  (NTPC  Energy  Technology  Research    Alliance)  

•   NTPC  has  set  aside  1%  profits  for  R&D  including  Green  Power            Development  •   Separate  setup  for  development  of  Clean  Coal  Technology  •   Development  of  IGCC  as  suited  to    Indian  Coal  •   Development  of  micro  marine  algae  (consumes  30  >mes  more        CO2  than  other  plants  like  Jathropha,  Ratanjot  etc.),  Pilot        Project  to  be  taken  up  at  Simhadri  •   Studies  awarded  for  assessment  of  technologies  for  CO2          Capture,  assessment  of  technologies  including  site  for  CO2  Storage  •   Solar  thermal  based  air  condi>oning  project  

Pursuing  Renewable  and  Technology  development

 •  Environmental  Issues  /  Climate  Change.  •  UNFCCC  /  Kyoto  Protocol  •  CDM  Modali>es  &  Procedures  •  Approved  CDM  Methodologies  •  CDM  Project  Design  Document  (PDD)  •  CDM  Valida>on  &  Verifica>on  Procedures  •  Sustainable  Development  Criteria  •  Case  Studies,  Audit  Skills,  Exercises  and  Workshops  •  CDM  Project  Cycle  •  Carbon  Finance  &Trading    •  Interna>onal  Commodity  Marke>ng  •  Online  Commodity  Trading  of  Carbon  •  Regula>on  of  Carbon  Trading  &  FMC  •  Both  Compliance  and  Volunteer  Markets  

 TRAINING  CONTENTS  

Mission  Develop  sustainable  energy  systems  and  solu>ons  for  the  future.      

Method    Organizing  training  program  in  the  field  of  energy  efficiency,  energy  conserva>on    and  renewable  energy.      DESE  has  started  an  integrated  M.Sc.-­‐  Ph.D.  program  in  Energy  from  2007    and  a  Dual  Degree  B.Tech  (Energy  Engineering)  and      M.Tech.  (Energy  Systems  Engineering)  program  in  2008.    

Department  of  Energy  Science  &  Engineering  (DESE)  Indian  Ins>tute  of  Technology  Bombay

 COURSE  CONTENTS      • Fundamentals  of  Energy  Engineering  • Energy  Audi>ng  • Energy  Efficiency  in  Motor  drive  Systems  • Cogenera>on  • Efficiency  in  Boilers  and  Steam  Systems  • Energy  Economics  • Overview  of  India’s  Energy  Scene  • Efficiency  in  Pumping  Systems  • Pinch  Analysis  • Energy  and  Environment  • Waste  Heat  Recovery  • Benchmarking  Energy  Performance  • Energy  and  Climate,  CDM,  Carbon  Credits  

Con>nuing  Educa>on  Program  on  ENERGY  MANAGEMENT  

Department  of  Energy  Science  &  Engineering  (DESE)    Indian  Ins>tute  of  Technology  Bombay

India’s Initiatives towards Exploration of Unconventional Fossil Fuel:

•  Oil Shale •  Shale Gas •  Underground Coal Gasification •  Coal Bed Methane •  Gas Hydrates

- Oil shale (~15 billion tons of in place oil) - Shale gas ( ? ) - Underground coal gasification (Est. resources ~ 15.5 tcm of natural gas) - Coal bed methane (Est. resources ~20 tcf) - Gas hydrates (Est. resources ~2000 tcf)

Estimated Resources of India’s Unconventional Fossil Fuels

OIL SHALE OCCURRENCE IN INDIA •  Carbonaceous shale of Oligocene age occurs in

association with Tertiary Coal in north east India, Assam and neighboring areas of Arunachal Pradesh

•  The coal-shale unit occurs as outcrops towards south of the oilfields in a region called the Belt of Schuppen

•  The presence of coal and organic rich shale has been recorded in the subsurface from wells drilled for oil

•  The coal-shale unit was probably deposited in a regressive phase in backwater lagoons or brackish water swamps on a prograding delta complex

Salient features of oil shales of North East India Ø  Studies of shale samples from Upper Assam Valley resulted

in a total hydrocarbon potential of 81 mg/g and compares favorably with yields from other oil shale elsewhere in the world.

Ø  North-East India is endowed with rich deposits of coal found in the Barail Formation of Tertiary age.

Ø  Carbonaceous shale occurs interbedded with the coal and constitute the principal source rocks for hydrocarbons. These formations outcrop on the surface towards the south of the oil fields in a region called the Belt of Schuppen.

Ø  Oil shales are part of the Barail and Disang formations of northeast India. They are present over the area covered by Naga and Patkai hill ranges.

Ø  The calculated in-place shale oil reserve is greater that 15 billion tonnes.

Geological map of Northeastern part of Assam-Arakan Basin

(modified from Naidu and Panda, 1997; and Mallick and others, 1997

Oil and gas fields and identified prospects in Assam geologic province

•  Oil shale deposits usually include certain amounts of carbonates. Due to the decomposition of carbonates, oil shales evolve several times more CO2 during shale oil production than the same amount of petroleum does. This could be a serious issue from the view point of global warming.

•  Deep Coal seams of North East India, that are not commercially viable for coal production, could be used for permanent underground storage of CO2 evolved from shale oil production

•  CO2 released from oil shale can be used for Enhanced oil recovery in depleted oil fields of North East India.

Carbon management for oil shale of NE India

•  Shale gas is term applied to gas adsorbed in the micro-pores and micro-fractures of shale rocks. The gas is usually of thermogenic origin but in some biogenic sources have been reported.

•  Shale gas exploration in India is relatively new but rapidly gaining momentum, as India has huge shale deposits. The shales in Vindhyan, Gondwana, Cambay, Rajasthan and other sedimentary basins have been/are being examined. The initial results are encouraging and on par with US shale plays.

•  The shale gas production pressures are generally low but long production periods compensate for this as more volume is recovered.

What is Shale Gas?

•  Shales have low permeability (~ 2 md ) and gas does not flow easily through this rock. However, in the 1990s a new drilling technology emerged. A tight shale deposit could be cracked open by injecting water into wells at high pressure. When the water injection stopped, the cracks closed again. But then technologist hit on the idea of pumping water mixed with sand. The sand kept cracks partially open when water injection stopped, increasing permeability and gas flow.

•  A sedimentary rock deposit has a limited depth but very wide area (sometimes hundreds of square miles). Traditional vertical drilling into a deposit 20 meters thick can yield gas production from a zone of just 20 meters. But new techniques have facilitated horizontal drilling. This makes possible horizontal wells running hundreds of meters long through shale strata, greatly increasing the production zone of each well. Horizontal drilling plus hydraulic fracturing have revolutionized the economics of shale gas in the US, and made it a developing industry.

Shale Gas Production Methodology:

R&D Status of Shale Gas Exploration in India

•  ONGC has tied with Schlumberger to explore shale gas in Gondwana and Cambay basins, India.

•  The target areas in Gondwana are organic rich shale horizons associated with unmineable coal seams.

•  In Cambay basin, the Tarapur and Cambay shale formations are being explored for shale gas potential.

Generalized geological map of Cambay basin

After DGH, India

ONGC ventures into shale gas exploration

•  ONGC has drilled its first shale gas well in Damodar Valley, West Bengal through Permian Shale about 700 meters thick. The well is targeted to a depth of 2000 meters. ONGC plans to drill three more wells in the Valley by March 2012.

•  Damodar Valley is a coal field area and the first well there was drilled near Durgapur in Ranigunj coal field of Damodar Valley.

Stratigraphic section

Ranigunj Coal Fields

An in-situ physico-chemical process for converting un-minable coal or lignite into a combustible product gas (fuel gas).

•  The product gas is a mixture of hydrogen, carbon monoxide, methane, carbon dioxide & higher hydrocarbons.

•  Calorific value of product gas is in the range of 700 to

1200 KCal/Nm3 for gasification with air injection.

Product Gas of UCG

What is Underground Coal Gasification (UCG)?

UCG Process

UCG Process •  Drilling two boreholes (>100 m deep) in the coal seam,

one injection well and one producer well, placed adjacently.

•  Linking the bore holes

•  Igniting the coal seams down hole

•  An underground gasifier is made up of a number of underground reactors with largely independent outputs

•  The gas streams from different reactors can be mixed as required to ensure consistency of overall gas quality

•  The outputs of reactors can be varied in order to optimize coal extraction and gas supply from the gasifier

UCG Process •  Ground water influx into the gasifier creates an

effective "steam jacket" around the reactor making the heat loss in situ tolerably small.

•  Optimal pressure in the underground gasifier promotes ground water flow into the cavity, thus confining the chemical process to the limits of the gasifier and preventing contamination in the area.

•  Product gases are recovered in the producer well.

•  Drilling and connecting additional injection and production wells can readily expand the initial gasification reaction.

Typically, coals of low rank e.g. lignite and sub-bituminous are the easiest to gasify, hence better suited for UCG. Underground Coal Gasification offers a potential means of extracting energy from deposits, which will not be amenable to conventional mining. India is endowed with vast coal and lignite resources of around 248 and 36 billion Tonnes, respectively. A major portion of these resources occur at depths that are too great for conventional mining or constrained by other factors. In view of the above, a non-conventional technology such as UCG has opened up new avenues for harnessing the vast potential of these resources, thus enhancing the energy security of the country.

Why UCG?

•  India has very large deposits of deep seated coal and lignite which are unmineable using conventional mining methods.

•  The revised reserves of coal are 253,359 million tonnes (GSI, report) and the estimated recoverable reserves are ~95,866 million tonnes, i.e 37.8%.

•  Indian lignite resources are 37,154 million tonnes (GSI,report). The estimated recoverable reserves are ~ 4,260 million tonnes, i.e 11.5%.

UCG Potential In India

UCG potential in India

•  The Neyveli Lignite Corporation Ltd. (NLC), which has Government approval for starting a UCG Project in lignite deposits of Rajasthan, is looking for a suitable technical partner for UCG.

•  Reliance Industries Limited (RIL) has been exploring possibilities for developing UCG projects in India.

•  ONGC, while drilling in search of hydrocarbons, discovered large reserves of coal at depths greater than 600 m. These are finds are in Gujarat and West Bengal and have been estimated to contain more than 350bt of coal deposit.

•  In Gujarat alone, these coal reserves have been estimated to be around 70 bt in Mehsana-Ahmedabad block and 60 bt in Patan-Tharad block.

•  The energy estimated for Mehsana – Ahmedabad block alone, is equivalent to about 15,000 bcm of natural gas.

•  The ONGC is conducting a pilot test in Mehsana area at an estimated cost of Rs 9.60 crores.

•  An Information Well – UCG-1 – was drilled as early as in 1986 to a depth of 1005m at the selected site.

UCG IN INDIA

ESTIMATED RESERVES FROM WEC 2008

DGH, Annual Report, 2006-07

Coal Bed Methane, Estimated resources for India ~ 20 tcf

DGH, Annual Report, 2006-07

Coal beds typically contain large amounts of methane rich gas that is adsorbed onto the surface of the coal. The injected CO2 efficiently displaces methane as it has greater affinity to the coal than methane.

CO2 enhanced coal bed methane production

Enhanced Coal bed Methane Recovery (ECBM)

Location in the Eastern Offshore, superimposed on Gas Hydrate stability thickness map along the Indian margin, from where the gas hydrate samples have been recovered (after Sain & Gupta, 2008).

Estimated Resources of Gas Hydrate : ~ 2000 tcf

(after Holder et.al., 1984)

Possible production methods for Gas Hydrates

CO2Sequestration in Methane Hydrates Ø  Methane Hydrates are class of solids in which methane molecules occupy cages made up of hydrogen- bonded water molecules.

Ø  CO2 can also be stored as hydrates with simultaneous conversion of in situ methane hydrates into natural gas.

Ø  At temperatures below 10°C, there is a pressure range in which methane hydrate is unstable while CO2 hydrate is stable.

Ø  The heat released from the formation of CO2 gas hydrate is greater than that needed for CH4 hydrate dissociation:

CH4(H2O)n ⇒ CH4 + nH2O; Hf = 54.49 KJ/mole CO2(H2O)n ⇒ CO2 + nH2O ; Hf = 57.98 KJ/mole where n is the hydration number for CH4 hydrate and CO2

hydrate

Ø  n is dependent on pressure, temperature and the composition of the gas in the gas phase which implies that under certain pressure and temperature conditions, the replacement of CH4 in the hydrate with CO2 is thermodynamically possible.

After Gas Technology Institute, USA

Conclusions •  India has established R&D centers and schools for carbon

management and has also taken significant initiatives towards exploration of unconventional fossil fuels. However to meet the challenges of increasing energy demand and sustainability, the integrated research and development institutes/centers and schools for ‘Unconventional Fossil Fuel Development and Carbon Management’ have to be established by Government/Public/Private partnership and International collaboration.

•  The funding mechanism for these technological and intellectual nucleus can be met by cess on coal (~ Rs. 50 per ton) and 0.5% cess on each unit price of fossil fuel based electric power generated.

•  International funding from developed economies may also be requested.