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Race and IQ

Be sure to review pages 77 – 81in Graves to help understandheritability

Updating Differential Worth

18th and 19th Century anthropologistsattempted to rank groups of people on thebasis of skull size and shape, brain volume,and other measures Galton tried to quantify genius by racial groups

In the 20th Century we have replaced theseother measurements with “intelligencetesting” Conclusions about racial rankings based on

measurements such as IQ scores

IQ Testing Alfred Binet commissioned to devise exams to

identify children in primary school who needed somespecial education Binet explicitly denied that his test was measuring an innate

biological property of general intelligence

Henry Goddard translated Binet’s scale in the U.S. Our thesis is that the chief determiner of human conduct is a

unitary mental process which we call intelligence . . . thisprocess is . . . Inborn . . . the degree of efficiency . . . and theconsequent grade of intellectual or mental level for eachindividual is determined by the kind of chromosomes thatcome together . . . it is but little affected by any laterinfluences

IQ Takes Off

Lewis Terman took the translated testand actively marketed it as a test ofinnate, inherited intelligence for ALLstudents in the U.S.

Robert Yerkes, Colonel in the U.S.Army administered IQ tests to 1.75million recruits for World War I

Race and IQ

Carl Brigham (1920s) later of the CollegeEntrance Examination Board analyzed IQtests given to WW I recruits He compared the IQ of different groups of

immigrants to the U.S. Found that the longer a group had been in the U.S., the

better they scored Irish, Germans, Swedes, British (early 19th century

arrivals) scored higher than Eastern European Jews,Italians, Polish, Greek (1880 - 1920 arrivals in the U.S.)

Argued from the association of length of stay to IQ that thedifferences were genetic with the Western and NorthernEuropeans having greater intellects than Southern andEastern Europeans

Race and IQ

Brigham testified about his findings to congressalong with several members of the ImmigrationRestriction League Helped pass the Immigration Restriction Act of 1924

Restricted immigration of any group to 2% of their numberin the 1890 census, the last one with minimal numbers ofJews, Eastern and Southern Europeans

Aimed at keeping new arrivals from swamping the “native-born” Americans and lowering national intelligence.

1930 Brigham recanted along with other influentialleaders in the IQ testing community Argued that the testing system was flawed and that the

tests were measuring familiarity with American cultureand language, not intelligence!

Too late to impact migration policy

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Race and IQ after WWII Arthur Jensen, Professor of Educational Psychology

at U.C., Berkeley Originally subscribed to an environmental

interpretation of racial differences 1967 maintained that lower achievement of Negroes and

Mexicans was due to powerful racial barriers to upwardsocial mobility

Switched to a heavily race based perspective Postdoctoral research at the University of London with

Eysenck, a student of Cyril Burt strongly influenced byhis views on the hereditary nature of intelligence

1967 spent a year on a Guggenheim Fellowship atStanford where he was “converted” to the racial view ofintelligence through discussions with William Shockley

Shockley, a physicist, won a Nobel prize in physics in 1956for the invention of the transistor in 1947 Obviously he would know about race and intelligence!

Arthur Jensen Jensen A. 1967. The Culturally disadvantaged: Psychological

and education aspects. Educational Research, 10:4-20.“[Lower tested achievement of Blacks and Hispanics] cannot

be interpreted as evidence of poor genetic potential . . .[because of] powerful barriers to social mobility.”

Jensen A. 1969. How much can we boost IQ and scholasticachievement? Harvard Educational Review, 33:1-123. Biological determinist view of intelligence He argued against funding Head Start-type programs

Intelligence is a unitary quantity, easily measured by theg or general intelligence derived from the IQ score

Reviewed large body of work to support the contentionthat IQ was genetically determined

Therefore, argued that environmental enrichment couldnot have much impact The genetic determination argument relied heavily upon

the work of Sir Cyril Burt As recently as 1998, Jensen insists that h2

(g) = 0.8

Sir Cyril Burt

Social Class and Intelligence Intelligence tracks within British social classes

Monozygotic (identical) twins reared apart Experiments allegedly show very high heritability

for IQ scores (up to 80% of variability due togenes)

Scientific fraud Can’t tell what parts of his research are valid, but

he greatly increased his sample size withoutchanging any of his correlations--a statisticalimpossibility

Problems with IQ: Cultural Bias

Garn: If the Aborigine drafted an IQ test,all of Western civilization wouldpresumably flunk it

Koko the gorillaPick two things good to eat

Apple, Flower, Pencil, Ice Cream Sundae Koko chose apple and flower

Problems with IQ: Unitary Status

Many psychologists have argued againstusing the statistically derived g or generalscore as a unitary measure of intelligence There is lay awareness of differences in verbal

and quantitative ability, emphasized by differentscores on these sections of SAT, GRE

There is also a body of psychometric data,championed by researchers like Howard Gardner,that supports the notion of multiple intelligences People can have great ability in one or a few areas

without being able to produce math and verbal scoresthat would rank them as highly intelligent according to g

Heritability

where;2

p

g

V

Vh

),(Cov egegegp VVVV In order to estimate heritability within a population, we

must be able to eliminate gene x environment interactionterm and the covariance of gene and environment Not possible in human investigations

Covariance term is what is most responsible for errors Unequal distribution of genotypes (African American vs. Euro-

American) across environments (remember the wealthdifferential?)

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The Fallacy of Heritability

Heritability is a measure of the degree ofgenetic determination of a characteristicwithin a given population Heritability gives NO indication of the genetic

basis of differences between populations E.g., Black versus White differences on IQ scores

could be due entirely to environment, in spite ofstudies (like Burt’s) indicating a high heritability ofIQ scores within populations

TAKE A BAG OFSEEDS WITHDIFFERENT

VARIETIES OFCORN

SEEDS BSEEDS A

SPLIT IT INTOTWO BAGS

THE TWO BAGS ARE GENETICALLY IDENTICAL, HAVINGCOME FROM THE SAME SEED BAG ORIGINALLY:

GENETIC BASIS OF DIFFERENCES = 0%

SEEDS A SEEDS B

LOW WATER,NITROGEN,SUN IN THIS

PLOT

IDEAL WATER,NITROGEN,SUN IN THIS

PLOT

EACH PLANT GETS IDENTICAL GROWING CONDITIONSWITHIN EACH PLOT OF GROUND, SO THE

ENVIRONMENTAL BASIS OF DIFFERNCES WITHINEACH PLOT IS 0%, AND THE GENETIC BASIS OF

DIFFERENCES WITHIN EACH PLOT = 100%

PLANT THE SEEDSIN CAREFULLYCONTROLLED

PLOTS

PLANTS FROM SEEDSA GROWN IN BAD

PLOT ARE SCRAWNY,LOW YIELD, HIGH

INCIDENCE OFILLNESS AND DEATH

PLANTS FROM SEEDSB GROWN IN GOOD

PLOT ARE TALL, HIGHYIELD, WITH A LOW

INCIDENCE OFILLNESS AND DEATH

THERE ARE DRAMATIC DIFFERENCES BETWEEN THECORN PLANTS GROWN IN THE TWO PLOTS. THE

PLANTS ARE GENETICALLY IDENTICAL FROM ONEPLOT TO THE NEXT, HENCE THE ENVIRONMENTAL

VARIABILITY BETWEEN PLOTS ACCOUNTS FOR 100%OF THE DIFFERENCES BETWEEN THE PLANTS

GROWN IN THE TWO PLOTS. GENETIC BASIS OFDIFFERENCES BETWEEN PLOTS = 0%

The Pioneer Fund

Established in the 1937 with the financialbacking of Wickliffe Draper Draper was a wealthy supporter of Nazi race policies

and extreme eugenics Offered grant money to geneticists to prove Black

inferiority Promote repatriation of Africa (Ship ‘em back)

Harry Laughlin (1st pres) and Fredrick Osbornfounded the PF Laughlin was Charles Davenport’s #2 at ERO Osborn was an influential Nazi backer Additional financial backing from Madison Grant

Pioneer Fund Purpose

To improve the character of the AmericanPeople [by encouraging the procreation ofdescendants of ] white people whosettled in the original thirteen coloniesprior to the adoption of the constitutionand/or from related stocks . . . [and toprovide aid in conducting research on]race betterment with special reference tothe people of the United States

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Pioneer Fund Agenda?

Henry Garrett, former president of theAmerican Psychological AssociationBecame president of the Pioneer FundWitness for the segregationist side in Brown

v. Board of Education1962 piece in Science:

“No matter how low [in a socioeconomic sense] anAmerican white may be, his ancestors built thecivilizations of Europe; and no matter how high a Negromay be, his ancestors savages in an African Jungle. Freeand general race mixture of Negro-white groups in thiscountry would inevitably be not only dysgenic by sociallydisastrous”

Who has benefited from the PF?

1. Thomas Bouchard, U Minn Psych prof Twin studies attempting to prove genetic

component in IQ (~ $1¾ million)2. J. Phillipe Rushton (more later)

Current president of Pioneer Fund Has received over $1 million to support his

“research”3. Arthur Jensen

Grants of more than $1 million funneled through aprivate foundation to circumvent limits U.C. placeson research funds

Most of the research reviewed in “The BellCurve was supported by PF grants

The Bell Curve

1994 The Bell Curve: Intelligence and ClassStructure in American Life by Richard J.Herrnstein and Charles Murray Revived biological determinism and racial

ideology to explain IQ score differences “Not since the eugenics craze of the 1920s has

this line of thought occupied a serious place onthe national agenda”

Fraser, S (ed.) 1995 The Bell Curve Wars: Race,Intelligence, and the Future of America. Basic Books:New York; p. 3.

Bell Curve Assumptions

1. Human cognitive ability is a single generalentity (g) in which there are individual andgroup differences

2. IQ tests measure this entity accurately3. IQ tests measure how intelligent people

are—whatever that word means4. IQ scores are fixed throughout most of the

life span5. IQ tests are NOT biased in regard to race,

ethnic group, or social or economic status6. Cognitive ability has a heritability of 40 – 80

percent

Part 1 - The Cognitive EliteDescribes the intelligence

stratification of American societyand the resulting emergence of aCognitive Elite

Higher IQ Americans are selected forcollege, and end up in fewer professions More intelligent employees are more

proficient employees, so that even amonghigh-IQ professions like law, the highest IQpersons end up at the top

American society is becomingcognitively stratified, with the CognitiveElite crossing paths rarely with those oflower cognitive abilities

Part 2 - IQ and Social Problems

Poverty - Low IQ is a strong precursor ofpoverty, even more so than thesocioeconomic conditions in which peoplegrow up

Schooling - Low IQ raises the likelihood ofdropping out of school before completing highschool, and decreases the likelihood ofattaining a college degree

Unemployment, Idleness and Injury - Low IQis associated with persons who areunemployed, injured often, or idle (removedthemselves from the workforce)

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Part 2 - IQ and Social Problems

Family Matters - Low IQ correlates with highrates of divorce, lower rates of marriage, andhigher rates of illegitimate births

Welfare Dependency - Low IQ increases thechances of chronic welfare dependency

Parenting - Low IQ of mothers correlates withlow birth weight babies, a child's poor motorskill and social development, and children'sbehavioral problems from age 4 and up

Crime - Low IQ increases the risk of criminalbehavior

Civility and Citizenship - Low IQ people voteleast and care least about political issues

Part 3 - IQ and Race

Ethnic Differences in Cognitive Ability Asians score higher on IQ tests Whites, especially

in the verbal intelligence areas Blacks average 1 s.d. below those of Whites on IQ

tests The B/W IQ difference remains at all levels of SES,The B/W IQ difference remains at all levels of SES,

and is more pronounced at higher levels of SESand is more pronounced at higher levels of SES

The Demography of Intelligence Birth rates among highly educated women are

falling faster than those of low IQ women The IQ immigrants is 95, lower than the national

average The new immigrants are less brave, less hardThe new immigrants are less brave, less hard

working, less imaginative, and less selfworking, less imaginative, and less self--starting thanstarting thanimmigrant groups of the pastimmigrant groups of the past

IQ Distribution in the U.S. Part 3 - IQ and Race

Social Behavior and the Prevalence ofLow Cognitive AbilityMost of the worst social problems are

manifested in the cognitive underclassSolutions of these problems must focus on

the cognitive underclass

Part 4 - IQ and Social Policy

We must all live together in this country ofdiverse cognitive ability, just as we must alllive together in this nation of diverse racialand ethnic background

All major domestic issues that we addressmust include a component that takes intoaccount the predominant cognitive levels ofthe target population For example, if we want to implement a training

program for unemployed men, we should realizethat fully half of the target group will havemeasured IQ below 80

This should have a significant impact on theresulting social program or policy we establish

Bell Curve prescription for change… EducationEducation: Measures of success are geared to

average to below-average students, gifted studentsdon’t develop their potential SolutionSolution: Reallocate funds--less to the disadvantaged and

more for gifted programs Affirmative actionAffirmative action: Currently practice has lost touch

with its original intent Issue relates to the difference between “ ethnic equity” and

“competitive fairness” Affirmative action fosters differences in the distribution of

academic ability across races on college campuses After controlling for IQ, it’s difficult to demonstrate that the US

still suffers from racial discrimination in occupations and pay Remember they assume that IQ differences is what makes income

differences) SolutionSolution: abolish affirmative action in college admissions and

in the workplace This will mean that admission to Harvard or Stanford or

employment in any particular job means the same for differentethnic groups

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Bell Curve predictions for the future Old class stratifications are fadingOld class stratifications are fading, replaced by a greater reliance

on “merit” Hence, the rise of the “cognitive elite” – a status acquired via high IQ

implying that social background, ethnicity, and money would serve asobstacles toward its attainment

The rich vs. the intellectualsThe rich vs. the intellectuals: the affluent will constitute a majorportion of the population and they will increasingly consist of themost talented population

The underclassThe underclass: Emigration of the best cognitive individuals out oflower class neighborhoods and settings This will exacerbate the conditions of the underclass

The cognitive elite will perceive the underclass as being in their conditionthrough no fault of their own, but due to inherent shortcomings about whichlittle can done

Because the underclass cannot be trusted to make wise decisions forthemselves (i.e., to use cash wisely), the cognitive elite will develop socialwelfare policies primarily in the form of services rather than cash…policies ofcustodialism

This has implications on the socio-demographic make -up of communities,state and federal budgets, centralization of governance. The population ofthe underclass will continue to grow

Racial tensions will re -emerge

Joseph L. Graves2001 The Emperor’s New Clothes: Biological Theories of

Race at the Millennium

Cites six common errors in The BellCurveMakes claims not substantiated by dataMakes mathematical and statistical errors

that support claimsIgnores alternative hypotheses to explain

dataIgnores theory and data contradicting core

assumptionsMakes sweeping policy recommendations

that conform to preconceived racistphilosophies and notions

A Strong ResponseFischer CS, Hout M, Sanchez Jankowski M, Lucas SR, Swidler A, and

Voss K. 1996. Inequality by design: Cracking the Bell Curve myth.Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.

The purpose is to reject the philosophy promoted by TheBell Curve that widening inequalities among Americansare inevitable The authors believe that Americans are responsible for creating

and maintaining inequality and inequality is a social constructiondetermined by genetic endowments Instead, environmental factors such as governmental policies and

social environments have a much greater influence on inequalitythan nature

Uses The Bell Curve as a starting point for understandinginequality Opposes its arguments about intelligence

Reanalyzes the same data to prove that social environment is mor eimportant than intelligence in predicting who becomes poor inAmerica

Cracking the Bell Curve Myth: Anoverview

“Americans have created the extent and type ofinequality we have, and Americans maintainit” (p.7)

Inequalities among Americans are notinevitable

Inequality is a social construction; not solelydetermined by genetic endowments

Cracking the Bell Curve Myth:The problem with psychometrics

Psychometrics – main assumptions

The fundamental skill critical to humanfunctioning is “intelligence”

General intelligence (g) is “a general capacityfor inferring and applying relationships”

People must rank in a bell curve

Cracking the Bell Curve Myth:Information-processing approach

Intelligence “…is mental self-management”(p.47) [quote from Robert Sternberg]

Intelligence can be taught and trained

Measurement tools test intellectual process

New research tests everyday problem solving

Adds new insights to psychometrics

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Cracking the Bell Curve Myth:What do IQ tests measure?

“Intelligence is what intelligence tests measure”(p.27) [quote from Arthur Jensen]

“Screw-up” attitudes and luck

Exposure to curricula, not intelligence

Tests are limited in their ability to predict howpeople apply their knowledge in practicalsituations

Cracking the Bell Curve Myth:Reanalysis of the NLSY data

Bell Curve errors in the analysis Missing information Unreliable parental SES scale Inappropriately weighted parental SES variables Omitted variable bias

Corrected findings Parental home environment, community context,

educational attainment, and gender are moreaccurate predictors of poverty than nature

Cracking the Bell Curve Myth:Systems of inequality“America’s level of inequality is by design. It is

not by nature, nor by the distribution of itspeople’s talents, nor by the demands of theWestern market.” (p.125)

Between WWII and 1970 inequalitydecreased, then widened in the early 1970sand through the 1980s

These changes cannot be explained byindividual inherited characteristics (e.g.,intelligence)

U.S. has greater degree of income inequalitythan any other developed nation, butinequality is not necessary for economicgrowth

Cracking the Bell Curve Myth:America’s policy choices

Policies to reduce poverty AFDC, school lunches, food stamps, etc. Most successful among elderly, while many

children are left poor Americans less supportive of such programs than

citizens of other affluent nations

Subsidizing the middle class Health care, tax deductions for families,

subsidizing homeownership

Cracking the Bell Curve Myth:America’s policy choices, cont’d.

Subsidizing the wealthy Corporate welfare, tax laws

Regulating the labor market Union rules, plant relocation, wage setting

Enriching intelligence Quality of schooling affects rates of learning Biased track placement in schools Summer vacations Job structure affects adult development

Cracking the Bell Curve Myth:Race, ethnicity, and intelligence

“A racial or ethnic group’s position in societydetermines its measured intelligence ratherthan vice versa.” (p.173)

Koreans in Japan; Polish Jews in 1920s US

History matters: Africans and Mexicans in US

Inequality and discrimination continue today

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Cracking the Bell Curve Myth:Subordination & low performance

Socioeconomic deprivation

Segregation concentrates andaccentuates disadvantages

Stigma of inferiority prompts attitudes ofresignation and rebellion

J. Philippe Rushton

1995 Race, Evolution, and BehaviorRushton argues that intelligence is conditioned by

cranial capacity which is greatest in Asians, lowest inAfricans

He associates cranial capacity intelligence,maturation rate, personality, social organization, andreproduction

Subscribes to an old myth about intelligence evolvingin the temperate latitudes because of a stable andmore challenging environment Tropics are actually much more stable Important subsistence evolution took place in Africa— that’s

what made it possible to migrate to Asia and then Europe!

Rushton’s evolution

Reminiscent of Coon’s ideas about thesapienization of HomoCoon thought Caucasians evolved first and

therefore were the most intelligent andcultured

Rushton has it the other way aroundNegroids evolving first, at a smaller cranial

capacity and lesser intellectThen Caucasoids and Mongoloids

Rushton’s Summary Table

Relative Ranking of Races on Diverse VariablesVariable Orientals Whites BlacksBrain size

Autopsy data (cm3 equivalents) 1,351 1,356 1,223Endocranial volume (cm3) 1,415 1,362 1,268External head measures (cm3) 1,356 1,329 1,294Cortical neurons (billions) 13.767 13.665 13.185

IntelligenceIQ test scores 106 100 85Decision times Faster Intermediate SlowerCultural achievements Higher Higher Lower

Maturation rateGestation time ? Intermediate EarlierSkeletal development Later Intermediate EarlierMotor development Later Intermediate EarlierDental development Later Intermediate EarlierAge of first intercourse Later Intermediate EarlierAge of first pregnancy Later Intermediate EarlierLife span Longer Intermediate Shorter

PersonalityActivity level Lower Intermediate HigherAggressiveness Lower Intermediate HigherCautiousness Higher Intermediate LowerDominance Lower Intermediate HigherImpulsivity Lower Intermediate HigherSelf-concept Lower Intermediate HigherSociability Lower Intermediate Higher

Social organizationMarital stability Higher Intermediate LowerLaw abidingness Higher Intermediate LowerMental health Higher Intermediate LowerAdministrative capacity Higher Higher Lower

Reproductive effortTwo-egg twinning (per 1,000 births) 4 8 16Hormone levels Lower Intermediate HigherSize of genitalia Smaller Intermediate LargerSecondary sex characteristics Smaller Intermediate LargerIntercourse frequencies Lower Intermediate HigherPermissive attitudes Lower Intermediate HigherSexually transmitted diseases Lower Intermediate Higher

Lieberman on Rushton

How is it possible for Rushton to support theMongoloid > Caucasoid > Negroid orderingwhile using the data of severalanthropologists who have rejected racialhierarchies on empirical grounds?

Some of the problems: Rushton’s use of the race concept Aggregation of diverse populations into three

traditional races Explanation of differences in “cultural

achievements” on the basis of variation in brainsize

Race concept

Rushton’s definition of “race” emphasizes thatraces are natural hereditary biological unitsand assumes that it is possible to aggregatepopulations and calculate a mean score torepresent this conglomerate “A variety, a subspecies . . . characterized by a

more or less distinctive combination of physicaltraits transmitted in descent. A genetically distinctinbreeding division within a species . . .distinguished on the basis of skeletal morphology,hair and facial features, and molecular geneticinformation”

His concept of race derives from his schoolboy years in South Africa during Aparteid

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Aggregation

Rushton identifies three major “races” byreducing measurements of diversepopulations to the mathematical mean,aggregating many populations from diversestudies The first objection is to the assumption is that

there is an “underlying relationship” shared by the“races,” a Platonic essence obscured by thevariation within each “race” In fact, the variation itself is the empirical reality; mean

scores are useful data points when used in conjunctionwith the range of variation

Adaptive Principles

Rushton’s cranioracial variation iscontradicted by evolutionary anthropology He takes cranial measurements from a study

without mentioning that study’s finding that whileclimate variables were strongly correlated withcranial variation, race and cranial variation hadlow correlations

The relationship between latitude and cranial sizeis an example of Bergmann’s principle that craniaare more spherical in cold climates because massincreases relative to surface area to conserve coretemperatures “A slight increase in head size combined with a rounder

cranium has a disproportionate effect upon volume”

Ignoring Control VariablesRushton’s collection of brain measurements

fails to utilize control variables Tobias reviewed 14 variables affecting the

measurement of brain weight Sex, body size, age at death, early-life nutrition, early-life

environment, source of sample, occupational group,cause of death, lapse of time after death, temperatureafter death, anatomical level of severance, presence orabsence of cerebral spinal fluid, presence or absence ofmeninges, and presence or absence of blood vessels

Tobias concluded that brain weight dependssignificantly on body height but not on body weight Unless corrections have been made for differences in

body height . . . all comparisons between Negro andwhite brain size to date are invalid

Ignoring Confounding Variables

Rushton does not relate environment,nutrition, cranial size, and IQ Nutrition is an important environmental influence

on brain size and on IQ Inadequate nutrition is more likely to affect children living

in poverty in the United States and the Third World, and itis very likely to reduce IQ scores

Environment and genes interact, but optimumnutrition maximizes each child’s potential Although Rushton refers to environmental influences, he

traces them to genetics: When there is a correlation between genetic and

environmental effects it means that people are exposed toenvironment on the basis of their genetic propensities

Outcome Aggregation

Rushton claims to explain a vast array ofhuman behavior He aggregates diverse behaviors under one label

to identify traits on which his races differ Aggressiveness, impulsivity, permissive attitudes, and

law -abidingness What are the diverse indicators of these behaviors in

various reports and for various populations? Were they consistently measured? What is the meaning of these traits in different cultures? Do they in fact share an empirical essence?

Most of the same questions can also be asked of severalof the listed biological features, such as twinning, age offirst intercourse, and cranial capacity

Rushton on his aggregation

Obviously the groupings shown do not represent inany sense “pure types” and there is enormous racialand ethnic variation within almost every country;moreover, each country undoubtedly differs in theprocedures used to collect and disseminate thecrime figures. Certainly within each racialgrouping are to be found countries reporting bothhigh and low crime rates. The Philippines, forexample, a country grouped as Mongoloid, reportedone of the highest homicide rates in the world, 43 per100,000 in 1984; Togo, a country grouped asNegroid, had the lowest reported crime rate in theworld, a “rounded down” 0 per 100,000 in all 3 crimecategories in 1984.

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Recent Update on Race and IQTempler D, Arikawa H. 2006. Temperature, skin color, per

capita income, and IQ: An international perspective.Intelligence 34: 121-139.

Attempts to test contention of Lynn andRushton that IQ is stimulated by coldclimate

Global sample of 129 countries Mean IQ correlated with mean skin color (from

Biasutti), average annual temperature, andgross domestic product per capita

Highest correlations are with skin color Darkest skin colors show lowest Iqs What do we know about Biasutti’s skin color

map?

Conclude that cold does increase IQ andeconomic output

The Lesson

The racial idiocy will not go awayWe must remain skeptical and ever-vigilant

about any kind of claims having to do with so-called racial characteristics

Anthropology must take the lead in this taskbecause we have contributed so much to theabuse of the race concept in the past