INTRODUCTION TO PSYCHOLOGY

Definition of Psychology

Psychology is best defined as the study of mind. It is the science of behavior and a

mental process that seeks to describe and explain aspects of human thought feelings,

perceptions and actions.

It is about understanding people: how they think, what they say, and why they do

what they do. It’s about finding out what motivates people, what is important to us,

and why we are all so individual.

The Goals of Psychology

To describe, explain, predict, and control behavior and mental processes

Describe: tell what occurred

Explain: tells the why

Predict: under what conditions is the behavior/event likely to occur

Control: how is the principle applied or what change in condition is necessary

to prevent unwanted occurrence or to bring about a desired outcome

Research in Psychology

Basic Research: research conducted for the purpose of advancing knowledge

rather than for practical application (typically three goals: description,

explanation, prediction)

Applied Research: research for the purpose of solving practical problems

(typically the fourth goal: to control behavior)

Research Methods

Naturalistic Observation: researchers observe and record behavior without

trying to influence or control it-subjects are not aware of observation

Advantage: study is in natural setting ; good descriptive; can provide

hypothesis to be tested later

Disadvantage: must wait for behavior to occur, researcher has no control

so cause and effect is difficult to determine-potential for observer bias,

presence of researcher may influence situation

Case Study: an in depth study of one or a few participants consisting of

information gathered by observation, interview, or psychological testing to

provide a description of behavior or disorder

Advantage: advances knowledge especially in unusual conditions; can

provide a hypothesis to be tested later

Disadvantage: cannot establish cause of observed behaviors; don't know

if the cases studied generalize to larger population; may not be

representative of condition, event; subject to misinterpretation by

experimenter

Surveys: a research technique in which questionnaires or interviews are

administered to a selected group of people.

Advantage: large quantity of information; It’s fast, cheap, easy and more

flexible than some other methods.

Disadvantage: can be affected by an unrepresentative sample or poor

survey questions

Co relational Research: a research technique based on the naturally

occurring relationship between two or more variables.

Advantage: efficient, study things that can’t be controlled/manipulated in

laboratory, description and prediction possible

Disadvantages: no control over variables and cannot imply causality

Experimental Method: A research technique in which an investigator

deliberately manipulates selected events or circumstances and then measures

the effects of those manipulations on subsequent behavior

Independent variable: the variable that is manipulated by the

experimenter to test its effects

Dependent variable: the variable that is measured to see how it is

changed by the independent variable

Advantages: conclusions about causality can be made

Disadvantages: more ethical considerations, behavior is constrained

to laboratory and artificiality of lab

Subfields of Psychology

Biopsychology: is a branch of psychology that analyzes how the brain and

neurotransmitters influence our behaviors, thoughts and feelings. This field

can be thought of as a combination of basic psychology and neuroscience.

Clinical Psychology: is concerned with the assessment, diagnosis, and

treatment, and prevention of mental disorders.

Cognitive Psychology: is the branch of psychology that focuses on internal

states, such as motivation, problem solving, decision-making, thinking, and

attention.

Community Psychology: is the application of psychology to the study of

social organizations such as neighborhoods, and the development of methods

for evaluating and initiating changes in social policy

Counseling Psychology: maintains an emphasis on the positive aspects of

human development and are focused on exploring and facilitating the

strengths and assets of individuals, groups, and organizational units

Developmental Psychology: is the study to how people grow and change

over the course of a lifetime.

Environmental Psychology: is the study of how changes in physical space &

related physical stimuli can affect behavior of individuals; relationships

between humans & the physical environment

Experimental Psychology: is a broad area concerned with a variety of basic

topics, including cognition, memory, learning, and language in humans or

animals. Most experimental psychologists are in academia and work in a

variety of areas during their career

Forensic Psychology: is the branch of psychology that studies possible

relationships between psychopathology and criminal behavior. Sometimes

work within court systems and conduct psychological evaluations on

individuals accused of committing a crime, particularly juveniles

Health Psychology: is the study of the effects of psychological matters on

physical well being. Often focus on developing programs to help individuals

break physically unhealthy habits, or to reduce the likelihood of participation

in such an activity.

I/O Psychology: is the Study of the behavior and mental processes that take

place in organizational settings (typically work situations), and the human

factors that influence the work environment

Personality Psychology: Attempts to identify the factors that cause one

person to think, feel, and behave differently from another person within a

given situation. The study of how people differ.

Positive Psychology: is the study of the conditions & processes that

contribute to the flourishing or optimal functioning of people, groups, &

institutions. Attempts to help people learn to live lives filled with greater

health & well-being as well as the absence of illness & disease. Recognizes an

imbalance in clinical psychology, where research focuses on mental illness.

Psychometric Psychology: is the study of the development of methods and

research designs used to measure behavior. Requires a strong background in

statistics and a general knowledge of matters related to testing personality and

intelligence.

School/Educational Psychology: is the study of learning, & the conditions

under which it happens best.

Social Psychology: is the study of how our attitudes, beliefs, social

perceptions, culture, cognitions, and relationships effect, and are effected by,

our behavior and the behavior of others.

What is I/O Psychology?

Psychology is the science of human behavior and I/O psychology is the science of

human behavior at work. This field focuses on increasing workplace productivity and

related issues such as the physical and mental well being of employees. Industrial

organizational psychologists perform a wide variety of tasks, including studying

worker attitudes and behavior, evaluating companies and conducting leadership

training.

Specific Areas of Concern

Recruiting and selecting employees for jobs

Training employees

Assessing performance

Defining and analyzing jobs

Determining people feel about work

Determining why people act as they do at work

Effects work has on people

Effects people have on one another

How organizations are structured and function

Designing work

Designing tools and equipment

Employee Health and Safety

History of I/O

The "industrial" side of I-O psychology has its historical origins in research on

individual differences, assessment, and the prediction of performance. This branch of

the field crystallized during World War I, in response to the need to rapidly assign

new troops to duty stations. After the War the growing industrial base in the US

added impetus to I-O psychology. Walter Dill Scott, who was elected President of the

American Psychological Association (APA) in 1919, was arguably the most

prominent I-O psychologist of his time, although James McKeen Cattell (elected

APA President in 1895) and Hugo Munsterberg (1898) was influential in the early

development of the field. Organizational psychology gained prominence after World

War II, influenced by the Hawthorne studies and the work of researchers such as Kurt

Lewin and Muzafer Sherif.

Measurement and Statistics

Measurement: means assigning numbers or other symbols to characteristics

of objects according to certain prespecified rules.

One-to-one correspondence between the numbers and the characteristics

being measured.

The rules for assigning numbers should be standardized and applied

uniformly.

Rules must not change over objects or time.

Scaling: It involves creating a continuum upon which measured objects are

located. Consider an attitude scale from 1 to 100. Each respondent is

assigned a number from 1 to 100, with 1 = Extremely Unfavorable, and 100 =

Extremely Favorable. Measurement is the actual assignment of a number

from 1 to 100 to each respondent. Scaling is the process of placing the

respondents on a continuum with respect to their attitude toward department

stores.

The first and most fundamental issue to resolve is the type of scale data to be

obtained

The type of scale data collected determines the type of analysis which can be

used.

Nominal-level data (identity)

found in dichotomous categories (e.g., male=1, female=2) and

multichotomous categories (1=marketing, 2=finance, 3=economics)

Measure of average is the mode.

Chi-square is a common test used with nominal-level data.

Ordinal-level data (order)

Categories are in some type of order, but the distance between points

is not known.

Ex: Very Good = 5, Good = 4, Neutral = 3, Poor = 2, Very Poor = 1

Measures of the average are the median and the mode.

Chi-square is a common test used with nominal-level data.

Interval-level data (comparison of intervals)

The categories are not only in order, but the distance between each

category is known and has a numerical meaning.

Ex: a 1-7 scale, anchored only by bi-polar adjectives (Good/Bad,

Agree/Disagree)

Interval-level data (comparison of intervals)

Anchoring the intermediate points converts the scale into an ordinal

scale.

There is no absolute zero to an interval scale.

Measure of the average is the mean.

z-tests, t-tests, ANOVA, factor analysis, regression, bivariate

correlations are a common with interval-level data.

Ratio-level data (absolute magnitudes)

Categories are in order, a distance between items is known, and an

absolute zero exists.

Ex: Sales (an absolute zero exists)

Tip: If a number doubles, does it mean there’s twice as much of it? If

yes, it’s ratio data. If no, it’s internal (or less).

Measure of the average is the mean.

z-tests, t-tests, ANOVA, factor analysis, regression, bivariate

correlations are a common with ratio-level data.

Primary Scales of Measurement

Scale Basic Characteristics

Common Examples

Marketing Examples

Nominal Numbers identify & classify objects

Social Security nos., numbering of football players

Brand nos., store types

Percentages, mode

Chi-square, binomial test

Ordinal Nos. indicate the relative positions of objects but not the magnitude of differences between them

Quality rankings, rankings of teams in a tournament

Preference rankings, market position, social class

Percentile, median

Rank-order correlation, Friedman ANOVA

Ratio Zero point is fixed, ratios of scale values can be compared

Length, weight Age, sales, income, costs

Geometric mean, harmonic mean

Coefficient of variation

Permissible Statistics Descriptive Inferential

Interval Differences between objects

Temperature (Fahrenheit)

Attitudes, opinions, index

Range, mean, standard

Product-moment

A Comparison of Scaling Techniques

Comparative scales involve the direct comparison of stimulus objects.

Comparative scale data must be interpreted in relative terms and have only

ordinal or rank order properties.

In noncomparative scales, each object is scaled independently of the others in

the stimulus set. The resulting data are generally assumed to be interval or

ratio scaled.

Relative Advantages of Comparative Scales

Small differences between stimulus objects can be detected.

A Classification of Scaling Techniques

Likert Semantic Differential

Stapel

Scaling Techniques

NoncomparativeScales

Comparativ

e ScalesPaire

d Comparison

Rank Order

Constant Sum

Q-Sort and Other Procedures

Continuous Rating Scales

Itemized Rating Scales

Same known reference points for all respondents.

Easily understood and can be applied.

Involve fewer theoretical assumptions.

Tend to reduce halo or carryover effects from one judgment to another.

Ordinal nature of the data

Inability to generalize beyond the stimulus objects scaled.

HUMAN COMMUNICATION

Definition

Communication is the process of exchanging information by the use of words, letters,

symbols, or nonverbal behavior.

Process of Communication

Here, the person who is the source of the communication encodes it into a message,

and transmits it through a channel. The receiver decodes the message, and, in one

way or another, feeds back understanding or a lack of understanding to the source.

Elements in Communication

Context

Culture

Channel

Noise

Sender

Receiver

Feedback

Types of communication

Intrapersonal: Communicating with oneself

Interpersonal: Communication that takes place between two people

Dyad- two persons interacting

Small Group: Communication that takes place between more than two

members. Group members usually communicate equally

Public: Communication that takes place in a large group. Too large for all

members to communicate equally.

Mass communication: Consists of messages that are transmitted in large

quantities to several people at one time. Transmitted through several sources:

electronic, print, television, radio, magazines, etc. No personal contact

between sender and receiver.

Needs of Communication

Physical needs: Communicating with others benefits our physical

health/well-being.

Identity needs: We define who we are through communicating with others.

Impressions of who we are formed according to the ways in which others

respond to us.

Social needs: Several social needs are met through communication:

Pleasure

Escape

Affection

Relaxation

Inclusion

Control

Practical needs: Communication is used in order to achieve our everyday

needs

to get where we need to go

to accomplish what we need to accomplish

to better understand our environment and what is expected of us

Communication competence

Communication competence is the ability to communicate effectively.

Effective communication

Communication that maintains or enhances the relationship in which it occurs is

effective communication.

Characteristics of Competent Communicators

Empathy: Ability to put yourself in another’s shoes and understanding

another’s perspective.

Cognitive Complexity: The ability to analyze the behavior of others in a

variety of ways .Looking at the situation from a variety of angles (rather than

just your perspective).

Self-Monitoring: Observing your own behaviors as if you are outside

yourself. Imagining how others are interpreting your behaviors. Being aware

of how your behaviors affect others.

Commitment to the relationship: Level of commitment to a relationship

determines willingness to communicate effectively. We work harder at

communicating in relationships we genuinely care about.

Models of Communication

Linear Model: In this model communication only goes one way.

How It Works

Sender – person sending the message

Receiver – person receiving the message

Sender encodes a message, chooses a channel by which to send the

message, and then sends the message to a receiver who then decodes the

message.

Channel – the way the message is conveyed (face- to-face, telephone, e-

mail, etc.) depends on the situation

Encode – when the sender consciously attaches meanings to symbols from

feelings and ideas, creating the message sent

Decode – when the receiver interprets and creates an understanding of

what the message sent means

Transactional Model: Similar to the linear model with added elements.

Represents two-way communication. 

Feedback is the scene and understood response of a receiver to a sender’s

message 

Both parties involved are sending and receiving messages simultaneously

Noise and environment are also elements involved with the transactional

model

Modes of Communication

i. Verbal Communication

ii. Non-Verbal communication

Understanding Verbal Communication Styles

Passive Communication: Allowing our own rights to be violated by failing

to express our honest feelings. The goal of being a passive communicator is to

avoid conflict no matter what. Little risk involved – very safe. Little eye

contact, often defers to others’ opinions, usually quiet tone, may suddenly

explode after being passive too long.

Aggressive Communication: Protecting one’s own rights at the expense of

others’ rights – no exceptions. The goal of the aggressor is to win at all costs;

to be right. Does not consider actions a risk because this person thinks they

will always get their way. It is risky in terms of relationships. Eye contact is

angry and intimidating; lots of energy; loud and belittling; never defers to

others, or at least does not admit to; manipulative and controlling. Often uses

violence or verbal abuse.

Assertive Communication: Protecting your own rights without violating the

rights of others. The goal of the assertive person is to communicate with

respect and to understand each other; to find a solution to the problem. Takes

a risk with others in the short run, but in the long run relationships are much

stronger. Eye contact maintained; listens and validates others; confident and

strong, yet also flexible; objective and unemotional; presents wishes clearly

and respectfully.

Non-Verbal Communication

The study of non-verbal communication examines how messages are communicated

through physical behavior, vocal cues and spatial relationships.

Barriers of Effective Communication

Hearing what you want to hear called selective listening

Thinking of what you are going to say next

Distractions such as co-workers, noise, side conversations etc.

Thinking about the previous customer call

Worrying about the next customer call or work in general

Stress

Getting involved emotionally (instead of logically)

Holding preconceived ideas about the caller’s inquiry

Thinking about personal issues

Boredom

Making assumptions rather than asking questions

CONFLICT IN ORGANIZATION

Introduction

Basically, an organization in its simplest form is a person or group of people

intentionally organized to accomplish an overall, common goal or set of goals.

Business organizations can range in size from one person to tens of thousands. There

are several important aspects to consider about the goal of the business organization.

These features are explicit (deliberate and recognized) or implicit (operating

unrecognized, "behind the scenes"). Ideally, these features are carefully considered

and established, usually during the strategic planning process. Organizations by

definition require people to work together and communicate with one another. Ideally

these interpersonal relationships should be productive, cooperative and satisfying.

However, almost every working relationship produces some degree of conflict across

time. Whether the conflicts will be destructive or constructive depends on the

attitudes and skills of the participants.

Conflict

Conflict refers to any situation in which two or more parties feel themselves in

opposition. Conflict is an interpersonal process that arises from disagreements over

goals to attain or the methods to be used to accomplish these goals.

Sources of Conflicts

Although a variety of causes contribute to the emergence of organizational conflict,

most conflicts boil down to several basic types or of combinations of them.

These include

Dispute over goals

Dispute over facts

Dispute over methods

Conflict also arises due to

Task interdependence

Ambiguity of roles, policies and rules

Personality clashes

Ineffective communications

Organizational change

Threats to status

Lack of trust

The competition over scare resources

Differences in perceptions, beliefs, attitudes, values, & experiences

Types of Conflict

i. Interpersonal Conflict

ii. Intra-group Conflict

iii. Intergroup Conflict

iv. Inter-organizational Conflict

Conflict Process

What begins as a problem of interdependence, ambiguity, or scarcity quickly

escalates to the point that the conflict process itself becomes an additional problem.

The conflict continues to cycle “on its own steam”

Consequences of Conflicts

Positive or Functional

People are stimulated to search for improved approaches that lead to better

results.

Energizes to be more creative and to experiment with new ideas.

Once-hidden problems are brought to the surface, where they may be

confronted and solved.

Negative or Dysfunctional

If conflict lasts long, at the interpersonal level, cooperation & teamwork

may deteriorate.

“Winning” the conflict becomes more important than developing a good solution to a problem

The parties began to conceal information from each other or to pass distorted information

Each group becomes more cohesive. Deviants who speak of conciliation are punished, and strict conformity is expected

Contact with the opposite party is discouraged except under formalized, restricted conditions

While the opposite party is negatively stereotyped, the image of one’s own is boosted

On each side, more aggressive people who are skilled at engaging in conflict may emerge as leaders

Distrust may grow among people who need to coordinate their efforts.

At the individual level, some person may feel defeated, while the self-

image of others will decline and personal stress levels will arise.

The motivation level of some employees will be reduced

Effect of Conflict on Performance

SituationLevel of

conflict

Types of

conflict

Unit’s internal

characteristics

Unit

performance

ALow or

NoneDysfunctional

Apathetic

Stagnant

Non-responsive to change

Lack of new ideas

Low

B Optimal Functional

Viable

Self-critical

innovativeHigh

C High Dysfunctional

Disruptive

Chaotic

Uncooperative

Low

Conflict-Handling Style

1. Avoiding

2. Competing/Dominating — I win, you lose

3. Accommodating/Obliging — I lose or give in

4. Compromising — We both get something

5. Collaborating/Integrating — We both win

Effect of Conflict on Performance

Competing/Dominating

Con fli c t- H

an d li ng Sty le C

o n t’ d

Conc ern fo r S

elf

Concern for OthersLow

Com

pro mi sin g

High

Low

Hig h

Plus

The winner is clear

Winners usually experience gains

Minus

Establishes the battleground for the next conflict

May cause worthy competitors to withdraw or leave the organization

Accommodating/Obliging

Plus

Curtails conflict situation

Enhances ego of the other

Minus

Sometimes establishes a precedence

Does not fully engage participants

Compromising

Plus

Shows good will

Establishes friendship

Minus

No one gets what they want

May feel like a dead end

Collaborating/Integrating

Plus

Everyone “wins”

Creates good feelings

Minus

Hard to achieve since no one knows how

Often confusing since players can “win” something they didn’t know they

wanted

Conflict Management Strategies

Strategies focused on individuals

Increasing awareness of the sources of conflict

Increasing diversity awareness and skills

Practicing job rotation

Using permanent transfers or dismissals when necessary

Strategies focused on the whole organization

Changing an organization’s structure or culture

Altering the source of conflict

Negotiation

A method of conflict resolution in which two parties of equal power try to

find an acceptable solution by considering various alternatives to allocate

resources to each other.

Third-party negotiator – an impartial individual with expertise in handling

conflicts. Helps parties in conflict reach an acceptable solution.

Mediators – facilitates negotiations but no authority to impose a solution.

Arbitrator – can impose what he thinks is a fair solution to a conflict that

both parties are obligated to abide by.

Tips for Managing Workplace Conflict

Build good relationships before conflict occurs

Do not let small problems escalate; deal with them as they arise

Respect differences

Listen to others’ perspectives on the conflict situation

Acknowledge feelings before focusing on facts

Focus on solving problems, not changing people

If you can’t resolve the problem, turn to someone who can help

Remember to adapt your style to the situation and persons involved

JOB ANALYSIS

Definition

Job is a Group of related activities and duties made up of task. And job analysis is a

method for describing jobs and the human attributes necessary to perform them

Two approaches:

Job oriented: Systematically collects, evaluates, and organizes

information about jobs.

Person oriented: Identifies knowledge, skills, abilities, and other personal

characteristics (KSAOs) that are critical to a job

Uses of Job Analysis

Purpose of JA

Career Development: JA contributes to career development by providing a

picture of the KSAO requirements for jobs at each level of the career ladder

Legal Issues: JA ensures system is legally defensible and perceived as fair

Performance Appraisal: Job analysis establishes performance standards

Selection: Selection system developed to assess key KSAOs. Ensures that it

is job-related

Training: Gaps in KSAs of new hires represent training needs

Methods of Job Analysis

The Job Components Inventory

Recruitment/Selection

Training & Development

Performance Appraisal

Compensation

PerformanceImprovementPrograms

EmployeeDisciplineSafety & Health

Job AnalysisFoundations

Tools and equipment

Perceptual and physical requirements

Mathematical requirements

Communication requirements

Decision making and responsibility

Functional Job Analysis (FJA)

Fine & Wiley (1971)

Tasks are rated on scales reflecting varying degrees of involvement with

Things, Data, and People as well as math, language, etc. requirements

Each scale is arranged hierarchically

Position Analysis Questionnaire (PAQ)

McCormick, Jeanneret, & Mecham (1972)

Developed because of criticism that JA relied on observation – not

quantifiable

Detailed questionnaire (194 tasks)

Determines extent to which each task is applicable to target job

Using a 5-point scale

Task Inventories

Time spent on task

Importance of task, difficulty of learning

Critical Incident Technique (CIT)

Flanagan (1949)

Identifies behaviors that indicate success or failure on the job

Effective vs. ineffective behaviors

Critical Incidents include:

Context - in which the incident occurred

Behavior - exactly what the individual did that was effective or

ineffective

Consequences - of the behavior and whether or not consequences

were in the employee’s control

Job Evaluation

Job Evaluation refers to a family of quantitative techniques used to determine the

salary levels of jobs.

Ranking - rank order the jobs according to each jobs relative worth or value to

the organization.

Classification - placing all jobs into a predetermined taxonomy of grades or

classes (like the DOT).

Point systems - assign points to various levels of skill, knowledge,

responsibility, working conditions, then summing the points.

PERFORMANCE APPRAISAL

Performance appraisal is a powerful tool to help the supervisor meet the

objectives of the department and organization.

The benefits of conducting performance appraisals include providing

information necessary for improving performance and motivating

employees.

Performance appraisals also provide important records for the

company.

Managers use this information for decisions on raises,

promotions, and discipline.

There are systematic steps in appraising performance.

First, performance and results expectations and standards of

performance are established and communicated to employees.

The supervisor then observes behavior and performance results,

comparing them to the standards set.

Finally, the supervisor provides reinforcement for acceptable or

excellent performance and works with employees to develop remedies

for inadequate performance.

It is impossible for different supervisors to evaluate employees in exactly the

same way.

A supervisor may have a tendency to select some specific ratings or

identify certain behaviors as problematic over others.

Biases about specific people and groups of people can affect the

appraisal process.

For example, supervisors who fail to keep good records may

rely on recent events when evaluating an employee.

A supervisor may give a more favorable appraisal to someone

who is similar to the supervisor and appraise more negatively a

person who is different from the supervisor.

Another bias comes from the halo effect, which leads people to

generalize one positive or negative trait to a person’s entire

performance.

There are several types of appraisals used to evaluate performance.

Supervisors usually do not choose the type of form to use, rather it is

selected by the human resources department or upper management.

The goal of some appraisal forms is to make the process easy and consistent

for all employees.

Ideally, the form focuses on behavioral performance and results to

reduce bias and increase objectivity.

The graphic rating scale is an example of this type of appraisal

form.

However, this type of form is susceptible to lack of consistency

from supervisor to supervisor.

Another type of appraisal is the paired-comparison approach, which measures

the relative performance of employees in a group.

This form rank orders all employees to find the best employees.

Therefore, it reflects negatively on other employees.

The appraisal interview provides feedback to the employee and allows the

employee to join in the process of performance improvement.

The interview should follow careful and thoughtful completion of the

appraisal form, and should be in a private place with plenty of time for

the employee to discuss issues raised in the interview.

The final outcome of the interview should be agreement between the

supervisor and employee about what improvements need to be made and the

method for achieving the improvement goals.

Uses of Performance Appraisals

Training and development needs.

Career planning and development.

Deficiencies in staffing process.

Informational inaccuracies.

Job design error.

Avoidance of discrimination.

External challenges

Benefits of Conducting a Performance Appraisal

Performance Appraisal: Formal feedback on how well an employee is

performing his or her job.

Performance appraisals may be accomplished with the use of a

standard form, which includes questions or items to guide the process.

On the other hand, performance appraisal can be accomplished without

a standard form.

In either case, the evaluation should be based on predetermined

performance expectations that are communicated to employees.

Performance appraisals provide information necessary for employees to

improve the quality of their work.

It can help motivate employees.

Employees like to hear how they are doing, and behaviors that

are evaluated or measured tend to get more attention from

individuals.

Therefore, when it is useful to the organization to have special

attention directed at a goal, it is useful to have that item on a formal

appraisal.

For example, if the quality of a product or service is important,

it is worthwhile to have a section on the performance appraisal

on quality.

Another reason for conducting performance appraisals is that they provide

important records for the organization.

They are a useful source of information when deciding on raises,

promotions, and discipline, and they provide evidence that these were

administered fairly.

In the case of employee behavior or performance problems, an

appraisal documents the problem.

Systematically Appraising Performance

For appraisals to deliver their potential benefits, they must be as fair and

accurate as possible.

Supervisors should be systematic in appraising performance.

Appraisal Process

Establish and Communicate Expectations: During the planning process and

related action plans, the supervisor spells out who is to do what in order to

accomplish the department objectives. This information will indicate what

each employee must do in order to help the department or work group meet its

objectives. One approach is to list three to five major responsibilities of each

position; then focus on these responsibilities.

Observe and Measure Individual Performance: Through the control

process, the supervisor should continuously gather information about each

employee’s performance. This is an ongoing process, not something the

supervisor saves to do when filling out appraisal forms.

Reinforce Performance: To keep employees motivated and informed, the

supervisor needs to tell them when they are doing something right, not just

when they are making a mistake. Reinforce good performance by pointing out

to employees the areas in which their performance is good.

Avoiding Discrimination in Performance Appraisals

The Equal Employment Opportunity Commission (EEOC) is the government agency

charged with enforcing federal laws against discrimination. The EEOC has published

the Uniform Guidelines of Employee Selection Procedures, which include guidelines

for designing and implementing performance appraisals.

Types of Appraisals

Types of commonly used performance appraisal techniques include:

Graphic rating scales.

Paired-comparison approach.

Forced-choice approach.

Essay appraisal.

Preparing for a Performance Appraisal

Preparation for the interview begins with completing the appraisal form.

The supervisor should allow enough time to complete the form

carefully and thoughtfully.

The supervisor should think about how the employee is likely to react

to the appraisal and should plan how to handle the employee’s

reaction.

Also be ready with some ideas for how to correct problems noted in

the appraisal.

Notify the employee ahead of the time of the interview.

Arrange for a private place to hold the interview.

Make arrangements to prevent interruptions.

This is a very important event for both the supervisor and the

employee--treat it as such.

In preparation for the appraisal interview, it is also useful for the supervisor to

review for himself or herself why appraisals are important for the

organization, department, and most of all for the supervisor to be competent at

the job.

When the supervisor is convinced the performance is a positive enterprise and

that it can be a win-win situation, it will be easier to do the interview.

Guidelines for Conducting the Interview

Begin the interview session by an attempt to put the employee at ease.

A refreshment and small talk may help break the ice.

Review the employee’s self-evaluation first, if there is one.

Ask for reasons for the various ratings.

Then the supervisor describes his or her evaluation of the employee.

Start with an overall impression, then explain the contents of

the appraisal forms.

Most employees are waiting for the “bad news,” so it is

probably most effective to describe areas for improvement

first.

Then describe the employee’s strengths.

Allow time for the employee to respond to the performance appraisal.

The employee should be allowed to agree or disagree with the

supervisor’s conclusions, as well as to ask questions.

It is important for the supervisor to keep an open mind and listen to the

employee.

When the supervisor and employee understand each other’s point of view,

they should reach a decision on how to solve problems described in the

appraisal.

At the end of the interview, the supervisor and employee are usually

required to sign the appraisal form.

By doing so, they acknowledge that the interview has been conducted

and that the employee has read and understood the form.

After the interview is over, the supervisor continues to appraise performance.

Training and coaching for improvement should ensue.

The follow-up is an ongoing process.

ASSESSMENT METHOD OF SELECTION

Reliability

Reliability is the degree to which a measure of physical or cognitive abilities,

or traits, is free from random error.

The correlation coefficient is a measure of the degree to which two sets of

numbers are related.

A perfect positive relationship equals +1.0

A perfect negative relationship equals - 1.0

Knowing how scores on the measure at one time relate to scores on the same

measure at another time refers to test-retest reliability.

Validity

Validity is the extent to which a performance measure assesses all the relevant

—and only the relevant—aspects of job performance.

Criterion-related validation is a method of establishing the validity of a

personnel selection method by showing a substantial correlation between test

scores and job-performance scores. The types include:

Predictive validation

Concurrent validation

Content Validation

Content validation is a test-validation strategy performed by demonstrating

that the items, questions, or problems posed by a test are a representative

sample of the kinds of situations or problems that occur on the job.

Best for small samples

Content validity is achieved primarily through a process of expert

judgment

Generalizability

Generalizability is the degree to which the validity of a selection method

established in one context extends to other contexts.

Three contexts include:

different situations

different samples of people

different time periods

Utility

Utility is the degree to which the information provided by selection methods

enhances the effectiveness of selecting personnel in organizations.

It is impacted by reliability, validity, and generalizability.

Legality

All selection methods must conform to existing laws and legal precedents.

Three acts have formed the basis for a majority of the suits filed by job

applicants:

Civil Rights Act of 1964 and 1991

Age Discrimination in Employment Act of 1967

Americans with Disabilities Act of 1991

Techniques for the Assessment

1. Psychological Tests

2. Biographical Inventory

3. Interview

4. Work Sample

5. Assessment Center

6. Electronic Assessment

Characteristics of Psychological Test

1. Group Versus Individually Administered Tests

2. Objective Versus Open-Ended Tests

3. Paper-and-Pencil Versus Performance Tests

4. Power Versus Speed Tests

5. Ability Tests

Cognitive Ability Tests

Psychomotor Ability Tests

6. Knowledge and Skill or Achievement Tests

7. Personality Tests

8. Integrity Tests: Overt Versus Personality

9. Vocational Interest Tests

10. Emotional Intelligence: Trait Versus Information Processing

11. Drug Testing

Biographical Information

Biographical Inventory

Detailed information about a person’s background

 Empirical vs. Rational

 Predictive of job performance

Interviews

Used in almost every hiring situation

Most acceptable to college students in US and France (Steiner & Gilliland,

1996

 Relates to cognitive ability (Huffcutt et al., 1996)

 Structured vs. Unstructured

 Structured much more valid in predicting performance

Work Samples

Simulation of actual job tasks

Good predictors of future job performance

Acceptability by applicants because of obvious job relevance

High face validity

Assessment Centers

Simulation of management and other white collar jobs

44% of British employers who hire college students use (Keenan, 1995)

In US used mainly for promotion and selection of managers

Can also be used for employee development

Overall scores valid predictors of performance

Dimension scores often not valid

Assesses how person fits role (Russell & Domm, 1995)

Electronic Assessment

Electronic administration of psychological test

Web-based assessment

Can administer customized test

Makes scoring easier and quicker

Tailored testing

Trend or wave of the future?

SELECTING EMPLOYEES

What is selection?

The process of collecting and evaluating information about an individual in

order to extend an offer of employment

Either a first position for a new employee

Or a different position for a current employee

Performed under legal and environmental constraints

Addresses the future interests of the organization

Basic objective of selection

Separate, from a pool of applicants for a job, those that have the appropriate

knowledge, skills, and abilities (KSAs) to perform well on the job.

To do so, the selection specialist must systematically collect information from

the applicants about how much of the necessary KSA each possesses.

Crucial Issue in Selection

The crucial issue is not whether an organization can collect information from

applicants and then decide which are to be given employment offers.

The issue is whether the organization can collect information from applicants

about individual characteristics that are closely related to job performance and

effectively use these data to identify the best applicants for employment offers

Steps in the Development of Selection Program

1. Job analysis:

The gathering of information about a job in an organization

Information should describe:

Tasks or activities engaged in

The results of those tasks or activities

The equipment and materials used

The individuals

The environment

2. Identification of relevant job performance dimensions:

What constitutes successful job performance?

What do the workers need to know and be able to do upon entering the

job to be successful at the job?

Some things can be learned on the job and therefore are less

critical in the selection process

3. Identify the KSAs necessary for the job:

These are the prerequisites to performance

What must a worker know?

What skills and abilities must he or she possess to perform the critical

job tasks?

4. Development of assessment devices to measure KSAs

Once you’ve identified the KSAs needed, you have to measure those

KSAs in applicants for the job

Tests

Interview questions

Demonstrations of skills

Etc.

5. Validation of assessment devices

Validation is the steps taken to collect and evaluate information to

determine whether the worker characteristics thought to be important

to job performance are, in fact, related to successful job performance

If not, you need to revise

So that you get the best people

Legal reasons

6. Use of assessment devices in processing of applicants

Once you’re sure your assessment methods work, use them.

Why not more information?

Better selection decisions can be made when the data collected are

accurate and complete.

The greater the amount of accurate data collected, the more complete

the assessment will be.

So, why do selection specialists only obtain limited information?

Measurement

Why are numbers necessary in the selection process?

Because they facilitate comparison of people

Gives you information better than words alone

Permit statistical manipulation, which provides even more information

about the selection program

Problem of measurement

The problem for selection specialists is to ensure that the numbers generated

are actually accurate descriptions of the characteristics of the applicant, job, or

job performance

Can measure anything

But should only measure what’s important

Analyze measurements in a meaningful way

Legal issues with selection

Very important for a company to adopt clear, effective, measurable selection procedures that do not unfairly discriminate between groups of individuals

Those procedures should measure only the person’s ability to do a job

Must be able to prove that your procedures are measuring only that

Otherwise, organization is very vulnerable if discrimination charges are brought against them

Two major objectives of every selection program

To maximize the probability of making accurate selection decisions about applicantsTo ensure that these selection decisions are carried out in such a manner as to minimize the chance of a judgment of discrimination being made against organizationEqual Employment OpportunityEEO regulation is directed at addressing social and economic problemsIt is directed toward the solution of national issues such as employment inequalities

EEO Regulations

Two components:

The laws and executive orders that state general principles and empower regulatory agencies (EEOC, OFCC, federal courts, state courts, state agencies)

Court decisions that interpret these general principles in specific situations

EEO Laws and Executive Orders

EEO laws are federal laws whose purpose is the elimination of discrimination in HR management decisions

EEO executive orders are statements made by the executive branch of the government intended for the same purpose, but aimed at organizations that do business directly with the government

ADA of 1990

Americans with Disabilities Act

Prohibits pre-employment inquires about a person’s disability.

Places the responsibility on the disabled person to bring any relevant disability to the employer’s attention.

Many applications will specifically ask if you have a disability that would interfere with your ability to perform a job. This is illegal.

Disparate treatment / impact

EEO laws and executive orders prohibit discrimination in selection. But what precisely is discrimination? One of two things:

Disparate treatment

Disparate impact (adverse impact)

Disparate Treatment

Refers to those situations in which different standards are applied to various groups of individuals, even though there may not be an explicit statement of intentional prejudice

Example: Not hiring women with young children but hiring men with young children

Example: Hiring minorities for cleaning positions in a restaurant and hiring whites with similar qualifications for wait staff or cashiering

Disparate Impact

When selection standards are applied uniformly to all groups of applicants, but the net result of such standards is to produce differences in the selection of various groups.

Example: requiring a high school diploma, which unfairly limits the % of minority applicants

Example: height requirements, which unfairly limit women, Asian Americans and Latin Americans

Evidence

In both types of discrimination there must be evidence that the discrimination has occurred.

But the way in which evidence is presented differs depending on whether it is a case of disparate treatment or disparate impact.

Title VII discrimination cases

In a Title VII discrimination case (discrimination on the basis of race, color, religion, sex, or national origin) the following steps are involved in presentation of evidence (see table 2.2)…

Disparate Treatment Step 1

Plaintiff

Demonstrates that he or she belongs to a protected class

He or she applied and was qualified for a job for which the company was seeking applicants

Despite these qualifications, he or she was rejected

After this rejection, the position remained open and the employer continued to seek applicants from persons with the complainant’s qualifications

Disparate Treatment Step 2

Defendant

Provides a clear and specific job-based explanation for actions

Disparate Treatment Step 3

Plaintiff

Proves that the defendant’s argument is a pretext and the true reason for rejection was prejudice

Disparate Impact Step 1

Plaintiff

Demonstrates statistically that this HRM practice affects various groups differently in comparison to their distribution in the relevant labor market

Disparate Impact Step 2

Defendant

Demonstrates at least one of the following:

• Business necessity

• Bona fide occupational qualification (BFOQ)

• Validation data

Disparate Impact Step 3

Plaintiff

Proves that an alternative practice is available that has less adverse impact

BFOQ

One way of fighting a discrimination charge is by demonstrating bona fide occupational qualification.

A BFOQ defense means that no person of a particular sex, race, color, religion, or national origin can adequately perform the given job.

This has mainly been related to sex or religion cases

Legally, it is impossible to frame a BFOQ defense for race, color, or national origin

Statistics

With both forms of discrimination, statistics become important in helping to show the discrimination either did or did not occur

Disparate treatment: statistics are mainly used to assist the plaintiff in rebutting the defendant’s explanation of the selection practice under question

Disparate impact: statistics are most often used by the plaintiff in demonstrating that a pattern of adverse effect has occurred

Uniform Guidelines on Employee Selection Procedures (1978)

These guidelines show how you should set up your selection program.

Prior to this time, both the EEOC and the Department of Labor had issued separate guidelines that conflicted with respect to certain procedures.

Problem was that you could not conform to both sets of guidelines.

Therefore, you could not avoid the threat of trouble from both agencies.

Later the courts ruled that the joint guidelines will be used almost as a checklist for any court cases. Therefore they are very significant.

Unacceptable Skills and Abilities

According to the joint guidelines, skills and abilities easily learned during a brief training program are not acceptable as selection requirements

Affirmative action programs

An affirmative action program (AAP) applies to a set of specific actions taken by an organization to meet the objectives of EEO law.

Typically an affirmative action plan is created to explicitly state the steps the organization will take in selection.

Three situations to adopt AAP

Being a government contractor

Having lost a court discrimination case or having signed a consent decree

Voluntarily attempting to implement EEO principles

Government Contractors

Most of the EEO laws and executive orders require AAPs for government contractors with contracts of at least $10,000

So, they have good reason to adopt AAPs (they have to)

Losing a discrimination case

Often a part of losing the case entails that the organization legally has to adopt an AAP

So, they also have a good reason to adopt AAPs (they also have to)

Voluntary adoption

An organization may decide, on its own, to implement an AAP to promote diversity

However, this can get tricky

In the process of being fair to traditional victims of discrimination, the company may bend over backwards and end up discriminating other groups.

By discriminating against those other groups and thus violating parts of Title VII, the organization opens itself to charges reverse discrimination.

Griggs v. Duke Power (1971)

13 African American employees filed a class-action suit against Duke Power.

They were charging discriminatory employment practices

The claim was based on newly implemented selection requirements (high school diplomas, passage of a mechanical aptitude test, and an IQ test)

According to the plaintiffs, these tests unfairly screened out a much higher percentage of African Americans than whites.

The requirements did not affect current employees, just future employees (applicants)

Duke Power made no attempt to determine the job relatedness of the selection requirements

A lower district court found in favor of the company on the grounds that there was no discriminatory intent.

An appellate court agreed district court

However, the Supreme Court, in an unanimous decision, reversed the previous decisions

The court ruled that a lack of discriminatory intent was not a sufficient defense against the use of employment devices that exclude on the basis of race.

The court held that tests and other measuring devices must be related to job performance.

Duke Power had workers who did not meet the selection requirements (the ones who had been hired before the requirements were put into place).

Those workers had performed their jobs successfully

Therefore, Duke Power had no evidence relating the selection requirements to job performance

Important precedents set by Griggs v. Duke Power

The applicant has the burden of proving the adverse impact of a particular selection device

Once adverse impact has been established, the burden of proof shifts to the employer

The employer must prove the validity or job relatedness of the device

Selection Problem: Choose the Best Person For the Job

Best performer

 Best social fit (team player)

 Best person job fit (worker adjustment/well-being)

 Empirical process: Data based and objective

 Legal process: Government regulation and law

 Utility: Benefit of using a selection procedure

Hiring Process

Planning and Recruitment

Planning: Anticipating needs for human resources

Expansion vs. replacements

Labor markets

Recruitment

Advertising

Employee referral

Employment agencies

School recruiters

Walk-ins

Web (Monster website)

Preliminary Concepts

Reliability

Test-retest

Internal consistency: Multiple items required

 Validity

Criterion related

Concurrent vs. predictive

Content

Face

Convergent vs. Discriminant

Construct: Overall case necessary for legal defense

Making Selection Decisions

Human judgment: Hire whoever seems best

 I/O approach: Use empirically (research-based) proven assessment methods

Steps involved in I/O method

 1. Analyze job

 2. Define criteria

 3. Define abilities needed

 4. Choose potential predictors

 5. Validate (determine equation)

 6. Cross-validate

 Multiple cutoff option: Must meet each selection requirement

Multiple regression: Must achieve a certain total score regardless of

performance on each requirement

 Validity generalization: Effective selection devices work in all settings

Utility

Value of selection system to the organization

Cost/benefit ratio

Utility is maximized by

1. Validity of selection device—should be high

2. Selection ratio (hired/applicants)—should be low

3. Baseline for success—should be 50%

4. Cost of selection program—should be low

5. Cost of bad selection (recruitment, training, low productivity)—

should be high

Hunter-Schmidt programmer aptitude test for federal government

Cost: $6000/year

Estimated gain: $5.6 million to 97.2 million

If universally adopted could save $1.5 billion in U.S.

However, this assumes unlimited supply of applicants and no

constraints on performance in organizations

TRAINING EMPLOYEES

Training in Organizations

 Training can be very valuable by

Increasing employee competence and performance

Increasing employee motivation

Increasing employee adjustment and well-being

 Not always effective because training

is for the wrong thing

given to the wrong people

uses the wrong methods

Steps to Developing Training

Needs Assessment

Determining which employees need training

Determining what training should be done

According to Goldstein (1986, 1991), needs assessment should focus on three

levels:

i) Organization ii) Job iii) Person

Major methods

Job analysis: KSAO's necessary for the job

Critical incidents: E.g., hospital incident reports

Performance appraisal: Can be part of a performance management system

Employee surveys

Setting Objectives

The objectives of training are based on criteria and include a statement of

what a trainee should be able to do or know after training

The training criteria is a statement of how achievement of the training

objective can be assessed

Criteria serve as the basis for the design of organizational training

Training Design

Goal: Transfer of training to job

Factors to Consider

Trainee characteristics

Design factors that affect transfer of training

Feedback

General principles

Identical elements

Over learning (Practice)

Sequencing of Training Sessions part versus whole and massed

versus spaced

Work Environment

Training Methods

Training Methods

1. Audiovisual Instruction

2. Auto instruction

3. Conference

4. Lecture

5. Modeling

6. On-the-Job Training

7. Role Playing

8. Simulations

Delivery of A Training Program

In most organizations specialists who are skilled in training deliver the

program

They may or may not be experts in the content of the training or in training

design

Evaluation

Set Criteria

Training criteria

Reactions

Learning

 Performance criteria

Behavior

Results

Choose Design

Pretest-posttest

Control group

Pretest-Posttest Design

Control Group Design

Pretest Assessme

nt of

Criteria

TrainingDelivery

Posttest Assessme

nt of

Criteria

Choose Measures of the Criteria

Collecting Data

Data Analysis and Interpretation

Random Assignment of People to Groups

Deliver No Training

To Control Group

Assess Trained

Group on Criteria

Deliver Training

To Trained Group

Assess Control

Group on Criteria

JOB SATISFACTION & ORGANIZATIONAL COMMITMENT

Job satisfaction

Job satisfaction is an attitudinal variable that reflects how people feel about their jobs overall as well as various aspects of them.

Organizational commitment

It is attachment to the job and another popular attitudinal variable in the work domain.

Nature of Job Satisfaction

Global approach: Overall satisfaction with work

Facet approach: Satisfaction with aspects of the job

Pay

Promotion

Supervision

Nature of work

Most people like the job overall

Facet satisfactions vary

Highest: Nature of work

Lowest: Pay and Promotion opportunities

Mean levels of U.S. Satisfaction On the Job Satisfaction Survey

Assessment

Self-report survey

Easy to use

Can be anonymous

Person best judge of own feelings

Standard scales exist

Job Descriptive Index (JDI)

5 facets of job satisfaction

Job In General (JIG)

Global job satisfaction

Scales exist for commitment and emotion

Antecedents of Job Satisfaction: Environmental

Job characteristics

Hackman & Oldham

Characteristics à Psychological States à Job satisfaction

Strong research support linking perceptions of characteristics to job satisfaction

Weak research support linking objective characteristics to job satisfaction

Pay

Salary compared to people in same job more important than different jobs

Justice

Distributive and Procedural related to global and facet satisfaction

Job Characteristics Theory

Antecedents of Job Satisfaction: Environmental

Personality

Negative affectivity (high NAs less satisfied)

Locus of control (externals less satisfied)

Gender

Few gender differences

Age

Curvilinear—satisfaction lowest age 26 to 31

Culture and Ethnicity

Few racial differences within the U.S.

Western countries score higher than Asians

Could be due to response styles rather than true feelings

Person-Job Fit

Match between individual and the job

People differ in reactions to same situation

Characteristics of the person is a moderator

Moderator: Variable that affects relationship between two other variables

Growth need strength (GNS)

People high on GNS are more satisfied with high scope jobs

People low on GNS are not more satisfied with high scope jobs

Effects of Job Satisfaction

Job Performance

Small correlation

More evidence that performance causes satisfaction than reverse

Turnover

Dissatisfied people more likely to quit

Moderated by labor market—people quit when they find another job

Absence

Very small correlation—other factors more important

Health and Well-Being

Job satisfaction relates to health variables such as anxiety and depression

Life Satisfaction

Job satisfaction important component of life satisfaction

Spillover

Organizational Commitment

One commitment, three components

Mowday, Steers, Porter

Acceptance of organization goals

Intention to stay on the job

Willingness to work hard

Three commitments

Meyer and Allen

Affective: Like the job

Continuance: Need the job

Normative: Feel obligated to stay on the job

Commitment and Other Variables

Similar correlations as job satisfaction

High commitment associated with

High job scope

High job satisfaction

Low job stressors

Job Scope

Emotions and Work

Emotion state: How you feel now

Emotion mood: How you have been feeling lately

Positive emotions: Feeling good

Greater creativity

Higher job satisfaction

More contextual performance

Negative emotions: Feeling bad

Lower job satisfaction

Higher absence

More turnover

Emotional Labor

Requirement at work to express or inhibit emotional display

Smiling at customers

Not showing anger toward clients

Some studies showed that acting happy can lead to job satisfaction

Emotional dissonance: Expressing emotion you don’t feel

Leads to dissatisfaction and stress

WORK GROUPS &WORK TEAMS

Work Group

A work group is a collection of two or more people who interact with one another and

share some interrelated task goals.

Work Team

A work team is a type of work group, but a team has three specific properties (Baker,

1991):

1. The actions of individuals must be interdependent and coordinated.

2. Each member must have a particular, specified role.

3. There must be common task goals and objectives.

Group/Team Concepts

Roles: Specialization of function within positions

Formal: position title and description define with job analysis

Informal: Emergent behavior in group

 Status

Power & influence, prestige, respect

Partially inherent in role

Norms

Expected & accepted behavioral standards

Productivity norms

Dress norms

Group Cohesiveness: Attraction of group members toward staying in group

High cohesive groups

Lower turnover

Stronger adherence to norms (homogenizer of behavior)

Greater satisfaction

Greater group influence

Team Commitment

Strength of an individual’s involvement in team and acceptance of

team goals

Team Mental Model

Shared understanding of task by team members

Process Loss

Effort/time spent by team members on non-task activities

Stages in Team Building

Stages in Team Building

Stage I: Forming – Provide clear direction to establish the team’s purpose, setting goals, etc.,

Stage II: Storming – Provide strong, hands-on leadership to keep people talking and task-focused

Stage III: Norming – Codes of behaviour becomes established and an identifiable group culture emerges. People begin to enjoy each other’s company and appreciate each other’s contributions

FormingStormingNorming

PerformingAdjourning

Stage IV: Performing – Teams that reach this stage achieve results easily and enjoyably. People work together well and can improve systems, solve problems and provide excellent customer service.

Stage V: Adjourning – Temporary project team reaches this stage; celebrate their team’s achievements.

Types of Teams

1. Problem-solving teams – groups of 5-12 employees from the same department who meet for a few hours each week to discuss ways of improving quality, efficiency, and the work environment.

These teams are rarely given the opportunity to unilaterally implement any of their suggested actions, i.e. lack of employee involvement in decision-making process.

2. Self-managed work teams – groups of employees (typically 10-15) who perform highly related or interdependent jobs (e.g. planning, assigning tasks to members, making operational decisions, and taking action on problems) and take on many of the responsibilities of their previous supervisors.

Members report higher job satisfaction but also higher absenteeism and turnover rates – situation dependent.

3. Cross-functional teams – employees from about the same hierarchical level, but from different work areas, who come together to accomplish a task. Examples include ‘Task force’, ‘Committees’.

It takes time to build trust and teamwork, especially among people from different backgrounds, with different experiences and perspectives.

4. Virtual teams – that use computer technology to tie together physically dispersed members in order to achieve a common goal.

Allow people to work together who might otherwise never be able to collaborate.

Suffer from less social rapport and less direct interaction among members.

Considerations Before Deciding To Use Teams

Teams are not always preferable to individuals. Three conditions favor teams:

(a) The work is complex and can be done better by more than one person;

(b) The work has a common purpose or set of goals that is more than the aggregate of individual goals; and

(c) There is interdependence between tasks.

Key Factors to Successful Performance of a Team S.C.O.R.E.

Strategy

Clear Roles and Responsibility

Open Communication

Rapid Response

Effective Leadership

S.C.O.R.E.

Strategy:

Shared purpose

Clearly articulated values and ground rules

Understanding of risks and opportunities facing the team

Clear categorization of the overall responsibilities of the team

Clear Roles and Responsibilities:

Clear definition of roles and responsibilities

Responsibility shared by all members

Specific objectives to measure individual results

Open communication:

Respect for individual differences

Open communication environment among team members

Rapid response:

Rapid response to the team’s problems

Effective management to change in the internal and external environment

Effective Leadership:

Team leader who is able to help members achieve the objective and build the team

Team leader who can draw out and free up the skills of all team members, develop individuals

Components of Effective Teams

1. Context – adequate resources, leadership and structure, climate of trust, performance evaluation and reward systems.

2. Composition – abilities of members, personality, allocating roles, diversity, size of teams, member flexibility, member preferences.

3. Work design – autonomy, skill variety, task identity, task significance.

4. Process – common purpose, specific goals, team efficiency, conflict levels, social loafing.