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Early Netherlandish painting

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Jan van Eyck, TheArnolfini Portrait, 1434, National

Gallery, London. This work is considered one of the

more original and complex paintings in Western artbecause of its iconography[1]and geometric

orthogonalperspective.[2]

Rogier van der Weyden, The Descent from the Cross, c. 1435,

Museo del Prado, Madrid

The Ghent Altarpiece, completed in 1432 by Jan van Eyck. This

polyptych and the Turin-Milan Hoursare generally seen as the first major

works of the Early Netherlandish period.

Hieronymus Bosch, The Garden of Earthly Delights, c. 14901510. Museo del

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Early Netherlandishpaintingrefers to the work of artists, sometimes known as the Flemish Primitives, active in the Burgundianand Habsburg Netherlandsduring

the 15th-and 16th-century Northern Renaissance, especially in the flourishing cities of Tournai, Bruges, Ghentand Brusselsin modern-day Belgium. Their work

followed the International Gothicstyle and began approximately with Robert Campinand Jan van Eyckin the early 1420s. It lasted at least until the death of GerardDavidin 1523,[3]although many scholars extend it to the start of the Dutch Revoltin 1566 or 1568. Early Netherlandish painting coincides with the Early and HighItalian

Renaissancebut is seen as an independent artistic culture, separate from the Renaissance humanismthat characterised developments in Italy. Because the works of

these painters represent the culmination of thenorthern European medievalartistic heritage and the incorporation of Renaissanceideals, the painters are sometimes

categorised as belonging to both the Early Renaissanceand Late Gothic.

The major Netherlandish painters include Campin, van Eyck, Rogier van der Weyden, Dieric Bouts, Petrus Christus, Hans Memling, Hugo van der Goesand

Hieronymus Bosch. These artists made significant advances in natural representation and illusionism, and their work typically features complex iconography. Their

subjects are usually religious scenes or small portraits, with narrative painting or mythological subjects being relatively rare. Landscape is often richly described but

relegated as a background detail before the early 16th century. The painted works are generally oil on panel, either as single works or more complex portable or fixed

altarpieces in the form of diptychs, triptychsor polyptychs. The period is also noted for its sculpture, tapestries, illuminated manuscripts, stained glassand carved

retables.

The period occurred during the height of Burgundian influence in Europe, when the Low Countriesbecame the political and economic centre in Northern Europe, noted

for its crafts and luxury goods. In conjunction with production by the workshop system, panels and a variety of crafts were sold on commissions from foreign princes or

to merchants through market stalls. The majority of the works were destroyed during waves of iconoclasm in the 16th and 17th centuries and today only a few thousand

examples survive. Early northern art ingeneral was not well regarded from the early 17th to the mid-19th century and the painters and their works were not well

documented until the mid-19th century with the reinvigoration of interest in Early Netherlandish art. Art historians spent almost another century determining attributions,

studying iconography, and establishing bare outlines of even the major artists' lives. Attribution of some of the most significant works is still debated.

Contents [hide]

1 Terminology and scope

2 Chronology

3 Technique and material

4 Guilds and workshops

5 Patronage

6 Iconography

7 Formats

7.1 Illuminated manuscript

7.2 Tapestry

7.3 Triptychs and altarpieces

7.4 Diptychs

7.5 Portraiture

7.6 Landscape

8 Relationship to the Italian Renaissance

9 Destruction and dispersal

9.1 Iconoclasm

9.2 Documentation

10 Rediscovery

11 Scholarship and conservation

12 References

12.1 Notes

12.2 Citations

12.3 Sources

13 External links

Terminology and scope [edit]

The term "Early Netherlandish art" applies broadly to painters active during the 15th and 16th centuries[3]in the northern European areas controlled by the Dukes of Burgundyand later the Habsburg dynasty. These

artists became an early driving force behind the Northern Renaissance and the move away from the Gothic style. In this political and art-historical context, the north follows the Burgundian lands which straddled areas that

encompass parts of modern France, Germany, Belgium and Holland. [4]

The Netherlandish artists have been known by a variety of terms. "Late Gothic" is an early designation which emphasises continuity with the art of the

Middle Ages.[5]In the early 1900s the artists were variously referred to in English as the "Ghent-Bruges school" or the "Old Netherlandish school".

"Flemish Primitives" is a traditional art-historical term borrowed from the French[6]that became popular after 1902[7][A]and remains in use today,

especially in Dutch and German.[5]In this context, "primitive" does not refer to a perceived lack of sophistication, but rather identifies the artists as

originators of a new tradition in painting. Erwin Panofskypreferred the term ars nova("new art"), which linked the movement with innovative composers

of music such as Guillaume Dufayand Gilles Binchois, who were favoured by the Burgundian court over artists attached to the lavish French court.[8]

When the Burgundian dukesestablished centres of power in the Netherlands, they brought with them a more cosmopolitan outlook. [9]According to Otto

Pchta simultaneous shift in art began sometime between 1406 and 1420 when a "revolution took place in painting"; a "new beauty" in art emerged,

one that depicted the visible rather than the metaphysical world. This new approach become popular throughout Europe.[9]

In the 19th century the Early Netherlandish artists were classified by nationality, with Jan van Eyckidentified as German and van der Weyden (born

Roger de la Pasture) as French. [10]Scholars were at times preoccupied as to whether the school's genesis was in France or Germany. [11]Those

arguments and distinctions dissipated after World War I, and following the leads of Friedlnder, Panofsky, and Pcht, English-language scholars now

almost universally describe the period as "Early Netherlandish painting", although many art historians view the Flemish term as more correct. [10]

In the 14th century, as Gothic artgave way to the International Gothicera, a number of schools developed in northern Europe. Early Netherlandish art

originated in French courtly art, and is especially tied to the tradition and conventions of illuminated manuscripts. Modern art historians see the era as

beginning with 14th-century manuscript illuminators. They were followed by panel painters such as Melchior Broederlamand Robert Campin, the latter

generally considered the first Early Netherlandish master, under whom van der Weyden served his apprenticeship.[9]Illumination reached a peak in the

region in the decades after 1400, mainly due to the patronage of Burgundian and House of Valois-Anjoudukes such as Philip the Bold, Louis I of Anjou

and Jean, Duke of Berry. This patronage continued in the low countries with the Burgundian dukes, Philip the Goodand his son Charles the Bold.[12]The demand for illuminated manuscripts declined towards the end of

the century, perhaps because of the costly production process in comparison to panel painting. Yet illumination remained popular at the luxury end of the market, and prints, both engravingsand woodcuts, found a new

mass market, especially those by artists such as Martin SchongauerandAlbrecht Drer.[13]

Following van Eyck's innovations, the first generation of Netherlandish painters emphasised light and shadow, elements usually absent

from 14th-century illuminated manuscripts.[14]Biblical scenes were depicted with more naturalism, which made their content more

accessible to viewers, while individual portraits became more evocative and alive.[15]Johan Huizingasaid that art of the era was meant to

be fully integrated with daily routine, to "fill with beauty" the devotional life in a world closely tied to the liturgy and sacraments.[16]After

about 1500 a number of factors turned against the pervasive Northern style, not least the rise of Italian art, whose commercial appeal

began to rival Netherlandish art by 1510, and overtook it some ten years later. T wo events symbolically and historically reflect this shift: the

transporting of a marble Madonna and Childby Michelangeloto Bruges in 1506, [13]and the arrival of Raphael's tapestry cartoonsto

Brussels in 1517, which were widely seen while in the city.[17]Although the influence of Italian art was soon widespread across the nor th, it

in turn had drawn on the 15th-century norther n painters, with Michelangelo's Madonnabased on a type developed by Hans Memling.[13]

Netherlandish painting ends in the narrowest sense with the death of Gerard Davidin 1523. A number of mid- and late-16th-century

artists, including Quentin Matsysand Hieronymus Bosch, maintained many of the conventions, and they are frequently but not always

associated with the school. The style of these painters is often dramatically at odds with that of the first generation of artists.[6]In the early

1500s artists began to explore illusionistic depictions of three dimensions.[18]The painting of the early-16th century can be seen as

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Prado, Madrid. Art historians are divided as to whether the central panel was i ntended

as a moral warning or as a panorama of paradise lost

Master of the Life of the Virgin, a late Gothic

Annunciation, c. 146390.Alte Pinakothek, Munich.

Jan van Eyck, Portrait of

a Man in a Turban,

1433; possible self-

portrait. National Gallery,

London

Cornelis Cort, portrait of

Rogier van der Weyden,

1572

Rogier van der Weyden, Portrait

of a Lady, 1460. National Gallery of

Art, Washington. Van der Weyden

moved portraiture away from

idealisation and towards more

naturalistic representation.[35]

Pieter Bruegel the Elder, The Hunters in the Snow, 1565.

Kunsthistorisches Museum, Vienna. The most famous of

Bruegel's several winter landscapes, the panel is indicative of

how painting in the mid-16th century tended towards the

secular and everyday life.

Dieric Bouts's The Entombment, c. 144055

(National Gallery, London), is an austere but

affecting portrayal of sorrow and grief, and one of

the few surviving 15th-century glue-size

paintings.[52]

leading directly from the artistic innovations and iconography of the previous century, with some painters, following the traditional and

established formats and symbolism of the previous century, continuing to produce copies of previously painted works. Others came under

the influence of Renaissance humanism, turning towards secular narrative cycles, as biblical imagery was blended with mythological

themes.[19]A full break from the mid-15th-century style and subject matter was not seen until the development of Northern Mannerismaround 1590. There was considerable overlap, and the early- to mid-16th-century

innovations can be tied to the Mannerist style, including naturalistic secular portraiture, the depiction of ordinary (as opposed to courtly) life, and the development of elaborate landscapes and cityscapes that were more

than background views.[18]

Chronology [edit]

See also: List of Early Netherlandish painters

The origins of the Early Netherlandish school lie in the miniature paintings of the late Gothic period.[20]This was first seen in manuscript illumination, which after

1380 conveyed new levels of realism, perspective and skill in rendering colour,[21]peaking with the Limbourg brothersand the Netherlandish artist known as Hand

G, to whom the most significant leafs of the Turin-Milan Hoursare usually attributed.[22]Although his identity has not been definitively established, Hand G, who

contributed c. 1420, is thought to have been either Jan van Eyck or his brother Hubert. According to Georges Hulin de Loo, Hand G's contributions to the Turin-

Milan Hours "constitute the most marvelous group of paintings that have ever decorated any book, and, for their period, the most astounding work known to the

history of art."[23]

Jan van Eyck's use of oil as a medium was a significant development, allowing artists far gr eater manipulation of paint. The 16th century art historian Giorgio Vasari

claimed van Eyck invented the use of oil paint; a claim that, while exaggerated,[9]indicates the extent to which van Eyck helped disseminate the technique. Van Eyck

utilised a new level of virtuosity, mainly from taking advantage of the fact that oil dries so slowly; it allowed him more time and more scope for blending and mixing

layers of different pigments,[24]and his technique was quickly adopted and refined by Robert Campin and Rogier van der Weyden. These three artists are

considered the first rank and most influential of the ear ly generation of Early Netherlandish painters. Their influence was felt across northern Europe, from Bohemia

and Poland in the east to Austria and Swabiain the south.[25]

A number of artists traditionally associated with the movement had origins that were neither Dutch nor Flemish

in the modern sense. Van der Weyden was born Roger de la Pasture in Tournai.[26][27]The German Hans

Memling and the Estonian Michael Sittowboth worked in the Netherlands in a fully Netherlandish style. Simon

Marmionis often regarded as an Early Netherlandish painter because he came fromAmiens, an area intermittently ruled by the Burgundian court between 1435 and

1471.[6]The Burgundian duchy was at its peak influence, and the innovations made by the Netherlandish painters were soon recognised across the continent.[28]By

the time of van Eyck's death, his paintings were sought by wealthy patrons across Europe. Copies of his works were widely circulated, a fact that greatly contributed to

the spread of the Netherlandish style to central and southern Europe.[29]Central European art was then under the dual influence of innovations from Italy and from the

north. Often the exchange of ideas between the Low Countries and Italy led to patronage fr om nobility such as Matthias Corvinus, King of Hungary, who commissioned

manuscripts from both traditions.[30]

The first generation were literate, well educated and mostly from middle-class backgrounds. Van Eyck and van der Weyden were both highly placed in the Burgundian

court, with van Eyck in particular assuming roles for which an ability to read Latin was necessary; inscriptions found on his panels indicate that he had a good

knowledge of both Latin and Greek.[31][B]A number of artists were financially successful and much sought-after in the Low Countries and by patrons across Europe.[32]

Many artists, including David and Bouts, could afford to donate large works to the churches, monasteries and convents of their choosing. Van Eyck was a valet de

chambreat the Burgundian court and had easy access to Philip the Good.[32]Van der Weyden was a prudent investor in stocks and property; Bouts was commercially

minded and married the heiress Catherine "Mettengelde" ("with the money").[33][34]Vrancke van der Stocktinvested in land.[31]

The Early Netherlandish masters' influence reached artists such as Stefan Lochnerand the painter known as the Master of the

Life of the Virgin, both of whom, working in mid-15th-century Cologne, drew inspiration from imported works by van der Weyden

and Bouts.[36]New and distinctive painterly cultures sprang up; Ulm, Nuremberg, Viennaand Munichwere the most important artistic centres in the Holy Roman Empireat the start of

the 16th century. There was a rise in demand for printmaking(using woodcuts or copperplate engraving) and other innovations borrowed from France and southern Italy.[25]Some

16th-century painters borrowed heavily from the previous century's techniques and styles. Even progressive artists such as Jan Gossaertmade copies, such as his reworking of van

Eyck's Madonna in the Church.[37]Gerard David linked the styles of BrugesandAntwerp, often travelling between the cities. He moved to Antwerp in 1505, when Quentin Matsys was

the head of the local painters' guild, and the two became friends.[38]

By the 16th century the iconographic innovations and painterly techniques developed by van Eyck had become standard throughout norther n Europe. Albrecht Drer emulated van

Eyck's precision.[39]Painters enjoyed a new level of respect and status; patrons no longer simply commissioned works but courted the artists, sponsoring their travel and exposing

them to new and wide-ranging influences. Hieronymus Bosch, active in the late 15th and early 16th centuries, remains one of the most important and popular of the Netherlandish

painters.[40]He was anomalous in that he largely forewent realistic depictions of nature, human existence and perspective, while his work is almost entirely free of Italian influences. His

better-known works are instead characterised by fantastical elements that tend towards the hallucinatory, drawing to some extent from the vision of hell in van Eyck's Crucifixion and

Last Judgement diptych. Bosch followed his own muse, tending instead towards moralism and pessimism. His paintings, especially the triptychs, are among the most significant and

accomplished of the late Netherlandish period[40][41]

The Reformationbrought changes in outlook and artistic expression as secular and landscape imagery overtook biblical

scenes. Sacred imagery was shown in a didactic and moralistic manner, with religious figures becoming marginalized and

relegated to the background.[42]Pieter Bruegel the Elder, one of the few who followed Bosch's style, is an important bridge

between the Early Netherlandish artists and their successors. His work retains many 15th-century conventions, but his

perspective and subjects are distinctly modern. Sweeping landscapes came to the fore in paintings that were provisionally

religious or mythological, and his genre sceneswere complex, with overtones of religious skepticism and even hints of nationalism.[42][43]

Technique and material [edit]

Campin, van Eyck and van der Weyden established naturalismas the dominant style in 15th-century northern European painting. These artists sought to show

the world as it actually was,[44]and to depict people in a way that made them look more human, with a greater complexity of emotions than had been previously

seen. This first generation of Early Netherlandish artists were interested in the accurate reproduction of objects (according to Panofsky they painted "gold that

looked like gold"),[45]paying close attention to natural phenomena such as light, shadow and reflection. They moved beyond the flat perspectiveand outlined

figuration of earlier painting in favour of three-dimensional pictorial spaces. The position of viewers and how they might relate to the scene became important

for the first time; in theArnolfini Portrait, Van Eyck arranges the scene as if the viewer has just entered the room containing the two figures.[46]Advancements

in technique allowed far richer, more luminous and closely detailed representations of people, landscapes, interiors and objects.[47]

Although, the use of oil as a binding agentcan be traced to the 12th century, innovations in its handling and manipulation define the era. Egg temperawas the

dominant medium until the 1430s, and while it produces both bright and light colours, it dries quickly and is a difficult medium in which to achieve naturalistic

textures or deep shadows. Oil allows smooth, translucent surfaces and can be applied in a range of thicknesses, from fine lines to thick broad strokes. It dries slowly and is easily manipulated while still wet. These

characteristics allowed more time to add subtle detail [48]and enable wet-on-wettechniques. Smooth transitions of colour are possible because portions of the intermediary layers of paint can be wiped or removed as the

paint dries. Oil enables differentiation among degrees of reflective light, from shadow to bright beams,[49]and minute depictions of light effects through the use of transparent glazes.[50]This new freedom in controlling

light effects gave rise to more precise and realistic depictions of surface textures; van Eyck and van der Weyden typically show light falling on surfaces such as jewellery, wooden floors, textiles and household

objects.[24][51]

The paintings were most often painted on wood, but sometimes on the less expensive canvas. [C]The wood was usually oak, often imported from the Baltic region, with the

preference for r adially cut boards which are less likely to warp. Typically the sap was removed and the board well-seasoned before use.[53]Wood supports allow for

dendrochronologicaldating, and the particular use of Baltic oak gives clues as to the ar tist's location.[54]The panels generally show very high degrees of craftsmanship.

Lorne Campbellnotes that most are "beautifully made and finished objects. It can be extremely difficult to find the joins."[55]Many paintings' frames were altered, repainted

or gilded in the 18th and early 19th centuries when it was common practice to break apart hinged Netherlandish pieces so they could be sold as genre pieces. Many

surviving panels are painted on both sides or with the reverse bearing family emblems, crests or ancillary outline sketches. In the case of single panels, the markings on

the reverse are often wholly unrelated to the obverse and may be later additions, or as Campbell speculates, "done for the artist's amusement".[53]Painting each side of a

panel was practical since it prevented the wood from warping. [56]Usually the frames of hinged works were constructed before the individual panels were worked on. [55]

Gluebinder was often used as an inexpensive alternative to oil. Many works using this medium were produced but few survive today because of the delicateness of the

linen cloth and the solubility of the hide glue from which the binder was derived.[53]Well known and relatively well preserved though substantially damaged examples

include Matsys' Virgin and Child with Saints Barbara and Catherine(c. 141525)[57]and Bouts' Entombment(c. 144055).[58]The paint was generally applied with brushes

or sometimes with thin sticks or brush handles. The artists often softened the contours of shadows with their fingers, at times to blot or reduce the glaze.[55]

Guilds and workshops [edit]

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Jan van Eyck,Annunciation, 1434

1436. Wing from a dismantled triptych.

National Gallery of Art, Washington DC.

The architecture shows Romanesque

and Gothicstyles. Mary is overly large,

symbolizing her heavenly status.[68]

Rogier van der Weyden, Jean Wauquelin

presenting his 'Chroniques de Hainaut' to Philip

the Good, presentation miniature, 14471448.Royal Library of Belgium, Brussels

Rogier van der Weyden, The Magdalen Reading,

before 1438. National Gallery, London. This fragment

is unusually rich in iconographical detail, including the

Magdalen's averted eyes, her attribute of oin tment,

and the concept of Christ as the word represented by

the book in her hands.[82]

Anonymous,The Cambrai

Madonna, c 1340. Cambrai

Cathedral, France. This small

c. 1340 Italo-Byzantinereplica

was believed an original by

Saint Lukeand therefore widely

copied.[90][91]

Geertgen tot Sint Jans, Man of Sorrows,

c. 148595. Museum Catharijneconvent,

Utrecht. One of the finest examples of the

"Man of Sorrows" tradition, this complex

panel has been described as an

"unflinching, yet emotive depiction of

physical suffering".[92]

The most usual way in the 15th century for a patron to commission a piece was to visit a master's workshop. Only a certain number of masters could operate within any city's bounds; they were regulated by artisan guilds

to whom they had to be affiliated to be allowed to operate and receive commissions. Guilds protected and regulated painting, overseeing production, export trade and raw material supply; and they maintained discrete

sets of rules for panel painters, cloth painters and book illuminators.[59]For example, the rules set higher citizenship requirements for miniaturists and prohibited them from using oils. Overall, panel painters enjoyed the

highest level of protection, with cloth painters ranking below.[60]

Membership of a guild was highly restricted and access was difficult for newcomers. A master was expected to serve an apprenticeship in his region, and show proof of citizenship, which could be obtained through birth in

the city or by purchase.[60]Apprenticeship lasted four to five years, ending with the production of a "masterpiece" that proved his ability as a craftsman, and the payment of a substantial entrance fee. The system was

protectionist at a local level through the nuances of the fee system. Although it sought to ensure a high quality of membership, it was a self-governing body that tended to favour wealthy applicants.[61]Guild connections

sometimes appear in paintings, most famously in van der Weyden's Descent from the Cross, in which Christ's body is given the t-shape of a crossbowto reflect its commission for a chapel for the Leuvenguild of

archers.[62]

Workshops typically consisted of a family home for the master and lodging for apprentices.[63]The masters usually built up inventories of pre-painted panels as well as patterns or outline designs for ready sale.[64]With

the former, the master was responsible for the overall design of the painting, and typically painted the focal portions, such as the faces, hands and the embroidered parts of the figure's clothing. The more prosaic

elements would be left to assistants; in many works it is possible to discern abrupt shifts in style, with the relatively weak Deesispassage in van Eyck's Crucifixion and Last Judgement diptychbeing a better-known

example.[65]Often a master's workshop was occupied with both the reproduction of copies of proven commercially successful works, and the design of new compositions arising from commissions. [66]In this case, the

master would usually produce the underdrawingor overall composition to be painted by assistants. As a result, many surviving works that evidence first-rank compositions but uninspired execution are attr ibuted to

workshop members or followers.[67]

Patronage [edit]

By the 1400s the reach and influence of the Burgundian princes meant that the Low Countries' merchant and banker classes were in the ascendancy. The early to mid-century saw

great rises in international trade and domestic wealth, leading to an enormous increase in the demand for art. Artists from the area attracted patronage from the Balticcoast, the

north German and Polish regions, the Iberian Peninsula, Italy and the powerful families of England and Scotland.[69]At first, masters had acted as their own dealers, attending fairs

where they could also buy frames, panels and pigments. [63]The mid-century saw the development of art dealershipas a profession; the activity became purely commercially driven,

dominated by the mercantile class.[70]

Smaller works were not usually produced on commission. More often the masters anticipated the formats and images that would be most sought after and their designs were then

developed by workshop members. Ready made paintings were sold at regularly held fairs, [71]or the buyers could visit workshops, which tended to be clustered in certain ar eas of

the major cities. The masters were allowed to display in their front windows. This was the typical mode for the thousands of panels produced for the middle class city officials,

clergy, guild members, doctors and merchants.[72]

Less expensive cloth paintings (tchlein) were more common in middle-class households, and records show a strong interest in domestically owned religious panel paintings. [72]

Members of the merchant class typically commissioned smaller devotional panels, containing specifically desired themes. Changes might vary from something such as having an

individualized panel added to the prefabricated pattern, to more simply having an individualized image of the donor depicted as one of the saints. The addition of coats-of-arms

were frequently the smallest and only changes an addition seen in van der Weyden's Saint Luke Drawing the Virgin, which has an original and several variations.[73]

Many of the Burgundian dukes could afford to be extravagant in their taste.[70]Philip the Good followed the example set earlier in

France by his great-uncles including John, Duke of Berryby becoming a strong patron of the arts and commissioning a largenumber of artworks.[74]The Burgundian court was seen as the arbiter of taste and their appreciation in turn dr ove demand for

highly luxurious and expensive illuminated manuscripts, gold-edged tapestries and jewel-bordered cups. Their appetite for finery

trickled down through their court and nobles to the people who for the most part commissioned local artists in Bruges and Ghent in

the 1440s and 1450s. While Netherlandish panel paintings did not have intrinsic value as did for example objects in precious

metals, they were perceived as precious objects and in the first rank of European art. A 1425 document written by Philip the Good

explains that he hired a painter for the "excellent work that he does in his craft".[70]Jan van Eyck painted theAnnunciationwhile in

Philip's employ, and Rogier van der Weyden became the duke's portrait painter in the 1440s.[74]

Burgundian rule created a large class of courtiers and functionaries. Some gained enormous power and commissioned paintings to

display their wealth and influence.[75]Civic leaders also commissioned works from major artists, such as Bouts' Justice for Emperor

Otto III, van der Weyden's The Justice of Trajan and Herkinbaldand David's Justice of Cambyses.[76]Civic commissions were less

common and were not as lucrative, but they brought notice to and increased a painter's reputation, as with Memling, whoseSt

John Altarpiecefor Bruges' Sint-Janshospitaal brought him additional civic commissions.[77]

Wealthy foreign patronage and the development of international trade afforded the established masters the chance to build up

workshops with assistants.[63]Although first-rank painters such as Petrus Christusand Hans Memling found patrons among the

local nobility, they catered specifically to the large for eign population in Bruges.[60]Painters not only exported goods but also

themselves; foreign princes and nobility, striving to emulate the opulence of the Burgundian court, hired painters away from

Bruges.[78][D]

Iconography [edit]

The paintings of the first generation of Netherlandish artists are often characterised by the use of symbolism and biblical references.[79]Van Eyck pioneered, and his

innovations were taken up and developed by van der Weyden, Memling and Christus. Each employed rich and complex iconographical elements to create a heightened sense of contemporary beliefs and spiritual

ideals.[80]Morally the works express a fearful outlook, combined with a respect for restraint and stoicism. The paintings above all emphasise the spiritual over the earthly. Because the cult of Mary was at an apex at the

time, iconographic elements related to the Life of Maryvastly predominate.[81]

Craig Harbison describes the blending of realism and symbolism as perhaps "the most important aspect of early Flemish art". [80]The first generation of Netherlandish

painters were preoccupied with making religious symbols more realistic.[80]Van Eyck incorporated a wide variety of iconographic elements, often conveying what he

saw as a co-existence of the spiritual and material worlds. The iconography was embedded in the work unobtrusively; typically the references comprised small but key

background details.[79]The embedded symbols were meant to meld into the scenes and "was a deliberate strategy to create an experience of spiritual revelation."[83]

Van Eyck's religious paintings in particular "always present the spectator with a transfigured view of visible reality".[84]To him the day-to-day is harmoniously steeped in

symbolism, such that, according to Harbison, "descriptive data were rearranged ... so that they illustrated not earthly existence but what he considered supernatural

truth."[84]This blend of the earthly and heavenly evidences van Eyck's belief that the "essential truth of Christian doctrine" can be found in "the marriage of secular and

sacred worlds, of reality and symbol". [85]He depicts overly large Madonnas, whose unrealistic size shows the separation between the heavenly from earthly, but placed

them in everyday settings such as churches, domestic chambers or seated with court officials. [85]

Yet the earthly churches are heavily decorated with heavenly symbols. A heavenly throne is clearly represented in some domestic chambers (for example in the Lucca

Madonna). More difficult to discern are the settings for paintings such as Madonna of Chancellor Rolin, where the location is a fusion of the earthly and celestial.[86]

Van Eyck's iconography is often so densely and intricately layered that a work has to be viewed multiple times before even the most obvious meaning of an element is

apparent. The symbols were often subtly woven into the paintings so that they only became apparent after close and repeated viewing,[79]while much of theiconography reflects the idea that, according to John Ward, there is a "promised passage from sin and death to salvation and rebirth".[87]

Other artists employed symbolism in a more prosaic manner, despite van Eyck's great influence on both his contemporaries and later artists. Campin showed a clear

separation between spiritual and earthly realms; unlike van Eyck, he did not employ a programme of concealed symbolism. Campin's symbols do not alter the sense of

the real; in his paintings a domestic scene is no more complicated than a one showing religious iconography, but one the viewer would recognise and understand.[88]

Van der Weyden's symbolism was far more nuanced than Campin's but not as dense as van Eyck's. According to Harbison, van der Weyden incorporated his symbols

so carefully, and in such an exquisite manner, that "Neither the mystical union that results in his work, nor his reality itself for that matter, seems capable of being

rationally analyzed, explained or reconstructed."[89]His treatment of architectural details, niches, colour and space is presented in such an inexplicable manner that

"the particular objects or people we see before us have suddenly, jarringly, become symbols with religious truth."[89]

Paintings and other precious objects served an important aid in the r eligious life of those who

could afford them. Prayer and meditative contemplation were means to attain salvation, while the very wealthy could also build churches (or extend

existing ones), or commission artworks or other devotional pieces as a means to guarantee salvation in the afterlife.[93]Vast numbers of Virgin and

Child paintings were produced, and original designs were widely copied and exported. Many of the paintings were based on Byzantineprototypes of

the 12th and 13th century, of which the Cambrai Madonnais probably the best known.[94]In this way the traditions of the earlier centuries were

absorbed and re-developed as a distinctly rich and complex iconographical tradition.[93]

Marian devotion grew from the 13th century, mostly forming around the concepts of the Immaculate Conceptionand herAssumption into heaven. In

a culture that venerated the possession of relicsas a means to bring the earthly closer to the divine, Mary left no bodily relics, thus assuming a

special position between heaven and humanity. [95]By the ear ly 1400s, Mary had grown in importance within the Christian doctrine to the extent that

she was commonly seen as the most accessible intercessor with God. It was thought that the length each person would need to suffer in limbowas

proportional to their display of devotion while on earth.[96]The veneration of Mary reached a peak in the early 15th century, an era that saw an

unending demand for works depicting her likeness. From the mid 15th century Netherlandish portrayals of the life of Christ tended to be centred on

the iconography of the Man of Sorrows.[93]

Those who could afford to commissioned donor portraits. Such a commission was usually executed as part of a triptych, or later as a more

affordable diptych. Van der Weyden popularised the existing northern tr adition of half-length Marian portraits. These echoed the "miracle-working"

Byzantine icons then popular in Italy. The format became extremely popular across the north, and his innovations are an important contributing

factor to the emergence of the Marian diptych.[97]

http://www.web2pdfconvert.com/?ref=PDFhttp://www.web2pdfconvert.com/?ref=PDFhttp://localhost/var/www/apps/conversion/tmp/scratch_3/wiki/Madonna_(art)http://localhost/var/www/apps/conversion/tmp/scratch_3/wiki/Donor_portraithttp://localhost/var/www/apps/conversion/tmp/scratch_3/wiki/Man_of_Sorrowshttp://localhost/var/www/apps/conversion/tmp/scratch_3/wiki/Limbohttp://localhost/var/www/apps/conversion/tmp/scratch_3/wiki/Relichttp://localhost/var/www/apps/conversion/tmp/scratch_3/wiki/Assumption_of_Maryhttp://localhost/var/www/apps/conversion/tmp/scratch_3/wiki/Immaculate_Conceptionhttp://localhost/var/www/apps/conversion/tmp/scratch_3/wiki/Cambrai_Madonnahttp://localhost/var/www/apps/conversion/tmp/scratch_3/wiki/Byzantine_arthttp://localhost/var/www/apps/conversion/tmp/scratch_3/wiki/Man_of_Sorrowshttp://localhost/var/www/apps/conversion/tmp/scratch_3/wiki/Museum_Catharijneconventhttp://localhost/var/www/apps/conversion/tmp/scratch_3/wiki/Man_of_Sorrows_(Geertgen_tot_Sint_Jans)http://localhost/var/www/apps/conversion/tmp/scratch_3/wiki/Geertgen_tot_Sint_Janshttp://localhost/var/www/apps/conversion/tmp/scratch_3/wiki/File:Geertgen_Man_van_smarten.jpghttp://localhost/var/www/apps/conversion/tmp/scratch_3/wiki/Saint_Lukehttp://localhost/var/www/apps/conversion/tmp/scratch_3/wiki/Byzantine_arthttp://localhost/var/www/apps/conversion/tmp/scratch_3/wiki/Cambrai_Cathedralhttp://localhost/var/www/apps/conversion/tmp/scratch_3/wiki/Cambrai_Madonnahttp://localhost/var/www/apps/conversion/tmp/scratch_3/wiki/File:Cambrai,_Cath%C3%A9drale_Notre-Dame_de_Gr%C3%A2ce,_ic%C3%B4ne_F_581.jpghttp://localhost/var/www/apps/conversion/tmp/scratch_3/wiki/Niche_(architecture)http://localhost/var/www/apps/conversion/tmp/scratch_3/wiki/Lucca_Madonnahttp://localhost/var/www/apps/conversion/tmp/scratch_3/wiki/National_Galleryhttp://localhost/var/www/apps/conversion/tmp/scratch_3/wiki/The_Magdalen_Readinghttp://localhost/var/www/apps/conversion/tmp/scratch_3/wiki/Rogier_van_der_Weydenhttp://localhost/var/www/apps/conversion/tmp/scratch_3/wiki/File:The_Magdalen_Reading_-_Rogier_van_der_Weyden.jpghttp://localhost/var/www/apps/conversion/tmp/scratch_3/wiki/File:The_Magdalen_Reading_-_Rogier_van_der_Weyden.jpghttp://localhost/var/www/apps/conversion/tmp/scratch_3/wiki/Life_of_the_Virginhttp://localhost/var/www/apps/conversion/tmp/scratch_3/w/index.php?title=Early_Netherlandish_painting&action=edit&section=6http://localhost/var/www/apps/conversion/tmp/scratch_3/wiki/Petrus_Christushttp://localhost/var/www/apps/conversion/tmp/scratch_3/wiki/Old_St._John%27s_Hospitalhttp://localhost/var/www/apps/conversion/tmp/scratch_3/wiki/St_John_Altarpiece_(Memling)http://localhost/var/www/apps/conversion/tmp/scratch_3//commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:David_Diptych_The_Judgment_of_Cambyses.jpghttp://localhost/var/www/apps/conversion/tmp/scratch_3/wiki/The_Justice_of_Trajan_and_Herkinbaldhttp://localhost/var/www/apps/conversion/tmp/scratch_3//commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Dirk_Bouts_-_Justice_of_Emperor_Otto_III-_Beheading_of_the_Innocent_Count_and_Ordeal_by_Fire_-_Google_Art_Project.jpghttp://localhost/var/www/apps/conversion/tmp/scratch_3/wiki/Annunciation_(van_Eyck,_Washington)http://localhost/var/www/apps/conversion/tmp/scratch_3/wiki/John,_Duke_of_Berryhttp://localhost/var/www/apps/conversion/tmp/scratch_3/wiki/Royal_Library_of_Belgiumhttp://localhost/var/www/apps/conversion/tmp/scratch_3/wiki/Jean_Wauquelin_presenting_his_%27Chroniques_de_Hainaut%27_to_Philip_the_Goodhttp://localhost/var/www/apps/conversion/tmp/scratch_3/wiki/File:Jacques_de_Guise,_Chroniques_de_Hainaut,_frontispiece,_KBR_9242.jpghttp://localhost/var/www/apps/conversion/tmp/scratch_3/wiki/File:Jacques_de_Guise,_Chroniques_de_Hainaut,_frontispiece,_KBR_9242.jpghttp://localhost/var/www/apps/conversion/tmp/scratch_3/wiki/Saint_Luke_Drawing_the_Virginhttp://localhost/var/www/apps/conversion/tmp/scratch_3/wiki/Glue-sizehttp://localhost/var/www/apps/conversion/tmp/scratch_3/wiki/Art_dealerhttp://localhost/var/www/apps/conversion/tmp/scratch_3/wiki/Iberian_Peninsulahttp://localhost/var/www/apps/conversion/tmp/scratch_3/wiki/Baltic_Seahttp://localhost/var/www/apps/conversion/tmp/scratch_3/wiki/Gothic_architecturehttp://localhost/var/www/apps/conversion/tmp/scratch_3/wiki/Romanesque_architecturehttp://localhost/var/www/apps/conversion/tmp/scratch_3/wiki/National_Gallery_of_Arthttp://localhost/var/www/apps/conversion/tmp/scratch_3/wiki/Annunciation_(van_Eyck,_Washington)http://localhost/var/www/apps/conversion/tmp/scratch_3/wiki/File:Annunciation_-_Jan_van_Eyck_-_1434_-_NG_Wash_DC.jpghttp://localhost/var/www/apps/conversion/tmp/scratch_3/wiki/File:Annunciation_-_Jan_van_Eyck_-_1434_-_NG_Wash_DC.jpghttp://localhost/var/www/apps/conversion/tmp/scratch_3/w/index.php?title=Early_Netherlandish_painting&action=edit&section=5http://localhost/var/www/apps/conversion/tmp/scratch_3/wiki/Underdrawinghttp://localhost/var/www/apps/conversion/tmp/scratch_3/wiki/Deesishttp://localhost/var/www/apps/conversion/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Master of Girart de Rouss illon,

c. 1450, Burgundian wedding (Philip

the Good and Isabella of Portugal).

Austrian National Library, Vienna

Barthlemy d'Eyck's chivalrous and romantic leaf from

his "Livre du cur d'Amour pris", c. 145860

Limbourg brothers, The Death of

Christ, folio 153r, Trs Riches Heures

du Duc de Berry.

"The Mystic Capture of the

Unicorn", fragment from The Hunt of

the Unicorn, 14951505. The

Cloisters, New York

Unknown Flemish weaver,Tapestry with Scenes

from the Passion of Christ, c. 147090. Rijksmuseum,

Amsterdam

Formats [edit]

Although the Netherlandish artists are primarily known for their panel paintings, their output includes a variety of formats, including illuminated manuscripts, sculpture, tapestries, carvedretables, stained glass, brass

objects and carved tombs.[98]According to art historian Susie Nash, by the early 16th century the region led the field in almost every aspect of portable visual culture, "with specialist expertise and techniques of

production at such a high level that no one else could compete with them".[98]The Burgundian court favoured tapestry and metalwork, which are well recorded in surviving documentation, while demand for panel paintings

is less evident[72] they may have been less suited to itinerant courts. Wall hangings and books functioned as political propaganda and as a means to showcase wealth and power, whereas portraits were less favoured.

According to Maryan Ainsworth, those that were commissioned functioned to highlight lines of succession, such as van der Weyden's portraitof Charles the Bold; or for betrothals as in the case of van Eyck's lost Portrait

of Isabella of Portugal.[99]

Religious paintings were commissioned for royal and ducal palaces, for churches, hospitals, and convents, and for wealthy clerics and private donors. The richer cities and towns commissioned works for their civic

buildings.[72]Artists often worked in more than one medium; van Eyck and Petrus Christus are both thought to have contributed to manuscripts. Van der Weyden designed tapestries, though few survive.[100][101]The

Netherlandish painters were responsible for many innovations, including the advancement of the diptych format, the conventions of donor portraits, new conventions for Marian portraits, and, thr ough works such as van

Eyck's Madonna of Chancellor Rolinand van der Weyden's Saint Luke Drawing the Virginin the 1430s, laying the foundation for the development of landscape paintingas a separate genre.[102]

Illuminated manuscript [edit]

Before the mid-1400s illuminated books were considered a higher form of art than panel painting, and their ornate and luxurious qualities better reflected the wealth, status and

taste of their owners.[103]Manuscripts were ideally suited as diplomatic giftsor offerings to commemorate dynastic marriages or other major courtly occasions.[104]From the 12th

century specialist monastery-based workshops (in French libraires) produced books of hours(collections of prayers to be said at canonical hours), psalters, prayer books and

histories, as well as romance and poetry books. At the start of the 15th century Gothic manuscripts from Paris dominated the northern European market. Their popularity was in part

due to the production of more affordable, single leaf miniatures which could be inserted into unillustrated books of hours. These were at times offered in a serial manner designed

to encourage patrons to "include as many pictures as they could afford", which clearly presented them as an item of fashion but also as for m of indulgence. The single leaves had

other uses rather than inserts; they could be attached to walls as aids to private meditation and prayer, [105]as seen in Christus' 145060 panel Portrait of a Young Man, now in the

National Gallery, which shows a small leaf with text to the Vera iconillustrated with the head of Christ.[106]The French artists were overtaken in importance from the mid-15th

century by masters in Ghent, Bruges and Utrecht. English production, once of the highest quality, had greatly declined and relatively few Italian manuscripts went north of the Alps.

The French masters did not give up their position easily however, and even in 1463 were urging their guilds to impose sanctions on the Netherlandish artists.[105]

The Dutch Limbourg brothers's ornate Trs Riches Heures du Duc de Berryperhaps marks both the beginning and a highpoint of Netherlandish illumination. Later the Master of

the Legend of Saint Lucyexplored the same mix of illusionism and realism.[22]The Limbourgs' career ended just as van Eyck's began by 1416 all the brothers (none of whom had

reached 30) and their patron Jean, Duke of Berry were dead, most likely from plague.[22]Van Eyck is thought to have contributed several of the more acclaimed miniaturesof the

Turin-Milan Hours as the anonymous artist known as Hand G. [107]A number of illustrations from the period show a strong stylistic resemblance to Gerard David, though it is unclear

whether they are from his hands or those of followers.[108]

A number of factors led to the popularity of Netherlandish illuminators. Primary was the tradition and expertise that

developed in the region in the centuries following the monastic reform of the 14th century, building on the growth in number

and prominence of monasteries, abbeys and churches from the 12th century that had already produced significant numbers

of liturgical texts.[105]There was a strong political aspect; the form had many influential patrons such as Jean, Duke of Berry

and Philip the Good, the latter of whom collected more than a thousand illuminated books before his death. [109]According to Thomas Kren, Philip's "library was an

expression of the man as a Christian prince, and an embodiment of the state his politics and authority, his learning and piety".[110]Because of his patronage the

manuscript industry in the Lowlands grew so that it dominated Europe for several generations. The Burgundian book-collecting tradition passed to Philip's son and

his wife, Charles the Bold and Margaret of York; his granddaughter Mary of Burgundyand her husband Maximilian I; and to his son-in-law, Edward IV, who was an

avid collector of Flemish manuscripts. The libraries left by Philip and Edward IV formed the nucleus from which sprang the Royal Library of Belgiumand the English

Royal Library.[111]

Netherlandish illuminators had an important export market, designing many works specifically for the English market. Following a decline in domestic patronage after

Charles the Bold died in 1477, the export market became more important. Illuminators responded to differences in taste by producing more lavish and extravagantly

decorated works tailored for foreign elites, including Edward IV of England, James IV of Scotlandand Eleanor of Viseu.[112]

There was considerable overlap between panel painting and illumination; van Eyck, van der Weyden, Christus and other

painters designed manuscript miniatures. In addition, miniaturists would borrow motifs and ideas from panel paintings;

Campin's work was often used as a source in this way, for example in the "Hours of Raoul d'Ailly". [113]Commissions were

often shared between several masters, with junior painters or specialists assisting, especially with details such as the border

decorations, these last often done by women.[105]The masters rarely signed their work, making attribution difficult; the

identities of some of the more significant illuminators are lost.[110][114]

Netherlandish artists found increasingly inventive ways to highlight and differentiate their work from manuscripts from

surrounding countries; such techniques included designing elaborate page borders and devising ways to relate scale and

space. They explored the interplay between the three essential components of a manuscript: border, miniature and text.[115]An example is the Nassau book of hours(c. 146780)

by the Vienna Master of Mary of Burgundy, in which the borders are decorated with large illusionistic flowers and insects. These elements achieved their effect by being broadly

painted, as if scattered across the gilded surface of the miniatures. This technique was continued by, among others, the Flemish Master of James IV of Scotland(possibly Gerard

Horenbout),[116]known for his innovative page layout. Using various illusionistic elements, he often blurred the line between the miniature and its border, frequently using both in his

efforts to advance the narrative of his scenes.[22]

During the early-19th-century collecting cut-out 15th and 16th century Netherlandish miniatures or par ts of them in albums became fashionable amongst connoisseurs such as

William Young Ottley, leading to the destruction of many manuscripts. Originals were highly sought after, a revival that helped the rediscovery of Netherlandish art in the later part of

the century.[117]

See also: Ghent-Bruges school

Tapestry [edit]

During the mid-15th century tapestrywas one of the most expensive and prized artistic products in Europe. Commercial production proliferated across the Netherlands and northern

France from the ear ly 1400s, especially in the cities ofArras, Bruges and Tournai. The perceived technical ability of these artisans was such that, in 1517, Pope Julius IIsent

Raphael's cartoonsto Brussels to be woven into hangings.[118]Such woven wall hangings played a central political role as diplomatic gifts, especially in their larger format; Philip the

Good gifted several to participants at the Congress of Arrasin 1435,[98]where the halls were draped from top to bottom and all around ( tout autour) with tapestries showing scenes of

the "Battle and Overthrow of People of Liege". [119]At Charles the Bold and Margaret of York's wedding the room "was hung above with draperies of wool, blue and white, and on the

sides was tapestried with a rich tapestry woven with the history of Jason and the Golden Fleece". Rooms typically were hung from ceiling to floor with tapestries and some rooms

named for a set of tapestries, such as a chamber Philip the Bold named for a set of white tapestries with scenes from The Romance of the Rose.[119]For about two centuries, during

the Burgundian period, master weavers produced "innumerable series of hangings heavy with gold and silver thread, the like of which the world had never seen."[120]

The practical use of textiles results from their portability; tapestries provided easily assembled interior decorations suited to religious or civic ceremonies.[121]Their value is reflected in

their positioning in contemporary inventories, in which they are typically found at the top of the record, then r anked in accordance with their material or colouring. White and gold were

considered of the highest quality. Charles V of Francehad 57 tapestries, of which 16 were white. Jean de Berryowned 19, while Mary of Burgundy, Isabella of Valois, Isabeau of

Bavariaand Philip the Good all held substantial collections.[122]

Tapestry production began with design.[123]The designs, or cartoonswere typically executed on paper or parchment, put together by qualified painters, then sent to weavers, often

across a great distance. Because cartoons could be re-used, craftsmen often worked on source material that was decades old. As both paper and parchment are highly perishable,

few of the original cartoons survive.[124]Once a design was agreed upon its production might be farmed out among many weavers. Looms were active in all the major Flemish cities, in

most of the towns and in many of the villages. [123]

Looms were not controlled by the guilds. Dependent on a migrant workforce, their commercial activity was driven by entrepreneurs,

who were usually painters. The entrepreneur would locate and commission patrons, hold a stock of cartoons and provide raw

materials such as wool, silk, and sometimes gold and silver which often had to be imported. [125]The entrepreneur was in direct

contact with the patron, and they would often go through the nuances of the design at both the cartoon and final stages. This

examination was often a difficult business and necessitated delicate management; in 1400 Isabeau of Bavaria rejected a completed

set by Colart de Laon[123]having earlier approved the designs, to de Laon's and presumably his commissioner's considerable

embarrassment. [124]

Because tapestries were designed largely by painters, their formal conventions are closely aligned with the conventions of panel

painting. This is especially true with the later generations of 16th-century painters who produced panoramas of heaven and hell.Harbison describes how the intricate, dense and overlaid detail of Bosch's Garden of Earthly Delightsresembles, "in its precise

symbolism ... a medieval tapestry".[126]

Triptychs and altarpieces [edit]

Northern triptychs[E]and polyptychswere popular across Europe from the late 14th century, with the peak of demand lasting until the early 1500s. During the 1400s they were the most widely produced format of northern

panel painting. Preoccupied with religious subject matter, they come in two broad types: smaller, portable private devotional works, or larger altarpieces for liturgicalsettings.[127]The earliest northern examples are

http://www.web2pdfconvert.com/?ref=PDFhttp://www.web2pdfconvert.com/?ref=PDFhttp://localhost/var/www/apps/conversion/tmp/scratch_3/wiki/Liturgyhttp://localhost/var/www/apps/conversion/tmp/scratch_3/wiki/Polyptychhttp://localhost/var/www/apps/conversion/tmp/scratch_3/wiki/Triptychhttp://localhost/var/www/apps/conversion/tmp/scratch_3/w/index.php?title=Early_Netherlandish_painting&action=edit&section=10http://localhost/var/www/apps/conversion/tmp/scratch_3/wiki/Garden_of_Earthly_Delightshttp://localhost/var/www/apps/conversion/tmp/scratch_3/w/index.php?title=Colart_de_Laon&action=edit&redlink=1http://localhost/var/www/apps/conversion/tmp/scratch_3/wiki/File:Tapestry_with_Scenes_from_the_Passion_of_Christ.jpghttp://localhost/var/www/apps/conversion/tmp/scratch_3/wiki/File:Tapestry_with_Scenes_from_the_Passion_of_Christ.jpghttp://localhost/var/www/apps/conversion/tmp/scratch_3/wiki/Cartoon#Fine_arthttp://localhost/var/www/apps/conversion/tmp/scratch_3/wiki/Isabeau_of_Bavariahttp://localhost/var/www/apps/conversion/tmp/scratch_3/wiki/Isabella_of_Valoishttp://localhost/var/www/apps/conversion/tmp/scratch_3/wiki/Mary_of_Burgundyhttp://localhost/var/www/apps/conversion/tmp/scratch_3/wiki/John,_Duke_of_Berryhttp://localhost/var/www/apps/conversion/tmp/scratch_3/wiki/Charles_V_of_Francehttp://localhost/var/www/apps/conversion/tmp/scratch_3/wiki/Roman_de_la_Rosehttp://localhost/var/www/apps/conversion/tmp/scratch_3/wiki/Congress_of_Arrashttp://localhost/var/www/apps/conversion/tmp/scratch_3/wiki/Raphael_Cartoonshttp://localhost/var/www/apps/conversion/tmp/scratch_3/wiki/Raphaelhttp://localhost/var/www/apps/conversion/tmp/scratch_3/wiki/Pope_Julius_IIhttp://localhost/var/www/apps/conversion/tmp/scratch_3/wiki/Tournaihttp://localhost/var/www/apps/conversion/tmp/scratch_3/wiki/Arrashttp://localhost/var/www/apps/conversion/tmp/scratch_3/wiki/Tapestryhttp://localhost/var/www/apps/conversion/tmp/scratch_3/wiki/The_Cloistershttp://localhost/var/www/apps/conversion/tmp/scratch_3/wiki/The_Hunt_of_the_Unicornhttp://localhost/var/www/apps/conversion/tmp/scratch_3/wiki/File:The_Mystic_Capture_of_the_Unicorn,_fragment_(2).jpghttp://localhost/var/www/apps/conversion/tmp/scratch_3/wiki/File:The_Mystic_Capture_of_the_Unicorn,_fragment_(2).jpghttp://localhost/var/www/apps/conversion/tmp/scratch_3/w/index.php?title=Early_Netherlandish_painting&action=edit&section=9http://localhost/var/www/apps/conversion/tmp/scratch_3/wiki/Ghent-Bruges_schoolhttp://localhost/var/www/apps/conversion/tmp/scratch_3/wiki/William_Young_Ottleyhttp://localhost/var/www/apps/conversion/tmp/scratch_3/wiki/Gerard_Horenbouthttp://localhost/var/www/apps/conversion/tmp/scratch_3/wiki/Master_of_James_IV_of_Scotlandhttp://localhost/var/www/apps/conversion/tmp/scratch_3/w/index.php?title=Vienna_Master_of_Mary_of_Burgundy&action=edit&redlink=1http://localhost/var/www/apps/conversion/tmp/scratch_3/wiki/Hours_of_Mary_of_Burgundyhttp://localhost/var/www/apps/conversion/tmp/scratch_3/wiki/Tr%C3%A8s_Riches_Heures_du_Duc_de_Berryhttp://localhost/var/www/apps/conversion/tmp/scratch_3/wiki/File:Folio_153r_-_The_Death_of_Christ.jpghttp://localhost/var/www/apps/conversion/tmp/scratch_3/wiki/File:Folio_153r_-_The_Death_of_Christ.jpghttp://localhost/var/www/apps/conversion/tmp/scratch_3/wiki/Eleanor_of_Viseuhttp://localhost/var/www/apps/conversion/tmp/scratch_3/wiki/James_IV_of_Scotlandhttp://localhost/var/www/apps/conversion/tmp/scratch_3/wiki/Royal_manuscripts,_British_Libraryhttp://localhost/var/www/apps/conversion/tmp/scratch_3/wiki/Royal_Library_of_Belgiumhttp://localhost/var/www/apps/conversion/tmp/scratch_3/wiki/Edward_IV_of_Englandhttp://localhost/var/www/apps/conversion/tmp/scratch_3/wiki/Maximilian_I,_Holy_Roman_Emperorhttp://localhost/var/www/apps/conversion/tmp/scratch_3/wiki/Mary_of_Burgundyhttp://localhost/var/www/apps/conversion/tmp/scratch_3/wiki/Margaret_of_Yorkhttp://localhost/var/www/apps/conversion/tmp/scratch_3/wiki/Liturgical_bookhttp://localhost/var/www/apps/conversion/tmp/scratch_3/wiki/Barth%C3%A9lemy_d%27Eyckhttp://localhost/var/www/apps/conversion/tmp/scratch_3/wiki/File:Livre_du_c%C5%93ur_d%27amour_%C3%A9pris_-_vindobo2597_-_f25v.jpghttp://localhost/var/www/apps/conversion/tmp/scratch_3/wiki/File:Livre_du_c%C5%93ur_d%27amour_%C3%A9pris_-_vindobo2597_-_f25v.jpghttp://localhost/var/www/apps/conversion/tmp/scratch_3/wiki/Miniature_(illuminated_manuscript)http://localhost/var/www/apps/conversion/tmp/scratch_3/wiki/Black_deathhttp://localhost/var/www/apps/conversion/tmp/scratch_3/wiki/Master_of_the_Legend_of_Saint_Lucyhttp://localhost/var/www/apps/conversion/tmp/scratch_3/wiki/Tr%C3%A8s_Riches_Heures_du_Duc_de_Berryhttp://localhost/var/www/apps/conversion/tmp/scratch_3/wiki/Limbourg_brothershttp://localhost/var/www/apps/conversion/tmp/scratch_3/wiki/Utrechthttp://localhost/var/www/apps/conversion/tmp/scratch_3/wiki/Veil_of_Veronicahttp://localhost/var/www/apps/conversion/tmp/scratch_3/wiki/National_Galleryhttp://localhost/var/www/apps/conversion/tmp/scratch_3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Rogier van der Weyden, Braque Triptych, c. 1452. Oil on oak panels. Muse du Louvre, Paris. This

triptych is noted for the floating inscriptions and speech balloonstretching from panel to panel, and for

the landscape uniting the panels.[128]

Hieronymus Bosch,The Hermit Saints

, c. 1493. Doge's Palace, Venice

Dieric Bouts, Mater Dolorosa/Ecce Homo, after

1450, a rare example of a s urviving diptych with intact

frame and hinges

Hugo van der Goes, Portrait of a Man,c. 1480. Metropolitan Museum of Art, New

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