EXERCISE NO. 1

The Compound Microscope

Parts FunctionsBase Bottom most part that

supports the entire microscope

Pillar Part above the base that supports other parts

Inclination Joint Allows microscope to tilt/straighten

ArmCoarse Adjustment Knob

Large knob used for focusing the specimen

Fine Adjustment Knob Small knob for fine-tuning the focus

Body Tube Attached to the arm, holds the eye piece

Draw Tube Holds ocular lensesRevolving Nose Piece Where objectives are

attached toOBJECTIVES

1. Scanning2. MPO3. HPO4. Oil Immersion

1) 4x, shortest tube

2) 10x3) 40x4) 100x, the

longest tubeEye Piece/ Ocular Part where the

observer looks at the specimen

Dust Shield Protects objectives from foreign objects

Stage PlatformStage Clips Holds slideILLUMINATING PARTS

1. Illuminator2. Condenser 3. Iris Diaphragm

1) Light-source2) Controls &

concentrate light to the specimen

3) Regulates amount of light

N.B. The newer models have no INCLINATION JOINTS

QUESTIONS:

1. What is the microscope? An optical instrument used for viewing

very small objects, such as mineral samples or animal or plant cells, typically magnified several hundred times.

2. Name (3) Biologists who employed the microscope in their work. Describe briefly their work to zoology. Malpighi Anton Van Leeuwenhoek Robert Hooke

EXERCISE NO. 3

MAGNIFICATION

QUESTIONS:

1. What is magnification?- The act making something look larger than it is.

N.B – Total Magnification=multiplication power of the ocular x Objective

OBJCTV 4x 10x 15x 40x 60x5x 20x 50x 75x 200x 300x

10x 40x 100x 150x 400x 600x15x 60x 150x 225 600x 900x

EXERCISE NO. 4

THE ANIMAL CELL

QUESTIONS:

1. What parts of the animal cell were common to the paramecium and the squamous cell as observed under HPO?

- Nucleus and cytoplasm.

PLANT ANIMALCell Wall Made of

celluloseabsent

Plastids Present AbsentVacuoles Present,

stores vitamins

Small transportation

Nucleus Located at the side

Center

Locomotion No movement

Yes

Shape Rectangular Round & Irregular

Structure Rigid Lack RigidityCell Division Daughter

cells separated in cell plate

Daughter cells separate in cleavage furrow

Chloroplasts Present AbsentLysosome Absent Present, in

cytoplasmCilia Very rare Present

Comes in various size and tend to have different shapes

Not in Plant cells Not in Animal CellsLysosome Cell WallCentrioles VacuoleCilia PlastidsFlagella

A. ANIMAL CELLS PARTS1. Cell membrane

- Fluid mosaic lipid bilayer studded with proteins.- Integral protein, CHO acts as a door.- allows communication b/w cells.

2. Cytoplasm- consists of all cellular organelles.- Responsible for cell division.a. Cytosol- fluid portion of the

cytoplasm. Transports proteins.

b. Cytoskeleton- Maintains shape.3. Nucleus

- encloses genetic material.- Brain of the cell.

-Houses chromosomes – made up of chromatins.

Nuclear Pores- allow substances to pass & communicate with the cytoplasm.

Nuclear Envelope (ENDOMEMBRANE SYSTEM) - double membrane that surrounds it.

Nuclear Lamina- a net like array of protein filaments that maintains the shape of the nucleus.

Nucleolus- makes ribosomes. 4. Mitochondria

-“Power house of the cell”-has its own DNA-Thread granuleGenerates brown fat-used in hibernation.-converts chemical energy to ATP-double membrane.-divides by binary fission.-synthesis, modification and breakdown of cellular molecules. - Cellular Respiration-exchange of gases.-synthesis of hormones.

5. Ribosomes -Contains RNA & Proteins – from amino acids.-Protein Synthesis.-Assembles proteins.-free & bound ribosomes.

6. Endoplasmic Reticulum-works on proteins.-double sac.-closer to nucleus.-makes membranes.a. Rough ER-glycosylation glycoproteins-aids in the synthesis of secretory and other proteins.b. Smooth ER

- Synthesis of lipids, metabolism of CHO.-accumulates calcium ions transports to ER lumen.c. Transitional ER-transports vesicles to rough ER.

7. Golgi Apparatus- Consists of Cisternae -Membranous

network of flattened sacs.- Continues glycosylation.- Sorts, modifies, packages &

transports macromolecules.- Camillo Golgi.- Proteolysis

3 COMPARTMENTS:1. Cis2. Medial3. Trans

8. Lysosome- Single internal membrane.- Phagocytosis-engulfing smaller

organisms.- AUTOPHAGY - Suicidal bodies

-intracellular digestion.

EXERCISE NO. 5

ANIMAL CELL DIVERITY AS TO CELL SHAPE

OOGONIA- immature cells

OOCYTES- maturing egg cells

Located at the Graafian Follicles LACUNAE – minute spaces

Spider-like/Web-likeStellate (neurons) Gray matterIrregular No definite

cell form, but do not have the ability to change shape/form.

Amorphous No specific form, but can change in form

Flagellated With thread like tails (For locomotion)

Fusiform Narrow with tapered ends

Filamentous Broader with blunt ends

Cell Shape FunctionSperm cell Flagellated LocomotionOvum Spherical ReproductionAmoeba Amorphous LocomotionIntestinal lining Columnar AbsorptionSmooth muscle Fusiform Slow

contractionSkeletal Muscle Cylindrical Rapid actionSpinal Cord Stellate Transmission

of impulsesBone Web-like SupportHuman RBC Circular &

biconcave (not nucleated

Transport of gases. (cellular respiration)

Trachea Columnar SupportLiver Polygonal Storage and

ExcretionKidney Cuboidal ExcretionFrog chrompatophores

Irregular Pigmentation

Palm Skin Flat Protection

DUODENUM

-part of small intestine

-Blank spaces- goblet cells

SKELETAL MUSCLE

-there are striations

FROG SPINAL BONE- 1 circle = Haversian System/System- Where blood vessels are contained

= Haversian canal / Central Canal.- Rings are lamellae.

ACTIVITY NO. 6

CELL DIVISION

A. Reasons for Cell Division1. Growth2. Repair and replacement of damaged

cells.3. Reproduction of species

B. Types of Cell Division1. Amitosis

- Direct nuclear Division2. Mitosis

- To produce two identical cells.

GENERAL SCHEME

- DNA duplicates to produce 2 sister chromatids.

- Chromosomes attach to the spindle and separate.

- Makes 2 identical cells that are diploid.

MITOSIS

a. Interphase The cell obtains nutrients and

metabolizes them, grows, reads its DNA, and conducts other "normal" cell functions.

b. Prophase- The chromosomes supercoil and the fibers of the spindle apparatus begin to form between centrosomes located at the pole of the cells.

EARLY PROPHASE & LATE PROPHASE

c. Metaphase

The condensed sister chromatids are moved to the middle of the nuclear region to form a metaphasic plate.

d. ANAPHASE- The single centromere that has heldThe two chromatids together now splits.

EARLY ANAPHASE (8)

- The chromosomes move toward their respective poles, pulled by the kinetochore fibers.

LATE ANAPHASE (9)

- The centrosomes move farther apart.

e. TELOPHASE- Spindle fibers disappear and chromosomes lose their identity.

EARLY TELOPHASE

AMITOSIS- meiosis SEXUAL

MITOSIS- ASEXUAL reproduction

AMITOTIC- reproduction of cells.

Ex. Egg cells, sperm cells, germ cells.

MIOTIC- slower ex. Skin

MEOTIC-happens in 48 hours, 4 daughter cells.

EXERCISE NO. 7

PHYSIOLOGICAL ACTIVITIES OF CELLS

A. PASSIVE TRANSPORT-HIGH LOW CONCENTRATION-molecules move RANDOMLY.a) DIFFUSION

-random mixing of particles that occurs in a solution.- Both the solute and the solvent undergo diffusion-HIGH LOW concentration-Equilibrium is reached when the molecules are evenly distributed throughout the solution. FACTORS AFFECTING DIFFUSION1. Steepness of concentration gradient2. Temperature3. Size or Mass of diffusing substance4. Surface area5. Diffusion distance

b) OSMOSIS-Diffusion of water through a selectively permeable membrane.- HIGH LOW concentration.

c) FACILITATED DIFFUSION-diffusion with the help of transport proteins.-specific, transports larger molecules-HIGH LOW concentration

B. ACTIVE TRANSPORT-pumping of molecules (Protein pumps) against their concentration gradient.Ex. Sodium Pumps -LOW HIGH CONCENTRATIONa) ENDOCYTOSIS

- Taking BULKY material into a cell.- Uses energy- “Cell eating”- Forms food vacuole & digests food.- Ex. WBC eating bacteria.

b) EXOCYTOSIS- FORCES material OUT of the cell.

- Ex. When cell changes shape (happens in vesicles).

C. HYPOTONIC SOLUTION- Low solute; High water

RESULT:

- Cytolysis (Cells swell and bursts open)

D. HYPERTONIC SOLUTION- Low water; High solute

RESULT:

- Plasmolysis (Cells shrinks)E. ISOTONIC SOLUTION

- SOLVENT = SOLUTE

RESULT:

- Homeostasis- Dynamic Equilibrium

EXERCISE NO. 8

EPITHELIAL TISSUES

EPITHILIUM

- Cellular layer- Cells compactly arranged bound

together by a very little quantity of matrix or intercellular fluid.

- Lies above basement membrane- AVASCULAR

CLASSIFICATION

A. SIMPLE/ NON- STRATIFIEDB. STRATIFIEDC. PSEUDOSTRATIFIED

-“Pseudo”- false.TYPES

A. CUBOIDAL – cube shapedB. COLUMNAR - rectangularC. SQUAMOUS – flatD. TRANSITIONAL- changes shape

TYPES ACCORDING TO LAYERS AND CELLS

1) SQUAMOUS Simple – blood vessels and arteries Stratified – Skin, Esophagus, Anus, and

Vagina.2) CUBOIDAL Simple – kidney and surface of the ovary Stratified – ducts of adult sweat gland3) COLUMNAR Non-Ciliated Simple – gastro intestinal

track, ducts of glands, gallbladder. Ciliated Simple- upper respiratory track,

uterine tubes, uterus, spinal cord. Stratified- part of urethra, ducts of some

glands Pseudostratified- upper respiratory track,

epididymis 4) TRANSITIONAL Urinary bladder, ureter, urethra.

Location FunctionSkin, blood vessels.

Allows materials to pass. Secretes lubrication substance.

Liver and in kidney tubules.

Secretes and absorbs.

Ciliated- uterine tubes, uterus.Non- Ciliated- small intestine, bladder.

Absorbs; also secretes mucus and enzymes.

Trachea & upper respiratory tracks

Secretes mucus, moves mucus

Esophagus, mouth, vagina

Protects against abrasions

Sweat glands, salivary glands, mammary glands

Protective tissue

Urethra, some glands

Secretes and protects

Linings of urethra, bladder, ureters

Allows urinary organs to expand and stretch

EXERCISE NO. 9

CONNECTIVE TISSUE

A. CHARACTERISTICS- From undifferentiated

mesenchymal cells- Extracellular matrix of fibers and

ground substance.- VASCULAR- Below basement membrane- Support and binding organs

together.

TWO BASIC ELEMENTS:

1) CELLS2) MATRIX

a) Ground Substanceb) Fibers

THREE TYPES OF FIBERS:

A. COLLAGEN- Occurs in bundles

- Found in bone, cartilage, tendons and ligaments.

B. RETICULAR- Finer than collagen- Support the walls of blood vessels,

nerve fibers, and skeletal and smooth muscles.

C. ELASTIC- May be arranged in fiber or

discontinuous sheets- Found in the ligaments of the skin,

blood vessel walls, lung tissues.

TYPES OF CONNECTIVE TISSUES:

1) RETICUAR2) ADIPOSE3) ELASTIC4) FIBROUS

-Dense fibrous/ fibrous CT – tendon-Loose fibrous areolar

EXERCISE 10SUPPORTIVE TISSUE

A. CHARACTERISTICS-provides supporting framework to the body.- Exhibit increased amount of matrix-cells are contained in tiny spaces or LACUNAE- includes CATRILLAGES and BONES.

B. CARTILLAGE- Dense and firm tissue- Resists TENSION and COMPRESSION- Lots of collagen and elastic fibers- No nerves or blood vessels- High content of PROTEOGLYCANS

(flexible) 80% water.- Chondroblasts makes matrix until

end of human adolescence.- LACUNAE – mature chondrocytes.

-SUPPORT AND REPAIR – hematopoiesis

C. TYPES OF CARTILLGE1) HYALINE

-above collagen-no fibers-Glassy, resists dye-few chondrocytes, all found in LACUNAE-Reduce, FRICTION; Absorbs, PRESSURE- flexible-covers END of long bonesPerichondrium – surrounds the cartilage.

2) ELASTIC -more elastic-almost identical to hyaline.-Matrix appears more fibrous –pleripherated -More lacunae, closely spaced- found in ear, auditory tube, epiglottis

- Gives support, maintains shape, allows flexibility.

HYALINE VS ELASTIC

E – Intermediate size thickness

H- less fibrous than E.

3) FIBROCARTILLAGE- Tough binding tissue- ROWS of chondoytes and collagen

fibers- Compressible and RESISTS tension.- Found in intervertebral discs.

D. BONE (OSSEOUS TISSUE)-most supportive tissue-more collagen surrounded by calcium salts- well VACULARIZED -Osteocytes stored in lacunae- bone marrow stores fat and makes blood cells.-Matrix is known as LLAMELAE HAVERSIAN SYSTEM = 1 circleHAVERSIAN CANAL =where blood vessels are locatedOSTEOCYTE-CANALICULI- webs connected to osteocyte. VOLKMANN CANAL- transmit blood vessels from the periosteum into the bone and that communicate with the Haversian canals.