BIO 11 Lab: ZOOLOGY(Notes for 3rd Long Exam)

Chi Peñaranda2nd Semester SY 2009-2010

Forms the outer coverings and inner linings of

the body surfaces

Has tightly packed cells with very little

intercellular material

For protection, selective absorption, and

secretion

A. Covering and lining epithelial membranes:

1. Squamous epithelium – ‘like floor tiles’; flattened cells; thin

and leaky

e.g., lining of blood vessels and air sacs of lungs

2. Cuboidal epithelium – ‘like dice’

e.g., epithelium of kidney tubules and many glands; bile ducts

3. Columnar epithelium – ‘like bricks’

e.g., lining of the intestine

4. Ciliated epithelium – with cilia

e.g., lining of the upper respiratory tract

Squamous

Ciliated

Cuboidal

Columnar

B. Glandular epithelium – specialized for production of

secretory substances

2. multicellular glands – surface epithelia that grew inward or

became infolded; for large amounts of secretions

Simple: cutaneous gland; gastric gland

Compound: salivary gland; mammary gland; exocrine (with

ducts) and endocrine (ductless) glands

1. unicellular glands

e.g., goblet cells in the lining of the

intestine (and respiratory tracts) –

secretes mucin (becomes mucus

when dissolved in water) which has

protective function against infectious

agents and toxins

Goblet cell: intestine slide

specialized for movement

Terminology:

1. Muscle fibers – muscle cells (long, spindle-shaped

thread-like structures) with oval-shaped nuclei

2. Sarcoplasm – muscle cell cytoplasm

3. Sarcolemma – muscle cell membrane

4. Myofibrils – contractile element of muscle cells

5. Myofilaments – finer filaments within myofiblrils made up

of proteins actin (thin filaments) and myosin (thick

filaments)

1. Nonstriated (smooth) muscles

- found in the visceral organs except the heart

- are involuntary muscles

2. Skeletal muscles

- striated, voluntary

- muscles that are attached to the bones

- characterized by the presence of dark bands (anistropic or A-discs) and light bands (isotropic or I-discs)

- has multinucleated condition or syncytium (occurs when cell divides without undergoing cytokinesis)

3. Cardiac or Heart mucles

- striated, involuntary

- has functional syncytium (but not structurally syncytial!)

- has intercalated disc fibers; form an intricate network

Cardiac

Multinucleated

cell (syncytium)

Skeletal muscle, striated, voluntary

Squamous

Smooth muscle,

nonstriated, involuntary

Cardiac muscle, striated,

involuntary

Types of

Muscles

Characterized by the presence of a large amount of

intercellular material and paucity of cells

Intercellular material secreted by the connective tissue

cells is used to:

1. Attach or connect parts

2. Support or bear weight

3. Provide a medium through which tissue fluids

containing nutrients and wastes may diffuse

formed by fibrocytes (connective tissue cells) that has ovoid nuclei

intercellular material that is secreted by the connective tissue cells are

composed of amorphous ground substance (matrix) and connective

tissue fibers

fibrocyteConnective

tissue fibers

matrix

1. chondrocytes (cartilage cells) located in spaces called lacunae

2. solid intercellular substance (matrix)

May be:

hyaline – ventral ends of ribs; in the larynx, trachea, and bronchi; and on the articular

surface of bone

fibrous – tendons and ligaments

elastic – outer ear, larynx, and epiglottis

lacuna

chondrocytematrix

Mammalian hyaline cartilage

Bone – mineralized connective tissue

composed of osteocytes (bone cells) embedded in a calcified matrix,

containing fine collagen fibers

Lacunae – small space containing an osteocyte or cluster of osteocytes

Canaliculi – tiny canals between lacunae of ossified bones; where

protoplasmic processes of immature bone cells used to pass

Haversian canal – tiny, interconnecting, longitudinal channels in bone

tissue through which blood vessels, nerve fibers and lymphatics pass

Haversian canals are

interconnected by means of

Volkmann’s canals

Lamella – thin plates of

bone matrix; lines creating

ring-like appearance

represent periods of

inactivity of bone formation

canaliculi

Haversian canal

Also considered as belonging to the connective tissues

group

Made up of:

1. plasma – liquid component (liquid extracellular matrix)

2. blood cells:

a. RBC – contains hemoglobin carry/transport

oxygen and help transport carbon dioxide

b. WBC – function in defense and immunity (against

invading pathogens); fight infections

Major types: lymphocyte, monocyte, neutrophil,

basophil, eosinophil

3. Platelets – cell fragments; aid in blood clotting

Frog RBC (erythrocytes): darkly stained

nuclei

Frog WBC (leukocytes): smaller in size

than frog RBC, fewer in numbers

Human RBC (erythrocytes): no nuclei,

biconcave discs

Human WBC (leukocytes): larger in size

than human RBC; fewer in numbers

1. Lymphocytes

nuclei are large, somewhat

spherical; there is only

narrow rim of cytoplasm

around the nucleus

2. Monocytes

nuclei vary from slightly indented

ovals to horseshoe-shaped

structures

have larger amounts of

cytoplasm than lymphocytes

3. Polymorphonuclear leukocytes (PMN) or

granulocytes or polymorphs

irregular nuclei with a variety of shapes

A. Neutrophils nuclei is made up of 2 to 5 or more thin lobes connected by

slender chromatin thread

granules are fine and does not stain well at neutral pH

B. Eosinophils nuclei are made up of 2 oval lobes linked by thread like

chromatin

granules are coarse and stain pinkish red with acid stains

C. Basophils

• nuclei stain very faintly

• has coarse cytoplasmic granules that stain blue with basic dye

Frog Blood

Types of

Vascular

Tissue

nerve cell is called a neuron

cytoplasm is drawn out into long nerve fibers, the

dendrites and the axon

dendrites carry impulse toward the cell body

axon carries impulse away from the cell body

Nerve is a bundle of nerve fibers bound by connective tissues

epineurium is the loose connective tissue covering the nerve

inside are the fascicles or nerve bundles

each fascicle is covered by a perineurium, a dense connective tissue

individual nerve fibers are enclosed in the endoneurium

Nerve fibers carry sensory stimuli and motor impulses from the central nervous system (CNS) to an effector(eyes, glands, muscles and other parts of the body)

Layers:

1. Epidermis made up of epithelial tissue

a. Stratum corneum

outermost layer of the epidermis

made up of squamous epithelia

b. Stratum germinativum

has rows of spherical cells and a deeper layer of columnar cells,

which give rise to new cells

Epidermis

Dermis

Cutaneous gland

Stratum corneum

Stratum germinativum

Stratum spongiosumChromatophore

Stratum

compactum

Layers:

2. Dermis/Corlum Stratum spongiosum/Stratum laxum

a layer of connective tissue

contains chromatophores and cutaneous glands

chromatophores are cells containing pigment granules

Black – melanophores; yellow/gold -- xanthophores

Cutaneous gland (mouth, neck, body) – in frogs: secretes mucus to

keep skin moist (big glands secrete poison); higher vertebrates:

sebum, tears, sweat, etc

Stratum compactum

made of tightly packed horizontal strands of connective tissues

with alternating vertical connective tissue strands

Cutaneous Gland

Skin

Skin

Frog Skin

Parts:

1. Liver cells

polygonal in cross section; have darkly stained spherical nuclei

2. Pigment granules

brown in color; scattered irregularly over the liver

3. Veins and Arteries

veins are thin-walled (generally filled with blood corpuscles) and larger than thick walled arteries

4. Bile ducts

lined with cuboidal epithelium

5. Arterioles and Venules

may be found together with bile ducts

6. Sinusoid

endothelial tubes occurring in-between liver cells; appears like spaces between liver cells

Liver (HPO)

(Bile Duct Area)

Bile duct

Vein (thin-walled with RBC)

Sinusoids

Pigment granules

Appears round in

cross-section

Has circular folds,

valves of Kerkring,

in the inner wall

Valves of Kerkring

Tunica mucosa lines cavity of lumen made up of simple columnar epithelial cells and goblet

cells

Tunica submucosa muscular coat made up of two layers of muscles stratum circulare – thick inner circular layer stratum longitudinale – thin outer longitudinal layer

Tunica serosa outermost covering a thin layer of loose connective tissue covered with

mesothelium

Tunica serosa

Stratum

longitudinale

Stratum

circulare

Tela submucosa

Tunica mucosa

Tunica muscularis:

Frog intestine (LPO)

appears round in

cross-section

inner wall has

large wavy folds

called rugae

1. Tunica mucosa• has inner layer of columnar cells and outer layer of loose connective

tissue, the lamina propia

• chief cells and parietal cells (in gastric glands) are found in this layer

2. Muscularis mucosa• lies outer to the lamina propia

• has stratum circulare and stratum longitudinale

3. Tela submucosa• contains large blood and lymph vessels

4. Tunica submuscularis• thick and made up of circular layer of smooth muscles

5. Subserosa• narrow layer of connective tissues containing few longitudinal

muscle strands

6. Tunica serosa• made up of loose connective tissue covered with mesothelium

Tunica muscularis

Submucosa

Stratum longitudinale

Stratum circulare

Muscularis mucosa

Frog stomach, LPO

Tunica mucosaSimple columnar epithelium

Lamina propia (connective

tissue)

Outer muscular layer subserosa and outermost covering

tunica serosa not shown in this photo

Gastric

glands

Gastric pit

Gastric Pits:

Indentations in the stomach

which denote entrances to

gastric glands

Gastric glands:

Simple, branched tubular

glands in tunica mucosa

layer of stomach:

1. Parietal cells – secrete

gastric acid (and intrinsic

factors) that lowers the

pH of the stomach

causing proteins from

food to lose their folded

structure exposing the

peptide bonds; gastric

acid activates

pepsinogen into pepsin

2. Chief (zymogenic cells)

– secrete pepsinogen

and rennin

Parts:

1. Adrenal gland

• mass of epithelial cells in the ventral depression of organ;

• Part of endocrine system (secretes hormone like cortisol and adrenaline)

2. Malpighian bodies

• made up of network of capillaries, the glomerulus, with in a cup-shaped

double membrane, the Bowman’s capsule

3. Uriniferous tubules

• where gumelular filtrate passes through

4. Wolffian duct/Mesonephric duct

• where urine passes through going to the urinary bladder

5. Renal portal vein

• located at the lateral margin of the kidney

Frog kidney

Bowman’s capsule

Glomerulus

Frog kidney (LPO)

Adrenal gland

Malpighian body

Uriniferous tubule

Frog Kidney, HPO

(xs)

Uriniferous

tubules

glomerulus

Malpighian body or

renal corpuscles

Bowman’s

capsule

Two distinguished regions

1. white matter: made up of loosely arranged nerve fibers and

supporting cells or neuroglia

2. gray matter: made up of cell bodies of neurons and supporting

neuroglia

has 2 dorsal projections called dorsal cornua (dorsal gray horns)

has 2 ventral projections called ventral cornua (ventral gray horns)

Central canal located at the center of the gray matter

Cerebrospinal fluid-filled space

lined by ependymal cells (create and secrete cerebrospinal fluid)

Neuroglia (glial cells)

Non-neuronal cells that maintain homeostasis

Motor cells most prominent neurons in spinal cord

concentrated in ventral gray horn

Much bigger than glial cells and have chromophilic bodies (Nissi bodies)

Spinal Cord (xs)

Ventral spinal artery

Ventral fissure

Dorsal fissure

Dorsal gray horn

Ventral gray horn

Motor cellsCentral canal

Glial cells should be the smaller

cells (not visible in the photo)

Dura mater

cylindrical covering of spinal cord

Subdural space

lies beneath the dura mater

Pia mater

Closely investing the spinal cord

Thin layer of connective tissue (with a number of blood

vessels)

Dorsal fissure

Ventral fissure

Contains ventral spinal artery

Ventral spinal artery

Blood vessel that supplies most of the blood in the spinal

cord

Dura mater

Pia mater

Subdural space

Universal

- Spherical

Radial

- Arranged in a central axis

Bilateral- Longitudinal:

divides into the dorsal (back) and

ventral side (front)

-Transverse:

divides into the anterior (head end)

and posterior side (tail end)

- Sagittal: divides into the lateral

sides (left and right)

Regular repetition of body parts along the antero-posterior axis

Divided into segments, metameres, or somites

Has external and internal aspects Earthworm: both external and

internal metamerism

Humans: internal metamerismof vertebral column, spinal and cranial nerves

Metamerism

Having parts of the body

more or less differentiated

into recognizable zones,

such as the head, trunk

and tail

Cephalization:

The nervous system and

sense organs tend to

concentrate in the head

cephalization

• Cephalic appendages may be in the form of antennae, tentacles, horns, antlers, lophophores, etc.

• Other appendages: limbs, wings, etc

• May be segmented or unsegmented

Antennae

External anatomy of the frog

Head

TrunkSnout

External

Nares

Tympanum

Anus

Upper arm

Forearm

Manus

Thigh

Shank

Pes

External nares

(nostril) – where air

primarily enters and

exits the frog’s

respiratory system

Tympanum –

eardrum situated

externally; imporant

for hearing

Pes (webbed) –

aids in swimming

Slimy epithelium or

Planaria

- simplest form

- allows diffusion of

gases.

- In earthworms, the

epithelium secretes a

cuticle and allows

diffusion of gases

Mantle (of Mollusks)

- soft integument

- some may be muscular or

may contain hard substances

like chitin or conchiolin

- It secretes a shell

Rigid integument (of Arthropods)

- chitinous

- impregnated with lime or

calcium carbonate

Integuments protect an animal’s body from damage;

comprised of the skin and its appendages (including

hair, scales, feathers, and nails)

Integumentary system functions:1. Waterproof, cushion and protect the deeper tissues

2. Excrete wastes

3. Regulate temperature

4. Attachment site for sensory receptors to detect pain, sensation,

pressure and temperature

‘Naked’ skin of frogs

- no skin derivatives

Echinoderm’s skin

-Comparable to the vertebrate

skin

-Varied vivid colors produced by

skin pigment cells

Corals calcareous

Mollusks’ shells calcareous: made of calcium carbonate single piece (univalve) or two piece (bivalve)

Crustaceans and Insects chitinous

Turtle Shells Dorsal Carapace (bony) and Ventral Plastron (horny)

Fishes Bony Scales

Snakes, Lizards, Crocodiles Horny shields form a continuous mat

Birds Plumage (feathers)

Mammals Pelage (covering of hairs)

Cattle, Buffalos True Horns; hollow

Dear Antlers; bony, shed periodically

Lizards, birds, cats, dogs claws

Monkeys, apes, man nails

Horses, cattles hooves

SHELL

Univalve

Bivalve

Plumage

Horny Shields

Calcareous

Carapace

Plastron

Pelage

Hoof

True HornsNails

Claws

Antlers

Bony Scales

Squid and Cuttlefish Pen

Sea Urchin Test or Corona: calcareous; composed of dermal plates; covered by integument Test

Vertebrate Endoskeletal System

• Bones principal elements of

endoskeletons

• Cartillage or gristle portions

which require flexibility

• Ligaments fibrous structures

that bind bones together

1.Skull

2. Atlas (C1)

3. Abdominal vertebrae

4. Sacral vertebra

5. Urostyle

6. Suprascapula

7. Ilium

8. Ischium

9. Humerus

10. Radio-ulna

11. Carpals

12. Metacarpals

13. Phalanges

14. Femur

Metatarsals

Metacarpals

Cranium hollow middle portion

Olfactory capsules anterior to the cranium

Otic capsules posterior to the cranium; lodges the inner ear

Orbit on each side of the cranium; houses the eyeball

Occipital Region Posterior end of the skull

Foramen Magnum large hole at the center; where the spinal cord passes through

Occipital Condyles articulated with the 1st vertebra; ventrolateral to the foramen magnum

Maxillary arch bordering the orbit laterally

Premaxillary process adjoins the paired triangular bones of the cranium

Rear end of the Adult Skull

Otic Capsule

Foramen Magnum

Orbit

Occipital Condyle

Olfactory Capsule

Occipital Region

Premaxillary

Process

(1) Atlas articulated with the occipital condyles; cervical vertebra

(2) (2-8) Typical Vertebra centrum body of the vertebra; concave in front;

convex behind neural arch dorsal to the centrum, forming a

canal neural canal contains the spinal cord neural spine posteriorly directed transverse processes extend laterally and help

support the body wall (junction of centrum and neural arch)

zygapophyses pre-zygapophyses (hidden), post-zygapophyses (covers the pre)

(9) sacral(10) urostyle

Suprascapula

most dorsal, flat trapezoidal and cartilaginous

Scapula

articulating the suprascapula; smooth concavity on its

proximal end

Glenoid fosa

where the upper arm bone fits

Fenestra

articulate with the scapula on its proximal end

Clavicle

anterior to the fenestra; where an inverted y-shaped bone

belonging to the sternum rests

Coracoid

posterior to the fenestra and shaped like the scapula;

contributes also to the glenoid fossa

Epicoracoid cartilages

joins the two halves

Pectoral Girdle

Set of bones and cartilages lying in the mid-ventral axis

Two positions: anterior and posterior to the pectoral girdle

Episternum

flat, rounded cartilage

Omosternum

inverted y-shaped bone, with its two arms resting on the clavicle

Mesosternum

bone wedged between the coracoids in its anterior end

Xiphisternum

cartilage lying posterior to the mesosternum

Sternum

mesosternum

xiphisternum

Phalanges

Metacarpals

Carpals

Radio-ulna

Humerus

Strengthens the posterior region of the body and provides support to the hind limbs

Each half is called an os innominatum (innominatebone)

Acetabulum cup-shaped depression; where the proximal end of the thigh bone (femur) fits; formed by the convergence of the raised edges of the bones comprising the girdle

Ilium forms the anterior border of the acetabulumand articulates with the lateral processes of the 9th vertebra

Ischium fan-shaped bone contributing to the posterior border of the acetabulum and wedged between the ilium and the pubis

Pubis triangular bone (cartilaginous in young frogs) wedged ventrally between the ilium and ischium

Femur long bone whose rounded proximal end articulates with the acetabulum

Tibio-fibula (thigh bone) slightly longer bone distal to the femur

Tarsals (ankle bones) consisting of a proximal row of two elongate bones and a distal row of two or three short bones

Metatarsals (sole bones) a row of five elongate bones

Phalanges

Muscles are contractive tissue which are responsible in general for motion and locomotion

2 Types of Muscles:

1. Skeletal

- attached to skeletons; comprising the bulk of the body

2. Visceral

- those that form part of the wall of internal organs

Skeletal Muscle

Smooth Muscle

Skeletal muscles are bound by a connective tissue called fascia, these continue to the ends of the muscles as tendons.

The middle fleshy part of the muscle is called the belly.

Point of attachment, more or less fixed, is called the origin.

Point of insertion, the relatively movable end.

When there is more than one point of origin, it is called the head.

Several points of insertion are slips.

1. Gluteus

2. Piriformis

3. Triceps femoris

4. Semimambranosus

5. Biceps femoris

1. Sartorius

2. Adductor longus

3. Adductor magnus

4. Gracilis major

5. Gracilis minor

6. Semitendinosus

1. Gastrocnemius

2. Peroneus

1. Gastrocnemius

2. Tibialis posticus

3. Extensor cruris

4. Tibialis anticus

5. Tibio fibula (bone)

In animals with segmented appendages the extensive well-

differentiated musculature works together with a rigid skeleton to

produce locomotion.

Earthworms – absence of rigid skeleton, the primitive

musculature, works together with coelomic fluid which acts as

“hydrostatic skeleton”

Flatworms – interstitial fluid that fill the spaces between

parenchymatous cells functions also as a hydrostatic skeleton

Mode of locomotion of worms are often slow and inefficient

compared with animals with segmented appendages

Locomotion of Planaria

illustrate the origin of the dynamic functions of hydroskeleton

are capable of “looping” in the manner of leeches and use pedal locomotory waves, perfected by land snails and slugs.

Locomotion in Gastropod Mollusks

locomotion is by means of a flattened muscular foot through pedal locomotory waves

foot is analogous to the whole body of the flatworm but while the flatworm body has a constant volume, the gastropod foot may be inflated by blood

Locomotion in Earthworms

exemplify the highest form of a locomotor system dependent on a hydrostatic skeleton

contraction of the circular muscles on the anterior end of the body extends to a number of segments

contraction of the circular muscles makes the segments longer and thinner, while contraction of the longitudinal muscles shortens the segments in preparation for next phase of muscle contraction

Demonstration of Muscle Action

Action – specific movement produced by the muscle

- for ever action there is a corresponding reaction

Antagonists – group of muscles whose actions are opposite

Synergists – those acting in concert

Ex. adductor moves a part towards the axis of the body, an abductor produces and opposite action, flexor bends a part, extensor extends a part, levator raises a part, depressor lowers it, a constrictor closes an aperture, a dilator opens it

* Indoctorium – used to demonstrate muscle action of a frog

Synergistic muscles:

1. Gastrocnemius and tibialis posticus – extends foot

2. Peroneus and tibialis anticus – bends foot

3. Rectus abdominis and external oblique – compress abdomen

4. Sterno-radialis, pectoralis, and deltoid – draw arm toward chest

Antagonistic muscles:

1. Depressor mandibulae (lowers jaw) vs temporalis (raises lower jaw)

2. Latissimus dorsi (draw arm away from body) vs sterno-radialis, pectoralis, and deltoid (draw arm toward chest)

3. Gastrocnemius and tibialis posticus (extends foot) vs peroneus and tibialisanticus (bends foot)

1 and 2 antagonistic

Undulatory or Swimming

- body is thrown into waves that pass along the animal, generally from head to tail , brought about by the contraction of the trunk musculature

Pedal locomotion

- movement is achieved by contraction of limb muscles

- quadruped – animals that walks on all four limbs

- biped - when only one pair of limbs is involved

- movements may be in the form of leaping, marching, running, etc.

True flight

- achieved by birds and bats

- Volplane - flying lemurs and flying squirrels, as in kites and skydivers

True Flight

BipedalCrawling

Swimming

Volplane