Pompeii and Herculaneum Summary

Students learn about:

Non-examinable background stages of occupation brief historical overview up to and including the eruption of AD 79 early discoveries and brief history of the excavations representations of Pompeii and Herculaneum over time

Examinable content:

1 Geographical context the physical environment: the geographical setting, natural features and

resources of Pompeii and Herculaneum plans and streetscapes of Pompeii and Herculaneum

2 The nature of sources and evidence the range of available sources, both written and archaeological, including

ancient writers, official inscriptions, graffiti, wall paintings, statues, mosaics, human and animal remains

the limitations, reliability and evaluation of sources the evidence provided by the sources from Pompeii and Herculaneum for:

– the eruption– the economy: trade, commerce, industries, occupations– social structure; men, women, freedmen, slaves– local political life– everyday life: leisure activities, food and dining, clothing, health, baths,

water supply and sanitation– public buildings – basilicas, temples, fora, theatres, palaestra,

amphitheatres– private buildings – villas, houses, shops– influence of Greek and Egyptian cultures: art, architecture, religion– religion: temples, household gods, foreign cults, tombs.

3 Investigating, reconstructing and preserving the past changing methods and contributions of nineteenth and twentieth century

archaeologists to our understanding of Pompeii and Herculaneum changing interpretations: impact of new research and technologies issues of conservation and reconstruction: Italian and international

contributions and responsibilities; impact of tourism ethical issues: study and display of human remains

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1. Geographical Context

The Physical environment: the geographical setting, natural features and resources of Pompeii and Herculaneum Geographical Setting Pompeii and Herculaneum (P+H) were located in fertile region of Campania, near

the coast of the Bay of Naples. Pompeii was located next to the river Sarno, and was SE of Mt. Vesuvius.

Herculaneum was SW of Vesuvius, near modern-day Naples. Both towns were close to the sea; source of trade/communication. Climate quite hot (dry summers, mild/wet winter) due to location near

Mediterranean Sea. Natural Features River Sarno (east of Pompeii). Mt. Vesuvius Lattari Mountains (SE of Pompeii).Resources Wine, olives, olive oil, grain, fish, wheat and barley. Area around Vesuvius was very fertile due to the volcanic soil; this made it ideal

for agriculture. Bay was abundant with sea life; breeding ground for fish. Fishing was major

industry for P+H. Pompeii had network of roads to other towns; trading was big part of commercial

activity.

Plans and Streetscapes Pompeii and Herculaneum Area of Pompeii small by Roman standards, only covering 66 hectares. Were

four main areas in the city: the Forum, the insulae fronting the Via Stabiana, Region VI and the eastern area.

Heavy Greek influences on the layout of the streets; were narrow, straight streets which divided the city into blocks (insulae).

Evidence of Roman paving techniques, raised footpaths and stepping stones for pedestrians. Roman law said streets had to be 5m wide; Pompeii generally conformed, but streets in Herculaneum were anywhere from 2.5m-7m wide.

Pompeii had heavy traffic, as shown by the deep grooves found in its streets. Herculaneum had less traffic, with some streets being pedestrian-only. An example of this is the main street, which served as the Forum.

Pompeii was surrounded by defensive walls, with two main gates: Herculaneum and Marine gates. Via was the name for the highway which led from the Pompeian gate.

The Via dell’Abondanza was the main street, known as the ‘street of abundance’. Decumani: were streets which ran from eastwest; cardines: streets which ran

northsouth. These streets bisected each other at right angles. The Forum was the heart of the city in both P+H.

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2. The Nature of Sources and Evidence

The range of available sources, both written and archaeological, including ancient writers, official inscriptions, graffiti, wall paintings, statues, mosaics, human and animal remains.

Written SourcesAncient Historians Very few written sources available; some include Pliny Elder/Younger, Dio

Cassius, Strabo, etc. Most evidence archaeological (e.g. human remains, papyrus scrolls, etc).

Pliny the Younger: Main source on the eruption of 79AD. Was an ancient Roman writer. Wrote

an account of the 79AD eruption. Was adopted by his uncle, Pliny the Elder. Stated his purpose in writing about the eruption was to show what a hero his uncle was, rather than the effects of the eruption. Despite this, he still described aspects of the eruption:

“falling hotter and thicker” – ashes falling. “wide sheets of flame from Mt. Vesuvius and high reaching fires

were shining out.” Appearance and shape; described as similar to a ‘pine tree’.

Pliny’s account is not 100% reliable; he does give a very detailed description of parts of the eruption, but his account was written 25 years after the event, and his purpose was to honour his uncle, not describe the eruption.

Work of Hiraldur Sigurdsson (examining stratigraphy of P/H, and comparing eruption of Vesuvius to modern day eruptions, e.g. Mt. St Helens) corroborated what Pliny’s account said; this made Pliny more reliable.

Seneca: was ancient philosopher/statesmen who recorded valuable information on Pompeii by describing various aspects of the city. Described Pompeii’s location, the earthquake of 62AD and its effects, and that baths.

Strabo: Greek geographer. Is useful for the geographical setting/historical background of Pompeii.

Cicero (106-43 BC); had houses in and around Pompeii. Suetonius (AD 69-140). Wrote about Pliny the Elder and relief work undertaken

by Titus after the eruption.Modern Sources Expand our understanding along with archaeological evidence of what we

understand of P/H.Documents Volumes of papyri comprising a collection of works by Philodemus in 1st century

BC. Legal/business records, written on wax tablets. Official Inscriptions Included:

Official notices written by professional sign writers. Monumental inscriptions on public buildings, tombs and statues. New laws/outcomes of trials which were written up.

Advertisements Included:

Announcements of gladiatorial combats and theatrical entertainment

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Election notices Auction sales Lodging house accommodation.

Pottery Inscriptions Were mostly labels of goods, but offer glimpses of trade and life in towns.Graffiti Pompeii thousands of scrawls on walls on public/private buildings. E.g.:

Advertisements Political propaganda Quotations Rude remarks/insults Compliments.

Archaeological EvidenceWall Paintings Interior walls of temples and houses were covered with murals; subjects were

predominantly mythological. These paintings provide details of clothing, food, leisure activities, furniture,

writing instruments, games, religious rituals, musical instruments and industrial tools.

Mosaics Adorned floors, walls and ceilings. Richest mosaics were enhanced by precious

stones/enamelling. Statues Bronze/marble statues were extremely common in both towns. All public

buildings were decorated with profusion of statues. Were numerous amounts of statues in private establishments depicting gods,

copied Greek masterpieces, athletes, ladies and busts. Some statues were used for garden ornamentation or tomb decoration.

Human Remains Bones of over 300 victims buried in pumice in houses, on the street, in crypts or in

underground cellars. Varied skulls testify to different ethnic origins of the pop’n. Plaster casts of victims made by Fiorelli show clothes in fine detail and objects the

people were carrying. 139 victims have been uncovered in seafront chambers/beach at Herculaneum. Animal Remains Plaster casts in ash of a mule, goat and dogs found in P. Remains of a horse found in H.

Other archaeological sources: Remains of buildings Streets Drainage systems Statues Monuments Everyday objects/tools used by inhabitants Human remains: Fiorelli plaster casts and more recent resin casts from Pompeii;

skeletons of inhabitants found on the beach at Herculaneum.

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The Limitations, Reliability and Evaluation of SourcesWritten Sources Although Pliny was an eyewitness to the eruption, his letters were not written

more than 20 years after the event, which detracts from reliability. Pliny also says his facts came from accounts of other people about his uncle’s voyage to rescue friends; the facts are thus hearsay, and may not be reliable. Also, Pliny stated his intention was to show heroism of his uncle, not to describe the eruption.

Other primary sources also rely on accounts of other people need to be carefully evaluated.

Secondary sources rely on accuracy of primary sources they use.Archaeological Sources Interpretation of evidence by archaeologists/historians is sometimes contradictory

needs to be carefully evaluated. Archaeologists still differ over P’s prosperity at time of eruption; debate as to

whether P was thriving town or was experiencing economic/social decline. Originally, bones of victims were regarded as unimportant. More recently,

study of bones has revealed great deal about victims from both towns. Originally concluded those who died were old, young and sick; recently known victims were more representative of the whole society, not just those who could not help themselves.

When owner of building being excavated was unknown, excavators invented a name based on what was found at the site (e.g. Villa of Papyri). These names may colour the interpretation of some sites.

P+H have not been fully excavated; leaves gaps in archaeological evidence for two towns.

The Evidence Provided by Sources from Pompeii and Herculaneum for:The Eruption Region of Campania was an unstable volcanic region prone to earth tremors and

other seismic activity; the people of the region had no understanding of nature or the impending danger of Vesuvius, nor of the warning signs.

No certainty as to precise date of eruption; August 24 is the accepted date, although November 3 or 23 is also possible. Archaeological evidence is ambiguous, and can only suggest summer or late autumn.

Several phases to the eruption (Pompeii): Plinian phase: initial explosion, great thrust of cloud of ash/pumice/gases

20km into the air. Pumice fallout over Pompeii. At first were only pebbles 1cm in diameter, but

grew to rocks 20cm in diameter. Some hours later, there were ground surges, which raced to Pompeii at

100km/h. Pyroclastic flow: was a hot, dry avalanche of pumice, ash and gases. Buried

Pompeii to a depth of about 4m. Herculaneum was destroyed by a series of pyroclastic flows. The first surge which

hit Herculaneum travelled at between 100-300km/h, and had a temperature of 400C. This surge killed anyone left in Herculaneum.

Causes of death: Pompeii: asphyxiation due to ash/gases, and pyroclastic flows.Herculaneum: lava flows/pyroclastic flows. Instantly killed people as it hit them.

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The Economy: trade, commerce, industries, occupations P had a thriving economy with full range of commercial activities. H was town of

upper-class residents serviced by the lower classes.Trade P had been trade centre of southern Campania for 600 years. Harbour was very

busy with ships, sailors and foreign merchants. Exports from P included: pottery, tiles, wine and garum (fish sauce). Imports

included wine and pottery. H was not major trading centre.Commerce Most streets had shops. Markets fresh produce from local farms sold in temporary stalls/permanent

shops. Standardised weights were used when buying/selling.Industries Agriculture produced wool, grain, grapes and olives. Manufacturing of woollen textiles took place in Pompeii. Cloth: dying/cleaning. Evidence of these dying/cleaning facilities found in P/H. Wine: large amounts of wine produced in the region, especially in villas.

However, was not thought of highly, and not thought to have been exported.Occupations Varied occupations in both P/H. Pompeii: big community of artisans, such as

artists, metal-workers, potters and glassblowers, as well as tradesmen, wealthy merchants and manufacturers.

Service industry was very common in Pompeii, employing bakers, innkeepers, bath attendants and brothel keepers/prostitutes.

Social Structure: men, women, freedmen, slaves About 40% of population was slaves. Between 10,000-20,000 people living in

Pompeii at time of the eruption. Hierarchical structure:

Upper strata or US (citizens: Cives): Emperor Imperial family Senatorial order Equestrian orders Rich freedmen

Lower strata or LS: Poor free-born citizens Freedmen (Liberti) Slaves (Servi)

Senators (US) Property qualifications: 1,000,000 sesterces Served emperor in offices throughout the empire Gained wealth from large estates Position was hereditary.Equestrians (Equites)/Provincial Elite (US) Property qualifications: 400,000 sesterces Served emperor in important posts, e.g. military leadership

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Gained wealth from public office/trade/banking Position was not hereditary.Freedmen (LS) Were previously slaves given freedom by various means Gained wealth from trade/wealth/banking/manufacturing/land ownership Excluded from becoming senators, but could become equestrians.Other LS Poor freedmen/poor freeborns who had no power/money. Could be lawyers,

doctors, teachers, engineers, etc.; shows that the Romans did not think highly of these positions

Slaves: performed mostly agricultural and manufacturing work. Also served upper class in their homes. Were often from a foreign country defeated in war, or free citizens who sold themselves to pay debts.

Women Typical role was to perform tasks such as running the household, bringing up

children and controlling finances. Women in Pompeii appear to have had much freedom than women in Rome.

Although could not vote, could make public declarations supporting a particular candidate in an election; this shows that women had a part in public life.

Occupations: tavern owners, working in bakeries, household servants, cooks, cleaners, wet nurses and prostitutes.

Pompeii was a place where “women could own property, do business, pay for construction, hold honourific and cultic office, and go about in public.”

Could be public priestesses, eumachia donated the impressive building on the east side of the forum, and epitaphs reveal women as priests

Local Political Life

Evidence for political life in Pompeii:

Statue of Marcus balbus and memorial alter standing at terrace to H baths. References one of H’s patrons, or suggesting partial or whole funding of baths

Inscription stating marcus epidus as protector of the colony More than 2000 electoral notices found in P Amphitheatre at P inscribed with plaque detailing duumviri paid for it with

their own money as a gift to their fellow citizens Smaller theatre at P commerates its erection by “decree of the decurions”

Political patronage:

Political life defined by patronage of poorer citizens and particular social/business groups by wealthy elite.

Powerful people offered both protection and assistance to individuals Assisted those who sought advancement socially/politically expected support

endorsement for election/public recognition Patron expects support from clients sought to outrival everyone by size and

extent of supporters Patronage extended to local public in forms of food public works and games Building projects initiated by decree of decriones and paid with public funds

but the commemorative inscriptions indicate role of the duumviri, some even paid for themselves

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Commemorative inscriptions reminde the people of P of the people who held office

Aulus flaccus provided varied entertainment as duumviri Hot baths at forum built by the duumvir l. caesius nad aediles c. occuis and l.

niramus

P+H were self-administering municipalities. Every town had a town council (ordo decurionum) and councillors (decuriones).

Councillors were elected citizens in the towns.

The comitium (the electoral assembly) number unknown

All member citizens of the town populous voters divided into tribes, don’t know whether tribes divided into districts or not, stopped when majority reached

Met once a year to vote for the duumviri and the aedilies, presented themselves as fixed pairs in an election team.May have met in the comitium or some other large building

Duumviri ( chief magistrates 2)

Elected march each year by the populous in the voting assembly comitium, held office for one year

Had power to govern community, but had no military power.

Presided over courts/public money/public council

Presided over and carried out the decrees of the curia town council

Sometimes would use their own funds for benefit of the community, e.g. games.

Every five years given special powers to revise the citizen lsit and roll of the curia

Aediles Elected by the comitia and served for one year Special purple togas and places and games

Were two lower ranking magistrates. Responsible for much of the daily administration.

Responsible for roads, public buildings, temples, markets and games.

Like Duumviri, also used own money for

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the benefit of the community, provided public games

The curia (town council) Body of 80-100 chosen by rich and wealthy men. Council members not elected by the people. Curia presumed west of the three admin buildings

Controlled all aspects of public life, civic finances, taxation, public religion and buildings, regulated commerce.

Some professions were banned from the Curia; e.g. actors, gladiators, grave-diggers, etc.

Praefectus – Emergency Office

Appointed by the curia for one year

Praefectus could take place of duumviri for short time in an emergency.

One example of emergency office is after the 62 AD earthquake; C. Cuspius Pansa the Elder was appointed praefectus.

Everyday Life: leisure activities, food and dining, clothing, health, baths, water supply and sanitationLeisure Activities Boxing/athletic contests Social gatherings/banquets/receptions/drinking in bars and taverns Gambling/gaming Theatre/festival games Circus/chariot racing Gladiatorial games/beast hunts Baths.Food and Dining Was one of the favoured pastimes in Rome. Even poorer classes enjoyed it,

although this usually took place for them in taverns; in Pompeii alone there were over 100 taverns. Poorer Romans usually ate a type of boiled porridge. Wealthier people had a

diet of meat, cheese, eggs, vegetables, honey, dates, nuts, olives, fruit and shellfish.

Usually three meals a day: breakfast lunch and dinner. Dinner was the main meal, which started around 4pm.

Dinner parties were common among the wealthy; they would start around 4pm and last for many hours. Food was prepared by slaves in unhygienic kitchens

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and cooked on charcoal stoves in bronze/lead pots; this posed a serious health risk.

Romans liked using garum to flavour their food; excavators have uncovered stalls selling hot food doused in the sauce.

Clothing Clothes were made from wool or linen. Woollen cloth was made locally, while

linen came from Egypt. Men wore a loincloth/linen shift underneath the tunic. A toga was worn

outdoors by officials and the upper class. Only colour permitted for me besides white purple, but was only for important people.

Women wore a shift and a stola (tunic) down to ankles. Women favoured coloured clothes.

Both sexes wore sandals/slippers. Jewellery (e.g. rings, necklaces, bracelets) were worn.

Heavy cloak may be worn in bad weather. Hats were only worn by slaves or country people.Health Significant problems in Roman society regarding health/disease. Minor afflictions

today were life threatening for ancient Romans. Cause of disease was not understood by Romans, and remedies were primitive.

People turned to magic charms, healing herbs, prayers and religion for cures. Most Roman bodies had a high lead content. Lead cooking pots were used and

water was flushed through lead pipes; basically, the Romans were poisoning themselves.

Baths Regarded as a social activity in ancient Rome. Features of the baths (thermae):

Hot, warm and cold baths Large swimming pool Sauna-like rooms Massage rooms Areas for exercising/playing games Garden enclosures

A typical day at the baths followed a sort of procedure: Undress in changing rooms (apodyterium) Exercise in the palaestra Massage in the apodyterium. Oil would be applied to the body then scraped

off with a strigil (Romans had no soap). Series of room: warm room (trepidarium), hot room - 40C (calidarium),

sauna (laconicum), cold pool (frigidarium). Hypocaust – heating system. System of furnaces located under the bathhouses.

Both water/air were heated using this system. Prior to aqueducts, water supplied through cisterns/wells. Is evidence of this at

Stabian Baths in Pompeii. Various baths throughout P+H:

Central Baths (Herculaneum). Forum Baths (Pompeii). Built between 30-10 BC. Five skeletons found in

apodyterium; 4 men and 1 woman. These people may have thought when Vesuvius erupted that the strong roof would protect them.

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Suburban Baths (P/H). Located near the sea. Run as a ‘kind of municipal country club for the rich and wealthy’. In very good condition, adds greatly to our understanding of the baths; furnace room still intact with pipes, boiler and wood. Also a room which appears to have been used as a brothel.

Stabian Baths (Pompeii). Were the oldest/biggest baths in Pompeii; date from the (2nd BC. Were severely damaged in 62 AD earthquake; some parts still not in use at time of 79 AD eruption.

Water Supply Early inhabitants of Pompeii relied on River Sarno for water; at time of Emperor

Augustus, a branch was built off the imperial aqueduct to supply Pompeii. Water from the aqueduct flowed into a water tower (castellum) and was siphoned off into three pipes, which supplied different areas of the city.

Many private homes were connected to this supply of fresh, running water. One of the three pipes supplied the public fountains throughout the city, which were usually located at crossroads. The supply of water was more important than traffic, as some fountains obstructed the roadway.

Public fountains supplied a continuous flow of fresh water, and any excess water helped move rubbish along the streets.

Sanitation For public latrines, Romans devised a system which involved water running

continuously through a drainage channel that moved waste along. Some private homes had latrines, which were near the kitchen area. Waste from these latrines drained to pits beneath the roadway.

Urine was used by manufacturers of cloth to bleach the fabric; large jars were left outside their shops for passers-by to ‘donate’.

Town of Pompeii was noisy, dirty, smelly and generally unhygienic, with rubbish everywhere in the streets.

Public Buildings: basilicas, temples, fora, theatres, palaestra, amphitheatresBasilica Most elaborate structure of the Forum. Built between 128-70 BC; an inscription

mentioning the consuls of 78 BC attending Basilica helps with dating when the building began to be used. The building measured 24m by 55m. Was divided by 28 fluted Ionic columns, which were 11m high.

Was originally a covered market, later changed in 1st century AD to the law courts; the lower floor was probably used for archives, while the upper floor opened onto the Forum, and used as a platform for the judges.

Walls of the interior were decorated with imitation marble panels, with graffiti scratched into surfaces.

Temples Romans were very religious and believed everything in their lives controlled by

gods. To keep gods benevolent, they prayed, gave offerings and made sacrifices. Pompeii had 10 temples, dedicated to Apollo, Isis, Jupiter, Venus and variety of

other gods.The forum The following happened in the forum: magistrates elected. Religious ceremonies

conducted, sacrifice etc. people found out about local edicts and news from Rome. Centre of traded goods, clothing wool, grain meat and fish. Elected officials regulated trade with mensa ponderaria. Lawyers and doctors hired. Patrons went to be seen and conduct business with entourage of clients

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Central hub of the town centre of political, social, commercial, legal, administrative and religious activities

Originally a market place Centre of the west side was the suggestum, a platform where political candidates

gave speeches and gathered support for elections Busiest part of the forum was on the south side where the government buildings

(hall of the duumviri, the curia and the hall of aediles) located, treasury ,prison and the curia

Porticoes surrounded forum on all sides Closed to wheeled traffic Pedestals containing important statues of important/ leading citizens Eastern side originally shops, replaced n Augustans age by temple of public lares,

the temple of vespasian and the building of Eumachia Statues of prominent citizens gradually replaced by imperial monuments Forum was centre of political, economic and religious life in P+H. Features of the Forum:

Measured 38m by 157m politic All buildings involving Pompeian public life south side of Forum; included

Basilica, municipal offices and Comitium (building for comitia). On right side was religious buildings and those concerned with the

economy/commerce. Great public buildings with their own minor squares surrounded it Only foot traffic could enter the Forum.

Theatre Original theatre in Pompeii built around the (2nd BC; this predates theatres in

Rome. Was a curved auditorium which seated 5000. Lower rows were used by upper

class; middle rows were for ordinary people; back rows were for women; standing room at the back for the poor. This seating reflected the classes/structure of society.

On the backdrop of the stage were images of the emperor, gods and local politicians. Shows theatre was a method of political advertisement.

Odeon: was a small covered theatre. Possibly used for musical recitals/displays of oratory.

Palaestrae Colonnaded rectangular areas with an open, grassed space in the middle.

Originally from Greek influence. Romans exercised in these areas through running, discus and javelin competitions. Swimming pool was located next to palaestrae in P/H. Amphitheatre (Pompeii) Found in SE of Pompeii. Built around 70 BC; important as it is oldest surviving

amphitheatre from Roman world. Is elliptical in shape; measures 135m by 104m and held 24,000 spectators. Used for games, e.g. gladiatorial fights, hunts/battles featuring wild animals. Gladiatorial games were officially held to honour gods or celebrate a victory.

They also had a political purpose; whoever paid for the games became more popular.

Private Buildings: villas, houses, shopsHouses

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Main types of housing: 5th century BC: domus/atrium house (e.g. Samnite house). 1st century BC: atrium-peristyle house (e.g. House of the Vetti). Insulae or apartments/lodging houses. Villas.

Although houses differed depending on their size/wealth of the owner, most followed a general pattern.

The exterior had very few windows and roofs were covered by red/yellow terracotta tiles; it was inner décor which mattered in Roman houses, not the exterior. Many houses often had shops attached to the front, which was leased to merchants.

The house was entered from street by corridor; was divided by a door into two sections fauces and vestibulum, which led into the atrium.

Atrium was partly roofed but in centre it was open to allow light/rain in. Beneath the opening was a stone tank (impluvium), which collected water.

Around the atrium were small rooms, e.g. bedrooms (cubicula) and dining room (triclinium). Kitchens were small, often containing only a sink/oven.

Opposite entrance was tablinium – main reception room. From tablinium was doorway to peristyle (garden). Other rooms around peristyle were summer dining rooms, lavatory and storage rooms.

Villas Were large estates owned by the wealthy of Roman society. Often had elaborate

gardens, as well as expansive and luxurious buildings with many rooms. House of Julia Felix (JF):

JF was a wealthy heiress/owner of a large establishment; her villa was two insulae joined together. JF’s villa is significant as it provides comprehensive information on the use of decoration, commercial activities, religion and the role of women.

The property contained private baths, shops, apartments and extensive gardens.

One of main features is decorative artwork. Frescoes depict scenes of Pompeian life; this is useful as a source. Another feature: ‘grotto’ style dining room, with cascading fountains.

Villa of Papyri: Named so in 1752 when small room found which contained 2000 carbonised

cylindrical scrolls. Remains of this villa gives best e.g. of luxurious lifestyle enjoyed by wealthy

citizens. Main peristyle: size of a small forum. Had a pool as big as the imperial baths

in Rome; measured 6.5m long by 7m wide. Answer to who the owner was may lie in scrolls; they include almost complete

works of Philodemus, a Greek philosopher. Owner of scrolls may have been Philodemus’ patron; whoever owned scrolls most likely owned the villa.

Shops Wide range of shops has been found in both towns; include workshops and drink

shops. Many shops were rented front rooms of large, private houses. Most shops were located on Via dell’Abondanza. Inside the shop was counter for selling goods and shelves on the wall. Some shops

had a back room for storage. Taverns had tables/chair for people to eat/drink and

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usually offered accommodation. Bars did not have seating and were usually very small.

Name of room/area ExplanationAla (plural – alae) Wing room/s at the end of the atrium giving access

to the tabliniumAncestral image An image, usually made of wax, of a distinguished

ancestor, put on display in the hallway or atriumAtrium Reception hallCompluvium A quadrangular opening in the roof over the atrium;

rainwater flowed through this opening into a small pool

Cubiculum (plural – cubicula) Rooms that could be used as bedrooms or sitting rooms

Fauces Hallway leading from the door of the house into the atrium

Exedra Oblong room or hall used for entertaining guestsHortus (plural – horti) GardenOecus Room used for entertaining; a small salonPeristyle An open courtyard or garden area surrounded by a

colonnadePortico A walkway covered by a roof supported by columnsTabernae Officinae Shops/workshops found on the outside of the houseTablinium (plural – tablinia) A room or alcove off the atrium where family

records were kept; possibly used as an office by the owner

Triclinium Dining room – some houses had a winter and summer dining room

Vestibulum (plural – vestibula)

Entrance lobby

Influence of Greek and Egyptian cultures: art, architecture and religionArt Themes found in wall paintings include Greek mythology and Greek divinities. Paintings were often copies of Greek originals, as were statues. Floor mosaics showed Egyptian influences.Architecture Many early buildings in P+H were designed using traditions of Greek

construction; features such as peristyle were adopted from Greek designs. Greek columns were used in temples, public buildings and houses. Palaestrae of P+H have Hellenistic influences. Designs of theatres were based on Greek originals.Religion Greek gods/goddesses were worshipped in P+H; included Apollo, Hercules,

Dionysus, among others. Egyptian goddess Isis worshipped in P+H. Some houses had garden shrines to

Isis.

Religion: temples, household gods, foreign cults, tombs

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Everyday life Important part of life, citizens expected to participate in religious observation/

festivals, games and sacrifices occurred often. Separated into private/public religion,

Temples Pompeii had 10 major temples, found mainly in or near the Forum. Jupiter, Venus,

Apollo, Mercury and Venus all had temples dedicated to them. There were no services; visitors might leave incense, but was mainly for rituals

which were carried out by priests to honour the gods. The altars found within temples suggest that sacrifices occurred often. Temples were fairly small buildings; people would go once daily rather than

congregate regularly. Temples:

Capitolium: Temple of Jupiter. Inside were gods Jupiter, Juno and Minerva. Centre of state religion; on north side of Forum.

Temple of Vespasian: centre of imperial cult. Temple of Venus was among oldest/largest; Venus was patron goddess of

Pompeii. Temple of Apollo was most ancient sanctuary. Near Forum was temple of Fortuna Augusta, which had statue of Augustus.

Worship of the emperor (‘imperial cult’) was most important.Household Gods Paterfamilias head of the household, usually oldest male, and was in charge of

private rituals in the house. Daily ceremonies were held, where offerings were made.

Genius god of male line of descent. Worshipped on birthday of paterfamilias. Most houses had small shrines (lararia) with small statues or painted images of

household gods (lares – family protectors) and the genius, who was ‘life spirit’ of the head of the household (usually father).

Foreign Cults Cults of the Greek world were popular. Isis most popular foreign deity. Temple of Isis was near Forum; was rebuilt of

AD 62 earthquake and was most elaborate. Cult of Isis represented wide spectrum of the pop’n; in particular, women, poor people and slaves were included. This made it very popular; also, cult met emotional needs of people not met through state religion. By time of Vespasian/Titus, cult had become well integrated into Pompeian life.

Figurine of Hindu fertility goddess Lakshimi was found. Other foreign cults:

Thracian fertility god Sabazius was worshipped. Evidence of Jews/Christians was found in Pompeii.

Tombs Tombs were not hidden away; were constructed along busiest streets near gates

and outside the walls. Pompeii necropolis (ancient cemetery/burial ground) along almost every road entering the city.

Tombs were decorated with columns, statues, frescoes, mosaics and bas-reliefs of various scenes.

Tombs of tradesmen feature terracotta panels illustrating their owners’ former activities.

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3. Investigating, Reconstructing and Preserving the Past

Changing methods and contributions of nineteenth and twentieth century archaeologists to our understanding of Pompeii and Herculaneum Before 19th century ‘treasure hunt’ style of archaeology; sites were looted –

paintings cut from walls, mosaics lifted off floors and other artefacts stolen/put in museums.

Archaeologist and years they were in charge

Methods and discoveries

Giuseppe Fiorelli1860-1875

numbered and naming excavated buildings/houses, identified regions, named streets and gates, divided P into insuale,

Systematic and careful excavation, excavated according to a plan, went from building to block to block

Top down excavation: stopped side on excavation, did less damage to walls and evidence

Plaster casts revealed impressions of humans animals and furniture

August Mau1873-1909

Classifies frescoes into four different styles ,

Provided date range for buildings by estimating age of fresco first, Styles still accepted to this day.

Vittorio Spinazzola 1910-1923

Systematic excavation like fiorelli but excavated streetscapes giving indication of external appearance of buildings

Excavated “street of abundance” and restored facdes of building revealing shops, taverns, houses workshops

Used evidence from remains of buildings and paintings of houses to reconstruct upper stories and balconies which had been destroyed

Used photography to record stages of his excavations, now useful in working to repair damage by theft, vandalism and exposure to the elements

Amedeo Maiuri 1924-1961 Superintendent, oversaw extensive

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program of excavation, uncovered signf new areas including No. of insuale along street of abundance, the amphitheatre and the palaestra

Interested in pre roman history, excavated right around the wall and discovered the cemetery

Excavated the villa of mysteries and the estate of Julia felix

Used mechanical equipment to clear debris from earlier excavations and areas considered too hard to excavate. Protected uncovered buildings and put roofs over them

Criticised for excavating to quickly and with little documentation. Some building unprotected and unrecorded, paintings in some buildings faded without being recorded

Put Pompeii on the map

Fausto Zevi1977-present

Archaeologist who became superintendent of excavations at Pompeii.

Decided to devote resources to conservation/recording.

Photographic record made of wall paintings/mosaics. resulting in 1800 photographs

Established international co-operation between teams from Italy, Holland, Spain, Germany, Britain, Australia and US.

Earthquake in 1980 drew attention to protection and conservation and preservation of buildings

Supervision was inadequate and many objects stolen, some conservation was done poorly, resulting in further damage

giovani guzzo Superintendant, overseen several important developments.

Negioted with iti gov to keep more of the money from tourists trebling funds to nine million.

Attracted international teams of experts to conduct investigations and conservation projects

Sara bisel Ethical issues came with Bisel’s study of bones in Herculaneum. She had various photos taken which were

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unethical, and made conclusions about bones (e.g. the soldier, slave girl) which were unsubstantiated and had no real basis in evidence.

Estelle lazer challenged old interpretation that those who died were the ones who could not leave; e.g. old/sick people. Lazer says that remains reflected a full cross-section of society in both P+H. E.g. Lady of Oplontis; was aged between 30-40, was in good health and appeared to be wealthy (gold bracelet, clutching money purse at time of death).

Bones show people healthy and well nourished

10% of bones show evidence of arthritis

studied teeth, many had dental problems due to grit in food

11% of female skeletons had condition only found in post menopausal women, suggesting people lived well in the 50’s and 60’s

Changing Interpretations: impact of new research and technologiesEarthquake of AD 62 Maiuri (1942) and Penelope Allison (1992) believe Pompeii was in economic

decline after AD 62 earthquake. Said buildings lacked repairs and houses were abandoned or being used by squatters.

Alison Cooley challenged this view; said people may have been rebuilding/redecorating.

What human remains said about the eruption Estelle Lazer (1986) challenged old interpretation that those who died were the

ones who could not leave; e.g. old/sick people. Lazer says that remains reflected a full cross-section of society in both P+H. E.g. Lady of Oplontis; was aged between 30-40, was in good health and appeared to be wealthy (gold bracelet, clutching money purse at time of death).

Sara Bisel/Luigi Capasso (1982) support Lazer, saying the 139 skeletons in Herculaneum represent normal cross-section of the pop’n.

Changing interpretations of buildings Penelope Allison changed interpretations of how rooms were used; puts

forward concept that rooms had multiple uses. Archaeologist Tina Najbjerg believes basilicas at P+H had multiple uses. Wallace-Hadrill argues there were far fewer brothels in Pompeii than historians

say; states Romans had a type of zoning in place.

Impact of new research and technologies

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Previously, archaeologists would records finds through sketches/photographs. Now, digital cameras, scanners, x-rays and computer enhancements are used.

New projects: Philodemus project: unrolling and reading of scrolls found in Villa of Papyri. Neapolis project: attempt to provide a system of interlinked databases of

Vesuvius region. Study of skeletal remains has changed idea that only elderly, women and children

were those who died in eruption; from new studies, appears that full cross-section of society is present at both P+H.

Sarah bisel studied teeth, many had dental problems due to grit in food Studies by Luigi Capasso have revealed that most people were in good health;

incidence of disease was no higher in P+H than in modern Western countries.

Issues of conservation and reconstruction: Italian and international contributions and responsibilities; impact of tourism Important dates:Year Event1995 Vesuvius National Park officially opened.1996 Excavation on house of Papyri commenced controversial.1997 Pompeii, Herculaneum, Stabiae and Villa of Oplontis declared

World Heritage sites. Italian govt. passes law so that P+H receive all money

collected from entry fees.1998 Excavations stopped at Villa of Papyri.2004 Conserved and restored sections of the Villa of Papyri opened

to the public.

Conservation vs. Reconstruction Has been an ongoing debate as whether P+H should be excavated further or

whether the sites should be conserved and protected from further destruction. Conservation supporters insist that if we continue to excavate/reconstruct, will

only be putting the uncovered archaeological evidence at risk; will also be putting already uncovered evidence in danger through neglect and failed attempts at reconstruction. An e.g. of this is the many frescoes in P+H; attempts to restore them have led to many being damaged beyond repair, and worst off than when they started.

Wallace-Hadrill sums up the argument that is in favour of conservation: “In the end, the pivotal point is this. Until we have demonstrated that we can find a way to manage this incomparable heritage and preserve it for future generations, specifically so at Herculaneum, we can only add to the existing problem by undertaking new excavation.”

Proponents for further excavation/reconstruction have said there is huge amount of uncovered evidence, and that restoring evidence can show the public what it was really like for Romans at the time.

Have been political influences on issue of conservation and excavation/reconstruction; e.g. political influences on Maiuri in 1930s from Mussolini, or legal entanglements which exist today.

Damage to Pompeii and Herculaneum

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Both sites present problems as they are open air museums. Excavated areas in P+H have been exposed to the elements, and crumbled away due to lack of effective protection.

Acidic pigeon droppings have damaged frescoes. Weeds/shrubs attempt to grow over the ruins; the roots push at walls and crack

floors. Also, the pictures are fading due to exposure from sun/rain.Impact of tourism More and more tourists have come to P+H; Pompeii receives 2.5 million visitors a

year, while Herculaneum receives 500,000. Pompeii is now very seriously threatened by tourism, pollution and vandalism. Trampling feet destroy ancient pavements/lead pipes, and people damage

buildings by writing their names on them and stealing fragments of pottery.

To solve the problems affecting P+H, money needs to be poured into protecting them. 3 organisations have been founded; the Pompeii Trust, World Monuments Watch and the Kress Foundation.

Ethical issues: study and display of human remains Is much debate as to whether we should collect/study human remains. Two

arguments: Positive: new discoveries/information can be obtained by studying these

bodies. Negative: some believe remains should be reburied is disrespectful to have

bodies on display. Has been long tradition of collecting human remains for study/display; in 2nd half

of 20th century, there has been increasing pressure for these bones to be reburied. Casts have been made of bodies to overcome the issue of directly displaying the

remains; these plaster replicas are displayed at various points in P+H, instead of the actual remains.

New technology holographic displays of bodies; may mean that bodies would not be directly displayed, with a likeness presented instead.

Sara Bisel: Ethical issues came with Bisel’s study of bones in Herculaneum. She had

various photos taken which were unethical, and made conclusions about bones (e.g. the soldier, slave girl) which were unsubstantiated and had no real basis in evidence.

Archaeologist and years they were in charge

Methods and discoveries

Antonio Bonnuci 1818-1819

Uncovered the Forum, gladiator barracks, Temple of Fortuna Augusta and House of the Faun.

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Giuseppe Fiorelli1860-1875

Developed scientific approach by keeping written record of excavations and preparing methodical system for excavation of P+H.

Cleared away all earth, ash and lapilli and set up roofs to protect sites.

Divided Pompeii into regions and insulae, giving each a name/grid number, and each house a number.

Excavated from roof of building downwards. 1863 invented plaster casting method which made

moulds of cavities left in hardened ash by bodies and other objects. Gave a realistic representation of human bodies, animals, furniture and food.

Established a training school for archaeologists.August Mau1873-1909

German archaeologist who categorised all Pompeian wall paintings into four main styles.

Vittorio Spinazzola 1910-1923

Wanted to excavate commercial life of city by examining frontages of buildings; had to change plan to excavate whole house.

Cleared the Via dell’Abondanza. First to record buildings/artefacts using photography.

Amedeo Maiuri 1924-1961

Used stratigraphic method to excavate Pompeii. Excavated around Via dell’Abondanza and unearthed

Pompeian amphitheatre/palaestra. Uncovered walls of the city. Worked at fully excavating Villa of Mysteries. Cleared 10 insulae; has been criticised for excavating too

fast and damaging archaeological remains. Fausto Zevi1977-present

Archaeologist who became superintendent of excavations at Pompeii.

Decided to devote resources to conservation/recording. Photographic record made of wall paintings/mosaics. Established international co-operation between teams from

Italy, Holland, Spain, Germany, Britain, Australia and US.

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