Plato was the student of Socrates (c. 470 – 399), another well-known Greek philosopher. Most of what we know about Socrates, comes from the writings of Plato.

In Athens at the time, the government was democratic but Socrates preferred a form of government where one wise individual ruled. Socrates did not hide this belief so because of his free mindedness and open opinions, he influenced many people, including Plato, but he also became unpopular with others.

As a result, Socrates was arrested on charges of corrupting the young and sentenced to death by poison. Socrates could have appealed for leniency but he stood for what he believed in and that the search for truth was more important than life itself. Socrates died by drinking poisonous hemlock.

Plato then wrote many philosophical writings that were in the forms of dialogues and Socrates was always made to be the main character and the wisest.

Plato was a rationalist because he supported being rational and using our minds(nous). He was also a dualist because he believed that the body (sarx) and soul(psyche) exist separately but are linked in some way.

Socrates believed that to be moral, you had to have true knowledge to know what is the right thing to do.

Plato believed there were two types of knowledge (episteme):• empirical knowledge – knowledge that is gained through the senses.• innate knowledge – knowledge that is gained through the mind (nous) rather than through the senses. It is an essential part of our character which we have from birth.

Plato did not believe that we gained knowledge from our senses (empirical knowledge) because they cannot be trusted and is unreliable. It is subject to change because the world is in a constant state of flux and can produce illusions (eikasia).

Heraclitus: “You cannot step into the same river twice”

Because Plato was a dualist, he believed that our innate knowledge is in our soul(psyche) and that the soul comes from the world of the Forms (Noeton).

Plato also believed that we are able to remember and rediscover inner truth known within our souls from the world of the Forms (Noeton), by the process of anamnesis.

As a result, Plato believed in two worlds:• Horaton – world of appearances.• Noeton – world of reality.

Plato believed that there were two types of beings:• Spiritual beings (souls).• Material beings (houses / chairs / dogs etc).

In Horaton, everything is in a constant state of flux, so empirical knowledge is not true knowledge, but just a set of subjective opinions (doxa). In Noeton, there is true knowledge that will never change.

The Noeton is also known as the realm of the Forms (eidos).

Noeton (world of reality) Horaton (world of appearances)

World of souls / Forms World we live in

World of perfect concepts World of imperfect phenomena

Intelligible world Visible world

World beyond the senses World of senses

World of true knowledge World of opinions

Eternal and unchanging Decaying and changing

Plato rejected art because it is a product of our senses which are capable of producing illusions (eikasia)We all may agree that there is some degree of beauty in a painting or masterpiece but Plato developed the idea that there is a Form called ‘beauty’, of which we have a dim recollection from our prior existence in Noeton. Whenever we see something that may contain elements of this Form, we recognise it as beautiful.

According to Plato, Horaton is a pale imitation of the real world. Because our world is in a constant state of flux, Plato believed that there must be a world that is unchanging and contains perfect Forms of the things we know on Earth, which he believed to be Noeton.

Noeton contains fixed truths which are absolutely true for all time, people and place, therefore it is objective.

The Forms are timeless / spaceless / perfect / eternal / divine

The particulars participate in the Form. A child may distinguish between a horse and a dog, showing that the child is recognising the Form, yet older people may distinguish certain characteristics between the horse and dog, focussing on more details.

Plato said we recognise the Forms because we are born with a dim recollection of them from our prior existence in Noeton. There is an inner part of us, perhaps the soul(psyche), that does not change. It is eternal and before it became trapped in the body, it was connected with the real world of the Forms. It is because we have seen the Forms before, that we can recognise them now.The most important Form (highest Form) is the Form of the Good. In Horaton, we can label things as Good, yet we truly do not understand the what Goodness is as it is subjective. Plato argues that Goodness is the most important Form and this Form of the Good is the source of the other Forms. Good is objective/absolute and has moral values as it comes from the Forms.Plato uses an analogy of sight to illustrate the importance of the Form of the Good:• Sight requires both light and the eye to see clearly.• Light symbolises the Form of the Good.• This implies that without the knowledge of the Form of the Good, one cannot see clearly.• This is the same as trying to see in the dark.

Some Forms are greater than others, so they are ideal Forms, which have something in common. They all have the presence of Good in them and are universal qualities. In this way, because Good is the most important Form, it is the ‘Form of the Forms’. Once Good is understood, other Forms such as Justice, Truth and Beauty can also be understood as they are aspects of Goodness.

• Form (eidos) – an idea of the appearance of something. e.g. Cats are different as there are many types and species but overall, we have a basic idea of what a cat looks like as anyone can distinguish between a cat and a dog.• Particulars – specific details which add to the Form to make it what it is. Superficial details which overlay the Form, shows what makes it unique and are pale copies of the Form.• The Form of the Good – most important / ideal Form as Plato believes it to be ‘The Form of the Forms’.

Does recognition of the Forms prove we have an eternal soul?We are taught things through experience, such as names of objects and animals. Everyone has different interpretations of hate / beauty / love as they are subjective. We learn this through repetition and education, so we gain this through empirical knowledge, therefore we may not have an eternal soul.

Like Socrates believed that society should be ruled by a wise individual instead of a democracy, Plato also believed that a Philosopher should rule society because they would have a deeper understanding of the Form of the Good. Along with this understanding, they therefore have a better idea of justice and truth so they would be perfect at ruling society. On the other hand, Politicians are good at lying and view their personal self-interest in the highest regard.

Plato’s God was called the Demiurge (craftsman). The Demiurge is perfectly good but not omnipotent. The Demiurge did not create the world creatio ex nihilo, but used pre-existing matter. This raw, pre-existing matter had always existed in a state of chaos.

e.g. A potter moulds clay to make objects, however the potter does not make the clay. The potter simply moulds it to make objects out of it.The Demiurge had a model to work from. The Forms are timeless and spaceless so these acted like the blueprints to create the imperfect objects that are not timeless or spaceless.

The Demiurge did not create the Forms, nor did the Forms create or do anything. The Forms were simply there. The Demiurge used them as a model after which he made the universe, however, he had a problem:• Forms were timeless, spaceless and immutable (unchangeable).• The material the Demiurge had to work with, was not timeless, spaceless or immutable.• Therefore, the Demiurge had to use imperfect materials to model something that resembled the perfect original.• Therefore, the universe has to be an imperfect model.

The Demiurge did the best he could, but given the imperfect material he was working with, inevitably resulted in an imperfect world.

Plato believed that this accounted for many of the imperfections in the world.e.g. Evil and suffering.

In this way, instances of beauty, truth, justice and goodness are not found to be perfect in this world because we know people who are truthful, yet it does not mean that they are perfectly truthful.

The Demiurge – summary:• Found in Timaeus.• Plato’s God, the Demiurge (meaning craftsman) is perfectly good but is not omnipotent.• The Demiurge used pre-existing matter that he did not create, to fashion/mould the universe.• The Demiurge did not create the universe creatio ex nihilo.• Evil is present in the universe because:

- the pre-existing matter resisted his will.- the universe is within space and time, whereas the forms are beyond space and time.

• The Demiurge brings order out of chaos

As Plato was a dualist, he believed the body (sarx) is a physical thing as it exists within time and space. The mind (nous), however, is beyond time and space because it exists in the realm of the Forms (Noeton), therefore, it can access universal truths from the world of ideas.

On the other hand, the soul (psyche) is immortal as it is also a part of the world of ideas. The soul is the perfect, essential, immaterial part of a human which is within the human temporarily as then it will return to the realm of the Forms (Noeton). Plato believed that the body houses the soul but technically imprisons it so the soul is the prisoner of the body.Plato uses an analogy of a chariot to compare the relationship of the soul with the mind and body. The soul is compared to a chariot because the body and mind are two horses being controlled and driven by the soul.

Plato believed that the mind and body are also often in opposition. The mind wants to understand ideas, to gain real knowledge of the Forms, but the body is interested in only sense pleasures.

e.g. The body constantly needs food and sleep. This gets in the way of intellectual pursuits.

Sometimes the demands of the body are so great that it clutters the minds with unnecessary thoughts such as ‘What’s for lunch?’ / ‘Do I look ok?’

Plato: “The body is the source of endless trouble”

In connection with Plato’s concept that the soul is immortal, all knowledge is recollected. He thought this because of the widespread belief that murder is wrong, therefore these ideas must be with us from a previous existence.

As a person discovers different elements of the physical world, this begins a process of remembering. The psyche begins to remember the World of the Forms (Noeton) which it once inhabited and longs to return to this unchanging world. It becomes increasingly unsatisfied with the limitations of the World of Appearances (Horaton).Plato again, uses the metaphor of light.

In Plato’s dialogue Phaedo, Socrates claims that doing philosophy is a rehearsal for death. What he meant by this was that death separates the soul from the body and philosophy is about trying to concentrate on the real truth rather than appearances. Plato argues that when the Athenian Government caused the death of Socrates, they did not win because they released his trapped psyche from the body, allowing it to return to Noeton to renew its knowledge of the Form of the Good.

Found in Plato’s Republic. It is used to explain his Theory of the Forms and Socrates is the main character.

• Prisoners are chained, facing a wall deep within a cave.

• Puppeteers cause shadows to fall on the wall in front of the prisoners by using puppets.

• Prisoners think the shadows they experience are true reality.

• A prisoner is freed to the real spiritual world.

• He recognises the puppets in the shadows.

• He sees the Sun giving life to all things and all puppets.

• When he returns to the cave to tell the other prisoners the truth, they try to kill him.

1. The cave and the prisoners:The cave represents Horaton and the prisoners are humans who are trapped in this

illusory world. The prisoners represent ordinary, unenlightened people whose lives and minds are empty of philosophy.

2. The shadows:Represent illusions (eikasia) within the cave (Horaton). Also symbolise the states of

mind, the lowest level of understanding based on opinion (doxa) because the prisoners are tricked into believing that these illusions are real.

3. The puppeteers:Represent the powerful, influential members of society. They use artificial surrounding

to control and manipulate the information the prisoners receive. Like the prisoners, they are also living in a false reality.

4. The ‘released’ prisoner:Represents Socrates, who has no concern over popular beliefs of his day, therefore, he

died for his beliefs and values. Also represents every philosopher who seeks truth and wisdom. They challenge the reality of this world and question where it may come from.

5. The ‘released’ prisoners journey out of the cave:Represents the process of anamnesis, the journey of the nous or psyche in pursuit of

the examined life. Symbolically shows the becoming of a true philosopher because it is difficult grappling with new ideas.

6. The world beyond the cave:Represents the real world – Noeton. The World of the Forms are beyond the shadows.7. The Sun:A metaphor representing the source of absolute truth. The Sun represents the Form of

the Good. When the ‘released’ prisoner sees the sun, it represents the philosopher achieving enlightenment.

8. Return to the cave:When the ‘released’ prisoner returns to the cave to tell the other prisoners the truth

and wants to free them, they say they will kill him because they