Info 3 Revision Guide

1 Information

“Data that has been processed to produce something meaningful.”

Different information needs within an organisationOrganisations need information concerning hours worked and hourly pay rate for individuals in order to correctly work out pay for people. Retail organisations use “just-in-time” policy as storing and holding stock is expensive. Getting rid of goods as soon as they become available is more profitable and relies heavily on ICT systems.

Ordering stuff in a school CSTeacher sends order form to supplier using Electronic Data Interchange, which is authorised by bursar. When approved, supplier sends invoice back using EDI again, with payment for the goods being made using BACS (Bankers Automated Clearing Service – method of processing financial transactions electronically.)

Different levels of task have different information needsStrategic – Highest level of authority – Long term decisions made – senior managers at head officeTactical – Mid level of authority –Mid-term decisions – Store managers and senior administratorsOperational – Lowest level of authority – Shortest term decisions – sales assistants on shop floor

Different personnel have different information needs

Suppliers – Will need information on the materials an organisation needs to order and method of payment.- Suppliers will use things like e-mail and telephone for communication purposes- Use of an extranet which enables suppliers to log in to the organisation’s network, only

accessing relevant parts

Customers – Website FAQs - can quickly deal with popular queries and questions often asked by customers. Limited to those that have an Internet connection, and is also quite impersonal. Quick and easy to set up and after use.

- E-mail - Avoids customer waiting in a phone queue, is personalised but not completely impersonal, and does not have to be answered instantaneously like telephone.

- Internet chat – one-on-one instant messaging and contact with customer, cheap and easy to set up in today’s current technology climate.

Official and legal bodiesCompanies will need to exchange information with government agencies like HM Revenue and Customs, Inland Revenue for tax and company registration purposes. Directgov website is a portal that links all the government agencies together.

Exchange of information with external bodiesWhen communicating with any external body, the company/organisation must adhere to a set of privacy, security and legal requirements. The DPA ensures personal data cannot be passed on to foreign companies, not affiliated with the Information Commission, and that it is kept secure, possibly through the use of encryption.

Companies that operate in an e-commerce environment must ensure that the processing of financial details is done in a form that would not make them accessible by scammers and frauds. PayPal is an excellent service that allows security and processing of financial details to be done separately, and with a peace of mind for the customer’s sake.

2 Systems

The role of ICT in organisations

Organisation is defined by as a set of people with a common purpose. The purpose of an organisation is to achieve its aims. The role, therefore of ICT, is to help organisation’s achieve these aims efficiently and effectively. ICT may be used to design and make things, whilst other systems will help with the selling.

A cost benefit analysis must be used when buying ICT equipment for ICT systems. The cost is justified when:

The time saved completing a certain task is often shortened when ICT is used EPOS systems in shops

A better overall product may be produced if ICT systems are used to produce it-CAD design systems

ICT systems can hip with the estimation of materials needed in a project, or time forecasted for a certain task to be completed

Critical Success Factors must be met in an organisation for a projector goal to be achieved.

Common ICT systems used in organisations

Payroll – calculates wages and salaries for companies’ employees. Software is bought and configured in order to make sure correct taxing of an individual is made and Inland Revenue information is inputted correctly. Personalised wage slips are to be made and distributed accordingly, plus a P60 form to sum up an employee’s record at the end of the fiscal year.

Human Resources – stores information about employee data contact details, promotions, and disciplinary incidents. Software bundles sell human resource software in modules so companies can opt for which is best for them.

The requirements of external agencies

Supply chain - Raw materials to products. The links between each stage. Must be run smoothly in order for product to be made on time and without delay. As a result, customer might cancel or order with rival company.

Legacy systems

When changing to a new ICT system, it may not replace the old one completely. Older “legacy” systems may be used. Data portability must be maintained – transfer data between different software packages or systems – so data can be interchanged with old legacy systems and current systems. Data transferability must also be upheld – import data from an old ICT system to a new one when the new one is being installed.

Types of ICT system and their uses

ICT systems can be split into operational, tactical and strategic levelled based systems. Data processing systems allow those at operational level work in their environment efficiently. Tactical level systems summarise data for middle managers in order to allow them to properly manage the organisation from a medium term stance. Data here is further summarised so that those at the tactical level can make long term, big decisions to future the business.

“Back office systems” – The ICT systems that run the internal operations of an organisation that are not seen or accessible to the public.

Transaction processing systems

Used at operational level of organisations – day-to-day business stuff. Carries out simple tasks. Price of train ticket, paying a bill.

Workflow management systems

Software that helps organisations analyses and manages their business processes by using computer models to represent the logic of the workflow.

Document management systems

Store paper based documents electronically. Scanned and stored, then put in library and indexed. Easily retrievable. Metadata is added to documents to make them easier to find – get the right one.

Management Information Systems

Takes data from internal and external sources, process it, and provides information that can be used by managers at different levels to aid effective decision making.

Decision support systems

Computer –based system that analyses data to provide information to help managers make decisions. Expert systems, based on AI techniques.

Enterprise systems

Serve the enterprise as a whole rather than any individual department. Brings together a complete organisation which is often complex and very complicated.

Customer Relationship Management (CRM)

Store data about customers in order to improve the service that the customer receives and increase the likelihood of repeat business. CRM software allows for indications to be made for mortgages, pension and insurance business. Data warehouses used- storage facility for large quantities of data-to store the large amounts of generated data in ECRM software.

E-Commerce

Allows customers to browse for goods and place order. Internet can be used to buy downloaded items, or physical items which are shipped out. Amazon is purely online but high street retailers use “bricks-and-mortar” technique to get even greater profits. Must be secure. Https used with padlock. Intermediary banks like PayPal make online transactions easier and even more secure as actual bank details are not exchanged with supplier and customer. There are drawbacks, with phishing sites being set up to scam people. Cannot see actual good “in the flesh” and delivery costs can be high.

3 Management and strategies

Large organisations need robust methods of communicating with everyone within a business. The Chinese whispers effect takes hold, where through different levels of people, information becomes distorted and inaccurate. Communicating in the current age comes in the form of carbon-copying email attachments and messages or using an intranet where everyone can see the document at the same time. Smaller organisations use word-of-mouth and simply telling an individual about something, rather than having to send emails or set up an intranet.

Informal communication in a business, both small and large, is done through the “grapevine.” It is important that businesses set up appropriate and secure methods of distributing documents, by making strict controls over access rights and building these issues into operational and disciplinary procedures.

ICT strategies and policies

Strategic level management of any organisation uses a strategy – long term plan for achieving a goal – in order to match the aims of the business.

e.g.) Clothes shop needs to expand its key demographic of customers

ICT strategy – set up e-commerceICT policy – a statement which defines the organisation’s position on a particular issue and may determine decisions – employing a web designer to set up an internet site- Pushing current customers to do the same- Setting up of methods of online payments – using EDI for EFTPOS

Contribution of ICT management to business strategy

If ICT is to contribute effectively to the strategic aims of an organisation, it is vital that it is represented appropriately at strategic management level. The CIO must have the proper information in order to make informed and appropriate decisions on the organisational strategies of the organisation. Suggesting where to ICT can help the organisation and managing the unrealistic expectations of others.

Factors influencing ICT strategyGoals – any ICT development should provide measurable benefits to its users, to the organisation or its clients. A good development will produce benefits for all three. The introduction of the new system is important. If it is seen to be advancing the business and producing benefits. Its introduction would most likely be well received. It is worth spelling out to all those individuals that the reason for making changes will bring about a large amount of benefits, even if it brings about difficulties in the short term.

Available finance – Calculating the cost of the new system, using cost benefit techniques. Would be complex at first but very beneficial to assess how financially viable the cost of incorporating a new system is.

e.g.) a company combining a nationwide set of smaller system into one company-wide database, accessible from any UK office.

Costs would include: The development of the database Software licenses Upgrading server hardware Upgrading to workstation hardware Upgrading to newer OS’s Upgrading of communication network to allow form seamless transfer of data Importing data from legacy systems Training of users

Benefits would include: Improvement in efficiency Reduction in time spent transferring data between systems Faster response to customer queries, which may lead to the redundancy of support staff Improvement in responsiveness may attract new clients, and retain current ones

Benefits may take time to materialise but will most likely be profitable in the long-term. A financial model would be used to see if investment is worthwhile. Reduce in costs may come from, for example, leasing hardware, however, aspects like these would be made at a strategic level.

Legacy systems – Not feasible to replace legacy systems when introducing new ones. The ICT strategy must consider how the old and new systems can work together. Data transferability or data portability must be considered.

Geographical factors – ICT strategy can be affected by geog. factors. If in an office environment, then a LAN would be sufficient, however, if there are lots of small hubs over a county or area, then a WAN should be used. Wider client base would profit from more web-based trading, but good customer support will need to be in place – other than by means of direct contact. International organisations must consider laws in other countries.

Compliance with legislation – All data in the UK is bounded by the Data Protection Act. An ICT strategy may be affected, if, for instance, customers’ data is to be processed in other countries as part of offshoring – transfer of an organisational function to another country, be it tele-sales or software production – arrangements. Health and Safety Act must be adhered to, along with Display Screen Equipment Regulations and the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act.

Management of information assets over time – ICT strategy must consider for how long data should be stored before being purged. This will save memory. DPA states that data should not be kept longer than necessary. Some data would need to be kept for people to refer to quickly or for “just-in-case” purposes.

Corporate ICT strategiesLarge organisations need ICT strategies that are generic to all departments within an organisation, so everyone follows the same rules.

Keeping pace with developments – Technological developments need to be kept up with by an organisation in order to future proof their current equipment. This may be in upgrading current equipment, either by purchase or by leasing. The latter is more favoured as upgrades continue over time, and is cheaper in the short term. Equipment depreciates over time, so will be cheaper in future, which is why leasing is the better option some times.

Frequency of replacing equipment must be considered. Some features are often better in newer software or hardware options.

Information Management – Setting up of access rights and permissions to levels of data, for different levels of users. Issues of security and confidentiality need to be considered and laid down repeatedly.

People – Managing of human resources within an organisation. Recruiting new employees, ensuring they have the competencies for a job, qualifications and experience demanded of them for a particular job. Making sure sensitive information stored on a network can be accessed to those with permission, and distributed tasks amongst a large group of people. Hierarchy of an organisation will also be affected. Responsibilities of individuals within a department will affect corporate strategy.

StandardsWhen an ICT strategy is established, standards and protocols must be established. A communications protocol is an agreed set of rules to ensure the proper transfer of data between devices. E.g.s) of protocols:

Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) – protocols that allow geographically distant computers to be linked together using Open Systems Interconnection.

TCP/IP – set of working internet practices that allow Internet users to communicate no matter what the hardware of software being used

HTTP (HyperText Transfer Protocol) – set of rules used on World Wide Web for communicating between sites. An online company must use HTTPS.

FTP (File Transfer Protocol) – standard used for transferring files over the Internet. Companies that have updates for their software use FTPs to unleash information.

IP Address – uniquely identifies a computer connected to a network. SMTP AND POP3 – both are email protocols

4 Policies and Legislation

PoliciesAfter the establishment of an ICT strategy, an organisation must put in place policies to deal with the practical implications of ensuring the strategy is implemented. Policies are used within an organisation covering different aspects of the use of ICT, from security, training and procurement. Policies then comes together to form part of an employee’s contract of employment – the legal agreement between an employer and an employee. Breaches of policies within an organisation are met with disciplinary procedures – laying down the sanctions for breaking company policies.

Security Policy How ICT is used to protect a company’s assets. A security policy should aim to ensure the security – making sure that an organisation’s data is correct, confidential and safe and privacy of data – not seen or accessed by anyone else unauthorised.

A security policy will lay down the rules of an organisation’s use of data and equipment – hardware, software, data and storage media. Policy must:

Identify threats and manage the risks of each Allocate responsibilities for data security – telling people how to best use equipment State resources needed to maintain data security

Data must be analysed to establish how valuable the data is to the organisation, and the consequences of breaches to the organisation thereafter. These could be financial consequences, legal consequences or even a loss of trust by clients.

Data should be classified as either, public – made available to everyone, internal use only – can be used anywhere in the organisation, but not released outside, or confidential – restricted to certain members of the organisation only.

Network securityIn a security policy, network access rights would be assigned to user names, passwords, biometric identities and Any other methods of controlling access to the network.

The network OS can log workstation activity, having the ability to log off workstations that have remained inactive after a certain time period, for example.

Data transferWho has access to the internet and email and whether workstations allow the use of removable media like USB sticks. Encryption may be used to ensure the integrity of data, and to protect against fraud. Firewalls should be put in place to block external access to the network.

Change control and monitoringMonitoring and logging one’s repeated attempts to access the network thus reducing the risk of a penchaud accessing the network. Also, data that has been modified can be logged, especially sensitive data, which can result on disciplinary procedures like sanctions and smacked bottom.

Uses of laptopWhen a laptop is taken out of an organisations direct physical location, the use of the laptop by family members or friends must be stated in the policy. Data should be backed up, plus, governing the sensitivity of the data, encrypted, so that pricks can’t seal information if stolen. Not leaving the laptop on a train or some shit will also be written, plus virus checkers being regularly up to date.

Backup and recovery policies*SECTION 7* - Establish how data is to be backed up, and recovery of it in the event of disaster.

Training policyWhen a new brer enters the business, training of employees must occur at various stages in their career. Should familiarise them with the fundamental procedures of the job.

Continued training will improve aspects of staff development, helping the employees do their current job well and also perhaps prepare for promotion. Time off is dedicated to staff training, which often mean external agencies coming in to play, or going out on a course in the big wide world. *SECTION 8*

Procurement PolicyThe setting and controlling of the purchase of ICT equipment. ICT department puts in orders, or specific departments puts in orders. Bulk buying may mean having a central purchasing system in place which brings down the price. Getting laptops has its risks too, but has the benefits of portability.

Policy may also cover the disposal of old machines and obsolete equipment – WEEE

Consumable – toner – is expensive and the policy may pose restrictive measures on the use of them.

Acceptable use policySo the use of email and internet is covered mainly here. Email should only be used for work purposes, so no spamming or defamatory emails. Email should be a “postcard” of information, rather than a “sealed letter.”

The use of the internet should also be laid down in the policy, with the organisation’s stance on what is not permitted. This may include: Viewing abusive content Restricting the downloading and streaming of large media – Live TV, detrimental impacts

on the performance of a network

Downloading files and introducing viruses to the network as a result

Filter sites can be used to block inappropriate websites, backed up by disciplinary measures for repeat offenders.

The impact of legislation on ICT policiesThe affect that the organisation has by legislation put in place by the government. This will include: Aware of the implications faced if legislation not followed Checking how well a company meets legislation criteria Identify the areas of non-compliance and correct them Update procedures Train staff about each of the Acts Build the procedures into induction training, contracts of employment and disciplinary

procedures.

Prosecution will result if criteria not met

Data Protection Act Appointing someone who is responsible for a company’s data Check there is affiliation with the Information Commissioner’s office and that the terms

meet with the actual use of the data Procedures put in place to identify what is done with data

Handling of customer requests to view data - FoIA Security of data – setting up access rights Updating of data regularly – responsibility? NO CHIT-CHAT

Freedom of Information ActIdentify what information that a company can release, and what information has special exemptions. A procedure will need to be set up on how to handle each request and what cost there should be.

Computer Misuse ActStaff must know the disciplinary procedures concerned with attempting to access forbidden data. Not sharing passwords, writing down shit, not leaving workstation logged on. Computers should have a built-in function which logs users off after a period of inactivity.

Copyright, Designs and Patents ActControl of software licenses:

Audit software scans for and finds illegal software Illegal software will need correct license Steps taken to ensure unauthorised software cannot be installed Staff notified of the importance of only using authorised software, which is licensed. The network audit should happen regularly

Wider implication of legislation, which included Intellectual Property and use of material being copyright free and original.

Health and Safety at Work ActThe Display Screen Regulations are part of the H&S@WA that applies to computer users who use computers for a long time.Employers must:

Carry out risk assessments on each workstations to ensure there are not any health and safety issues

Supply suitable adjustable furniture Hot-desking used then adjustable workstation components Training uses on a safe keying position to prevent RSI Provide sufficient desk space Consider tasks conducted and build in activities that reduce the time being prone in

one position Software with nice colour schemes, reducing key strokes though drop down buttons,

good menu designs and shortcuts A system where reports of H&S can be raised and dealt with Review workstations at regular intervals

5 Developing ICT solutions

People hope that ICT solutions created to solve their organisations’ problems are a success and hope they do well to serve employees and the business. There are various factors which contribute to the development of a successful ICT system, and there are reasons why some ICT projects fail too. A feasibility study is usually conducted before a system is made to see if it is 100% viable.

System development lifecycleHowever big the system, an ICT project must be planned and adhered to in stages. These can be illustrated in a Systems Development Lifecycle. “Cycle” is key as there is no end to the development of an ICT system. In practice, each stage will finish and there will be a chance to move onto the next part of the cycle. In real life, this is not the case with overlap and feedback meaning designs being amended and needing for a re-structure. Unexpected difficulties may arise as the project progresses, which may lead to a slightly different viewpoint, called the waterfall model.

At the end of each stage, there will be agreed deliverables – documents or systems that would need to be produced after each stage - which should be signed off by the client with the approval to proceed – a document saying that the client is happy to move onto the next stage of the process.

Stages of developmentAnalysis Establishing the need and solving of the nature of a problem, before a solution can be attempted. First step is analysing what is already currently happening as part of a system, be it paper based or computer based, and deciding what needs to be established. Analysis would include:

Exactly what the existing system does Strengths and weaknesses Requirements of the new system Any potential constraints of the new system

Gathering information could be done through: Interviews Questionnaires Analysis of existing paper work Observing the normal working day

Analysis could then be fed into software in order to create: Data decomposition diagrams – represents the processes within a system Mapping processes to data flow diagrams – shows how data moves through a

system, where it comes from, processes it passes through and where it goes System flow charts – to define the flow of data through a system

Deliverables include: Clear and detailed user requirements specification

A list of tasks and subtasks to be completed A Gantt chart An assessment of the users’ current ICT skill level Hardware and software requirements Performance indicators to measure success of the project An outline of the proposed method of solution

DesignDesign stage will show how the system is to be produced:

Data capture and validation methods Designs for the user interface Processing to be carried out Outputs to be produced How testing will happen

Deliverables: Data structures, processes Designs of outputs, on-screen, paper or by other methods A test strategy and plan, including test data for module/unit testing, integration

testing, systems testing, user testing and operational testing. A detailed time plan

Construction of the solutionCustomising an already available solution – less risky to make and give to user than one built from scratch, plus is cheaper and quicker to produce, plus forums and help staff can aid with queries. However, will not be bespoke and unique to client, with little free hand of producing something completely tailor-made.

Writing code – more flexible method of producing a solution. Can be modelled on user requirements exactly. More chance of bugs, and errors.

Deliverables: system, documentation of the solution plus draft version of user guide

TestingTesting must happen and occur thoroughly. A testing plan must be made which should tick off all the relevant boxes.

Module/unit testingTesting individuals sections of a system to make sure each bit works. White box testing – checks the details of the programming code and algorithms – is used in module testing where the programmer has access to internal data structures.

Integration testing

Modules are combined after module testing, and debugged. Functional testingTest the operation of the system and pick up errors that were not seen in module testing. First indication that that the solution is most likely to meet user requirements and is written from user’s perspective. Black box testing – checks that input gives given output, rather than the details of the processing involved.

Systems testingTests the complete, integrated solution before user testing. Goes from beginning to end to ensure all is in working order.

User testingActual users will be put through the paces of the system and offer comments on how to improve. Final stage before operation of the system.

Operational testingConducted in the environment in which the solution will be working.

Deliverables of testing: test data and results modified user guide client approved to install

Installation and conversionSystem put into working environment to be used by client and end users. Conversion of any existing system, legacy systems, will also need to be done.

System documentation including user guide and other documents will be shown, that may be needed for future maintenance.

Training of users will also need to take place, even if it happened previously before.

Deliverables: fully functioning solution Full documentation including user guide and tech. Documents

Review and maintenanceMonitoring of how system is coping is an ongoing process. As a result of the monitoring, there are three types of maintenance:

Corrective maintenance – involves correcting errors in the system that still remain, even after testing

Adaptive maintenance – making alteration to organisational protocols and new security risk

Perfective maintenance – improving software to enhance performance

Successful ICT Developments

Factors which aid a development’s success:

1. Managements and end user involvement – if staff at all levels of an organisation are involved in stages of the process, the process is more likely to succeed. Different levels of users have different levels of requirements, which should be accounted for when a requirements list is drawn up. Testing of the system and initial training of the new system should also be conducted to ensure work on the new system can be done in confidence

2. Realistic expectations – Not do the impossible. Clear specification ensures all parties realise what the solution will be aiming to achieve. Time frame and budges needs to be realistic.

3. Professional standards – no cutting corners, documented thoroughly, have the correct attitude and skills to complete the jobby.

4. Good teamwork – must mould and successfully work together to ensure a successful outcome

Failure in ICT developments1. Inadequate analysis – not analysing the problem properly and missing out aspects of the system that the client would need

2. Poor design – inappropriate interfaces and frustrating designs can make system slower than is necessary, and can lead to buggy systems too.

3. Inappropriate testing – major errors will go undetected, which could lead to major problems of the functioning of the system.

4. Poorly organised installation and changeover – if the transition is not smooth, then this will affect attitude of end user. Poor training and introduction to the new system will lead to a lack of client confidence.

5. Poor user support and maintenance – with no secondary support, to back-up queries and problems which will inevitably befall the end user allegiance, and help on hand will lead to people developing a poor attitude to the system, and affecting the chances of success.

6. Poor project management – being disorganised and not monitoring costs of tasks and time scales, will lead to a late system, which overflows on budget allowance.

Formal project managementBreaking down of a larger task into smaller ones, allocating an appropriate amount of time to complete each one. Progress needs strict monitoring so that the project does not fall behind.

Projects need to have:

A timescale An approved budget An agreed amount of labour and equipment

Project management is made up of: A set of specialist skills, knowledge and experience to reduce risk of failure A suite of tools such as document templates and registers Techniques and processes to monitor and control time, quality, risk and issue

management.

Development methodologiesCan be in two categories – linear methodologies, such as the waterfall method and iterative methodologies such as Rapid Application Development.

LinearEach stage of a process is completed before the next can begin. “splash-back” when you have to revisit a previous stage, but would normally be straightforward otherwise. Easier to manage than iterative methods, with closer control on time schedules and budgets. Less able to respond creatively to problems with this methods.

IterativeRepeating steps till you get the good shit at the end. Only when developers and clients are happy with a particular stage, then it is all good.

PrototypingProcess of continuous refinement based on experiences. Prototyping gradually evolves to meet the users’ requirements, who are far more heavily involved, meaning that they will be happy with final product.

Agile methodsMore adaptable than traditional methodologies. Agile methodologies involve producing a brief, high level plans and then adapting those pans based on the results of what actually happens. Breaking down development into small pieces, fitting them together at an appropriate time.

Extreme Programming (XP)Stories are made by client on what the system needs to do for them. A release planning meeting is held for clients, developers and managers to create a schedule that everyone agrees on.

ScrumPeople fulfilling separate tasks come together to form a whole. Scrum divides problem into discrete tasks assigned to groups. Short meetings and discussions ensure project is running all fine and dandy.

Crystal

Simplest and most compact team structure is processed for an organisation, thus making the development process faster and more efficient, by reducing paperwork, and improving communication.

Rapid Application Development (RAD)RAD uses computer tools to improve development times and quality at low financial costs. Tools include:

GUI builders Computer Aided Software Engineering (CASE) tools 4th generation programming languages Code generators Object-orientated techniques

Meeting business need quickly, and at an acceptable cost.

RAD says that products could be developed faster and of higher quality by: Using workshops or focus groups to gather requirements Prototyping and user testing of designs Re-using software components Following a schedule Keeping review meetings

Dynamic Systems Development (DSDM)An extension of RAD with the following principles:

User involvements produces accurate decisions Focus on frequent delivery of products for testing and review Delivering a system that meets current critical business needs, rather than a perfect

system Development is iterative and users’ feedback taken into consideration Testing is continuous Communication and cooperation must be efficient and effective.

6 Systems development tools and techniques

Investigating and recording techniques

Interviews – most usual method of gathering client requirements, and most productive, with the largest degree of knowledge of what the client wants being able to achieve from the system, being known through this method. Group interviews work well with several members whose job titles are relevant to the ideas being discussed in the interview. Need to be prepared in advance, run smoothly, avoid going off on tangents and reported and documented well after.

Joint Application Development (JAD) – group of people get together and stay in session until a complete set of requirements is documented and agreed to. With heavy involvement by client and users, JAD sessions often bring about faster development times and greater client satisfaction.

Questionnaires – useful for users in remote locations, or who have a lesser role when the development process of a system is considered. Good for large numbers of people involved and also good to see how weighted an opinion is, due to the quantifiable nature of questionnaires.

Observation – visiting the company will make clearer how an organisation operates and give a better understanding of what goes on

Thought showers – open session where everyone submits their thoughts, share ideas and will collectively produce something innovative.

Record searching/document analysis – study of material written down by the organisation. Analysis often results in identifying data that needs to be stored, information that needs to be produced and the format of the information.

Fact recording – recording what you found out in your techniques and writing them down. Permanent record If Multiple people are involved, then they can look at notes gathered from fact

recording and go from there Helps in analysis

Business process modelling toolsIt is essential to understand the processes going on within a business, so it is easy to document and allow everyone to understand. Use of diagrams makes processes clear, without the need for waffly descriptions.

SSADM (Structured Analysis and Design Methodology)A standard method for analysis and design of large scale ICT projects, using a combination of text and diagrams throughout the whole life cycle of a system design. Precise methodology that divides development into many small stages, with a rigid structure that makes SSADM have much control over developing higher quality systems.

Information flow Diagrams

Rectangles are internal processes and rhombi are external.

So the process will be: Teacher FOCONFIRM WITH TEACHER

FOSUPPLIERGOODS TO TEACHER

FOTEACHER CONFIRMFO TELLS BANK TO SHIFT MONEY

Systems Flow Chart

System flow charts show the logic of the processes involved in a system or

program.

They show inputs, outputs, processes and decisions.

Decision Tables

The logic of decisions made within the system. Ordering stock that is needed and not needed.

Data Flow DiagramsIllustrate how data is processed and stored within a system

Types of DFDsContext diagram – provide the least amount of details about the working of the system – area in which the project is working

Single process Interaction with external entities Defines the scope of the system

Level 0 diagram – working of the whole system All of the processes occurring Explode a single process

into its components involved

No more than 7 (+-2) in a level 0 FD

Can get very complicated In the example:

userdata store #1allocated job numberhuman is attempted to be found to resolvecompleted job

Level 1 or detailed diagrams (too complicated for exam IMO) Show only part of a process Can be numbered 1.1,1.2,1.3 no external agents are shown on a Level 1 or lower diagrams, as the entire system is

not being represented

Entity Relationship Diagrams

Entity attribute diagramsEntities are data items in the systems which have data stored about them. Kids in a school.

Attributes describe the entity, giving particular information about each one. Surname, of a kid in a school.

Entity Relationship diagramsEntity relationship diagrams show the relationship between entities and form the basis of relational database design

Entity

Attribute

Techniques for testingTechniques used for thorough testing include:

Test harnesses – allows tests to be automated, allowing units of programming codes to be analysed, monitoring the outputs and processes going on. Economical in terms of time and money.

Volume testing – shows how well the system will cope under the stresses of high data volumes. A good system will be able to cope with large amount, without losing efficiency and speed.

Scalability - make sure the system will function correctly and give acceptable performance levels when the system is “scaled up” to full requirements in future.

Prototyping – considered a useful technique for gathering feedback from clients about user interface, and improving it following their comments. Limited version of solution made, shown to clients, leaving them in control of filling in blanks according to their specification.

Multi-platform – running tests on a multitude of different computers to assess if the system works in different environments, and on different platforms – a combination of hardware and software, in particular operating systems software that allows applications software to run.

Use of simulated environmentsIt is difficult to test system in lots of different computer environments so using simulated environment to mimic what the use of the system would be like is more economically viable and less time consuming.

7 Introducing large scale systems

Introducing large scale systems to an organisation brings in extra complications and difficulties, which are not as defined or apparent in smaller systems. Questions posed:

How can the reliability of large ICT systems be ensured by testing? How can successful installation be carries out? What strategies are there for back-up and restoration?

ScaleCan be used in not just one organisation but, multiple smaller ones. An NHS system used in both trusts and hospitals around the country, and also GP surgeries.

Reliability and testingSystems must operate reliably. Defects will be looked for and found through:

Functional defects – a system does not produce what it is expected to do Performance defects – does the job but at a very low speed Usability defects – if users find interface inefficient or difficult to use Security defects – accidental damage to a system without warning or inadequate

protection of most valuable files

Different types of testing: Requirements-based testing – user requirements sets benchmark and provides basis

for testing the software Program testing – going through code in system and assessing where errors may lay

using test cases – a set of test data and its expected outcomes. System testing – makes sure system works according to the specification, and is done

by following the test plan to test individual system functions. Regression testing – re-running tests again on modified and changed code, to see if it

made a difference Change control – makes sure changes happen in a controlled and coordinated way,

properly documented. Alpha testing – carried out by software house while software being developed Beta testing – software being tested by select group of real users who will use it

under normal operating conditions.

Large organisations tend to use networks to share resources, like software, so testing the new system in that environment is also essential.

InstallationMethods of introduction:

Direct changeover Phased changeover Pilot running Parallel running

Direct changeover – old system stops and new one starts. Pros – quickest, less risk of staff being confused between old and newCons – difficult to train staff with immediate introduction, nothing to fall back on if failure, small window of transfer for developers to move data from legacy system

Pilot running – new system introduced in one place of an organisation, small sector, and one officePros – easier to control, easy to monitor and evaluate, easy to train staff, lesser riskCons - very slow to roll out a pilot, may not show problems that exist in full-scale system

Phased changeover – new system is brought in stages to replace parts of the old system, until the old one is completely “phased out.”Pros – structured method allowing evaluation of each stage, less risk than direct, staff can be trained on each phase.Cons – slower than direct, complete system evaluation cannot be done until at the very end, could cause complications

Parallel – old system and new system running alongside each otherPros – easily comparable, old system can be used to fall-back on, staff can be trained graduallyCons – very expensive, may cause confusion

Do Pg 77 – 79

Back-up and RecoveryData stored in new system must be safe, secure and available to use. Most useful way of approaching decisions about back-up and recovery is to have a disaster recovery strategy – plans to avoid data loss and reinstate a working system within an acceptable period of time.

Risks to data in system Inappropriate usage of devices – introduction of viruses Network data breaches Laptop theft Lack of education

Risk analysis carried out to see how valuable information is to organisation, and the speed with which they need to be recovered.

Mission critical data, like databases of customer records or populations of people, are most valuable. Each type of data is then set an RTO – Recovery Time Objective – length of time it will take for a system to be fully operational after crisis. Data recovery point – last point at which data is backed up – will also need to be set.

For large scale disasters, accommodation may be required: Existing accommodation – if system is only destroyed, then people can stay in one

place Alternative accommodation – having somewhere else to go Reciprocal site – asking friends to lend us a hand and let us borrow their site Standby site – “cold” standby site – a site with a duplicate system but is not

necessarily tested or up-to-date – “hot” standby site – duplicate system, live data, same time processing – failover system – used to provide continuous service for mission critical systems such as e-commerce.

HOW VALUABLE IS DATA TO AN ORGANISATION, AND HOW MUCH IS IT WILLING TO SPEND!!!

Back-up operations Failover systems – hot and cold sites Replicate systems Regular snapshots Periodic back-up to discs Tape backup Archiving

Procedures for recovery Identifying facilities available to an organisation in the event of a crisis – hot/cold

site, reciprocal agreement with firm/contract with specialist data recovery firm Describing process for recovery from various types of failures Training of people who will do recovery Planning the availability of software and hardware. UPS Projected time of recovery Testing the reinstating of a recovery file to a system

Steps to recovery1. Estimate situation – extent of problem, cause, approximate amount, file types, importance of data2. Evaluate available resources – human and hardware, making sure the required expertise is available and functioning hard disk space3. Set up – good hard disks are installed with good power supply and cabling4. Recovery run – install recovery file5. Evaluate the results – undertake a manual review of the recovered files6. Clean up – get rid of corrupted files

Types of maintenance on LSS

Corrective maintenance – correct any errors identified during the installation processAdaptive maintenance – keep to changes in environment. Hardware changes, new OS’s, security threats or legislation. Competition from other businesses.Perfective maintenance – enhancements to the system to increase performance and enhance user interface. Improvements in software to stop it falling behind.

Systems are easier to maintain if they are: Structured well with standard methods Use of modern software Use of automated tools like CASE tools Good data administration Experienced maintenance engineers

8 Training and supporting users

It is necessary to train and support users to give them the knowledge and skills they need to do their job effectively.

Internal and external usersMost training will be for internal users of a system, but there may be the option of offering training to those outside of an organisation. Customers to use online systems

Types of trainingInduction training – training carried out when a new employee joins the organisation. Familiarisation with ICT policies and procedures

Task-based training – training the user on actual tasks they will be facing in future – how to fill out entry form or EPOS checkout

Skills-based training – transferable skills that can be used in a variety of ways – if someone is trained in using spreadsheets, and then they can use those skills for a variety of tasks.

Training usersMust be justification in financial terms. Business will have to see training users as an investment which will increase productivity and boost profits.

Methods of trainingPersonal training – user is trained by another person from inside or outside of an organisation.

Courses-External course away from organisation – individuals going to a place outside of the business and meeting with fellows of the same job and having training conducted by professional. Travel and refreshment cost, nice being away from normal operations and home. Not entirely relevant to an organisation but its good as users can network and a process called “cascading” can develop.

External trainer giving course from within an organisation – trainer comes in to train large volume of users at once. Avoids the extra expense of travel and costs for individuals themselves. Company will pay trainer travel and expenses costs, plus a daily rate for his/her services. Course will be tailor made to requirements of business. Cheaper than sending all people to an external; course. Good team building exercise. On the other hand, a lot of people off duty, this may affect business operations.

Internal trainer – ICT literate employee or member of ICT department who gives training. Cost is much less but the person giving training is again “off-duty.” May be less forma when person is giving training to their friends.

One-to-one – Friendly and reassuring way of training someone, if nervous. Interactive, users can ask questions; have personal responses to their questions, slightly less formal but still professional. Can be expensive

Other methods

Online tutorials – step-by-step online pages can mimic and simulate the operation of the software. Interactive, users can work at own pace, replay tutorials for better understanding, cost-effective as they can be used many times. Impersonal and user cannot ask questions.

Training manuals – usually paper-based and provided by the same people that made the software. Easy for user to find the bit they find hard, always there for reference, less expensive than training courses.

Computer based training (CBT) – simulated version of the software that the user can follow, and learn from. Built-in tests that the user can test themselves on. CBT is cheaper than courses and can be repeated,

Factors to consider when choosing training: How many users need training? Is expertise available on site? Suitable facilities? External courses available? How often will staff be trained? Can existing staff be used to train others? Are good quality use manuals or CBT available? Users’ skill level Users’ preferences

Supporting usersSoftware help files – will have search facilities which the user can access and use. Natural language interface – users type in questions as if it were real terms “am I good at ICT?” Context-sensitive help – gives users help on the bit they are stuck on can also be used.

User guides and manuals – technical documentation provides all the information needed to install, maintain and run software. Third party manuals – provided by publishers other than the software house – can also be sued and support range of level of user.

On site technician/help desk – larger organisations have their own help desk or technician to resolve queries.

Existing user base – users who already know how to use software and stuff can be used. Forums and that.

External assistanceExternal helpdeskHelpdesk provided by the software manufacturer, or a company with whom a support contract has been negotiated. Contact made via phone, Can be expensive. Outsourced telephone jobs in India.

Email and chat supportCheap way of offering support. Done over the Internet.

Remote supportLog into an organisation’s network and investigate problems and carry out solutions remotely.

Call-out supportEngineer comes and visits you

Factors that affect choice of call-out method Enough work to support idea of getting support staff? How complex is the setup to be supported? How much support is provided free? How much will a support contract cost? What will it include? How quickly will support be delivered? Are there security issues with using external contractors?

Interfaces for customersBusinesses need to look after customers. One way of doing this is by giving them interfaces that are easy-to-use and effective so that customers do not need to be trained to use them. Should be clear, easy and with plain instruction.

Bank customers – ATMs are used to do all the things people need to do with their money. Key-pad buttons and menus are used to allow people to take out money, put money in, top up phone, and see balance.

Patients in a surgery – touch screen registering system which people use to tell doctor they are here important that screen is intuitive and no training required. Menu driven with few options to select.

Online shopping – should be easy for customers to get the shit they want.