PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI - … terms found in On Foreign Shores. Second, there are 5...

THE TRANSLATION PROCEDURES OF CULTURE-SPECIFIC TERMS IN ON FOREIGN SHORES

A SARJANA PENDIDIKAN THESIS

Presented as Partial Fulfillment of the Requirementsto Obtain the Sarjana Pendidikan Degree

in English Language Education

ByPaskalis Damar Aji Kurnia

091214107

ENGLISH LANGUAGE EDUCATION STUDY PROGRAMDEPARTMENT OF LANGUAGE AND ARTS EDUCATIONFACULTY OF TEACHERS TRAINING AND EDUCATION

SANATA DHARMA UNIVERSITYYOGYAKARTA

2014

PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJIPLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI

i

THE TRANSLATION PROCEDURES OF CULTURE-SPECIFIC TERMS IN ON FOREIGN SHORES

A SARJANA PENDIDIKAN THESIS

Presented as Partial Fulfillment of the Requirementsto Obtain the Sarjana Pendidikan Degree

in English Language Education

ByPaskalis Damar Aji Kurnia

091214107

ENGLISH LANGUAGE EDUCATION STUDY PROGRAMDEPARTMENT OF LANGUAGE AND ARTS EDUCATIONFACULTY OF TEACHERS TRAINING AND EDUCATION

SANATA DHARMA UNIVERSITYYOGYAKARTA

2014


vi

ABSTRACT

Kurnia, Paskalis Damar Aji. 2014. Procedures to Translate Culture-SpecificTerms in On Foreign Shores. Yogyakarta: Sanata Dharma University.

In translation, cultural differences between the source and targetlanguage cause major difficulties. Often, cultural differences are characterized bythe absence of the relevant source language situation in the culture of the targetlanguage. If this problem happens, a translator should employ translationprocedures to overcome it in sentences or smaller units of language within thetext. One example of texts in which such cultural problems may occur is OnForeign Shores: American Images in Indonesian Poetry, an anthology ofIndonesian poetry written in Bahasa Indonesia which is translated into English byJohn McGlynn. Thus, this research is conducted to find out procedures to translateculture-specific terms indicating cultural problems.

The research questions then were formulated as: 1) What are the culture-specific terms found in On Foreign Shores? and 2) What are the proceduresadopted by McGlynn in translating the culture-specific terms found in On ForeignShores?

To answer both research questions, the researcher conducted aqualitative research by using the content analysis. The research data are takenfrom On Foreign Shores. To answer the first research question, the researcheridentified and classified culture-specific terms in On Foreign Shores according toNewmark’s categorisation (1988). To answer the second research question, theresearcher analyzed the procedures to translate culture-specific terms in OnForeign Shores from Bahasa Indonesia into English by employing proceduresproposed by Vinay and Darbelnet (1958) and Newmark (1988).

From the analyses, it can be concluded that: first, there are 23 culture-specific terms found in On Foreign Shores. Second, there are 5 procedures used totranslate culture-specific terms in this anthology. Those procedures aretransference, cultural equivalence or adaptation, functional equivalence,descriptive equivalence, and reduction. In fact, functional equivalence is the mostfrequently procedure used by McGlynn. Therefore, the researcher then addressedseveral recommendations for: 1) translators to take culture-specific terms andtranslation procedures into account in cross-cultural translation, 2) ELESP to startdeveloping cross-cultural translation topic in Translation course in order thatstudents of ELESP are aware of cultural problems in translation, and 3) futureresearchers to analyze other translation procedures that are not found in thisresearch in accordance to cross-cultural translation.

Keywords: culture-specific term, translation procedure, On Foreign Shores


vii

ABSTRAK

Kurnia, Paskalis Damar Aji. 2014. Procedures to Translate Culture-SpecificTerms in On Foreign Shores. Yogyakarta: Sanata Dharma University.

Dalam penerjemahan, perbedaan budaya antara bahasa sumber danbahasa sasaran dapat menyebabkan masalah serius. Seringkali, perbedaanbudaya ditandai dengan ketiadaan situasi yang relevan menurut bahasa sumberdi dalam budaya bahasa sasaran. Untuk mengatasi masalah ini, seorangpenerjemah harus menggunakan prosedur penerjemahan pada kalimat maupununit bahasa yang lebih sederhana di dalam naskah. Salah satu contoh naskah dimana masalah ini terdapat adalah On Foreign Shores: American Images inIndonesian Poetry, sebuah antologi puisi Indonesia yang ditulis dalam BahasaIndonesia dan diterjemahkan ke dalam Bahasa Inggris oleh John H. McGlynn.Oleh sebab itu, penelitian ini dilakukan untuk menentukan prosedur untukmenerjemahkan istilah budaya spesifik yang menandakan adanya masalahbudaya.

Pertanyaaan-pertanyaan yang akan dijawab dalam skripsi ini dapatdirumuskan sebagai berikut: 1) Apa saja istilah budaya spesifik dalam OnForeign Shores? dan 2) Prosedur apa saja yang digunakan oleh McGlynn untukmenerjemahkan istilah budaya spesifik dalam On Foreign Shores?

Untuk menjawab rumusan masalah tersebut, peneliti melakukanpenelitian kualitatif melalui analisis isi dengan On Foreign Shores sebagaisumber data. Untuk menjawab rumusan masalah pertama, penelitimengidentifikasi dan mengelompokkan istilah budaya spesifik dalam On ForeignShores berdasarkan kategorisasi Newmark (1988). Untuk menjawab rumusanmasalah yang kedua, peneliti menganalisa prosedur untuk menerjemahkan istilahbudaya spesifik dalam On Foreign Shores dari Bahasa Indonesia menjadi BahasaInggris dengan menggunakan prosedur yang dikemukakan oleh Vinay danDarbelnet (1958) dan Newmark (1988).

Berdasarkan analisa data, dapat disimpulkan bahwa: pertama, terdapat23 istilah budaya spesifik dalam On Foreign Shores. Kedua, terdapat 5 proseduryang digunakan untuk menerjemahkan istilah budaya spesifik dalam antologi ini.Prosedur-prosedur tersebut adalah transferensi, kepadanan budaya atauadaptasi, kepadanan fungsional, kepadanan deskriptif, dan reduksi. Kepadananfungsional adalah prosedur yang paling sering digunakan oleh McGlynn. Padaakhirnya, peneliti mengusulkan beberapa rekomendasi yang ditujukan pada: 1)penerjemah untuk memperhitungkan istilah budaya spesifik dan prosedurpenerjemahan dalam penerjemahan antar budaya, 2) Program Studi PBI untukmengembangkan topik penerjemahan antar budaya dalam mata kuliahTranslation, dan 3) calon peneliti selanjutnya untuk menganalisa prosedurpenerjemahan lain yang tidak ditemukan pada penelitian ini dalam kaitannyadengan penerjemahan antar budaya.

Kata kunci: istilah budaya spesifik, prosedur penerjemahan, On Foreign Shores


viii

“FOR I CONSIDER THAT THE SUFFERINGS OF THIS

PRESENT TIME ARE NOT WORTH COMPARING WITH

THE GLORY THAT IS TO BE REVEALED TO US”

(ROMANS 8:18)

DEDICATED TO:

THE HOUSE OF JOYO MONAWI

THE HOUSE OF SUTARSOMO

AND

PBI 2009


ix

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

First of all, I would like to praise Jesus Christ—my life and my love. I

truly thank Him for always walking by my side through every single path I take.

No words in Earth nor in every realm can describe how grateful I am for having

Him in my life

The greatest gratitude of mine goes to the best sponsor I have ever had,

Drs. Barli Bram, M.Ed., Ph.D. Through the very hectic time of my thesis until

now, his patience and his favor to give me my independence in writing have been

the greatest power for me. Moreover, his advice, comments, suggestions, and

corrections were very valuable for me.

In completion of my thesis, I also thank all of lecturers and students of

ELESP Sanata Dharma University for everything. I would peculiarly thank Ibu

Laurentia Sumarni, S.Pd., M.Trans.St., for kindly being the proofreader of the

embryo of my thesis, and Ibu Yuseva Ariyani Iswandari, S.Pd., M.Ed., for

patiently teaching me to write in English from the basic. I would also like to thank

Ibu Caecilia Tutyandari, S.Pd., M.Pd., for being the most caring and the best

chairperson of ELESP, and Ibu Christina Kristiyani, S.Pd., M.Pd., for being the

best academic advisor of my class in ELESP.

For everything, I thank Bapak Heribertus Menir Sunarno, Ibu Elisabet

Dwi Rahayu, and Agustina Ria Arini. As my family, they have done everything

to me—and now; I must become everything for them. I believe that their prayers

and blessings are my power in being good. I also thank the great House of Joyo


x

Monawi and House of Sutarsomo for all supports and prayers—especially the

late Budhe Maria Magdalena Sri Ekorini, the late Simbah Antonius Dibya

Sanjaya, and the late Simbah Chatarina Darmo Suprobo for delivering my

prayers to Jesus Christ, who sits with the three of you in heaven.

For every support and companion, I thank the great family of Lembaga

Bahasa Universitas Sanata Dharma (all coordinators, all teachers, and all staff),

all best friends in Layung, all best friends in LVYWR, and all best friends in

Kelompok 11-Pusmalang Barat KKN XLV. For all inspirations, I thank The

Devil Wears Prada, Underoath, and Park Chan-wook (even though they might

never know). For everything, I peculiarly thank Shela Novitasari, Adit, Mas

Ketchup, Budi, Nicko, Ayon, Tunggul, Bayu, Mas Amink, Mas Grandil,

Indra, Aldhy, Blacky, Ceper, Mas Sasongko, Liece, Yoga, Devi and Tari (for

their generosity), Nana, Tiara, Anggi, Adam, Kojek, Saka, and all comrades

whom I cannot mention one by one. I owe them a galaxy.

Finally, I thank everyone who knows me and cares about me—those

whom I cannot mention one by one. I would like to remind them that there are no

deeds left unrewarded. May all beings be happy.

Paskalis Damar Aji Kurnia


xi

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Page

TITLE PAGE ......................................................................................................... i

APPROVAL PAGE .............................................................................................. ii

STATEMENT OF WORK’S ORIGINALITY .................................................... iv

PERNYATAAN PERSETUJUAN PUBLIKASI ................................................. v

ABSTRACT......................................................................................................... vi

ABSTRAK .......................................................................................................... vii

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ...............................................................................viii

TABLE OF CONTENTS..................................................................................... xi

LIST OF FIGURES ........................................................................................... xiv

LIST OF TABLES .............................................................................................. xv

LIST OF APPENDICES.................................................................................... xvi

CHAPTER I: INTRODUCTION.......................................................................... 1

A. Research Background............................................................. 1

B. Research Problem................................................................... 6

C. Problem Limitation................................................................. 6

D. Research Objectives ............................................................... 8

E. Research Benefits ................................................................... 8

F. Definition of Terms .............................................................. 10

CHAPTER II: REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE ................................ 13

A. Theoretical Description ........................................................ 13

1. Language, Translations, and Cross-Cultural

Communication................................................................ 14

a. Type of translation ...................................................... 16

b. Process of translation .................................................. 19

c. Form and meaning in translation ................................ 21

d. Untranslatability.......................................................... 22


xii

e. Translation equivalence .............................................. 23

2. Culture-specific Terms .................................................... 24

a. Ecology ....................................................................... 25

b. Material Culture .......................................................... 26

c. Social Culture.............................................................. 27

d. Organisations, Ideas, Customs.................................... 27

e. Gestures and Habits .................................................... 28

3. Translation Procedures .................................................... 28

a. Borrowing ................................................................... 31

b. Calque ......................................................................... 31

c. Literal translation ........................................................ 32

d. Transposition............................................................... 32

e. Modulation.................................................................. 32

f. Equivalence................................................................. 32

g. Adaptation................................................................... 33

h. Transference................................................................ 34

i. Naturalization.............................................................. 34

j. Descriptive equivalence .............................................. 35

k. Synonymy ................................................................... 35

l. Reduction and expansion ............................................ 35

m. Couplets ...................................................................... 36

n. Notes, addition, and glosses........................................ 36

B. Theoretical Framework ........................................................ 37

CHAPTER III: RESEARCH METHODOLOGY.............................................. 39

A. Research Method.................................................................. 39

B. Research Setting ................................................................... 40

C. Research Data....................................................................... 40

D. Research Instrument ............................................................. 41

E. Data Analysis Technique...................................................... 43

F. Research Procedure .............................................................. 45


xiii

CHAPTER IV: RESEARCH RESULTS AND DISCUSSION ......................... 49

A. The Discussion of Culture-Specific Terms

in Selected Poems Taken From On Foreign Shores ............ 49

1. Ecology............................................................................ 50

2. Material Culture............................................................... 55

3. Social Culture .................................................................. 57

4. Organisations, Ideas, Customs......................................... 64

5. Gestures and Habits ......................................................... 66

B. The Discussion of Procedures to Translate

Culture-Specific Terms in On Foreign Shores..................... 70

1. Functional Equivalence ................................................... 71

2. Cultural Equivalence ....................................................... 97

3. Descriptive Equivalence ................................................ 102

4. Transference .................................................................. 104

5. Reduction....................................................................... 106

CHAPTER V: CONCLUSIONS, IMPLICATIONS, AND

RECOMMENDATIONS .................................................................................. 110

A. Conclusions ........................................................................ 110

B. Implications ........................................................................ 113

C. Recommendations .............................................................. 113

REFERENCES ................................................................................................. 115

APPENDICES ................................................................................................. 118


xiv

LIST OF FIGURES

Figure Page

2.1 Larson’s Translation Process (1984: 4).................................................. 20

2.2 Nida and Taber’s Translation Process (1988: 33)................................. 21


xv

LIST OF TABLES

Table Page

3.1 Table of Culture-Specific Terms (Based on Newmark (1988))................. 42

3.2 Table of Procedures to Translate Culture-Specific Terms (Based on

Vinay & Darbelnet (1959), Newmark (1988))........................................... 43

4.1 The Ecology Category of Culture-Specific Terms..................................... 54

4.2 The Material Culture Category of Culture-Specific Terms......................... 57

4.3 The Social Culture Category of Culture-Specific Terms........................... 64

4.4 The Organisations, Ideas, and Customs Category..................................... 66

4.5 The Gestures and Habits Category of Culture-Specific Terms.................. 68

4.6 The Distribution of Culture-Specific Terms in On Foreign Shores.......... 69

4.7 The Use of Functional Equivalence Procedure........................................... 96

4.8 The Use of Cultural Equivalence Procedure.............................................. 101

4.9 The Use of Descriptive Equivalence Procedure......................................... 104

4.10 The Use of Transference Procedure............................................................ 105

4.11 The Use of Reduction Procedure............................................................... 107

4.12 The Distribution of Translation Procedures in On Foreign Shores........... 108


xvi

LIST OF APPENDICES

Appendix Page

A. Table 3.1.......................................………………………………….. 118

B. Table 3.2.......................................................................……….......... 121

C. Transcripts of Poems from On Foreign Shores................................. 127


1

CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION

In this chapter the researcher discusses the background of the research. It

consists of six parts, namely research background, research problem, problem

limitation, research objectives, research benefits, and definition of terms. The

research background discusses the underlying reason why the researcher chose

this topic and an introduction of an analysis on the translation of Indonesian

poems written by Indonesian poets featured in On Foreign Shores: American

Images in Indonesian Poetry translated by John H. McGlynn.

A. Research Background

Language and culture cannot be separated from human life. Both of

them are integral parts of human life. Hymes (1964: 21) states that “speech is so

fundamental an activity of a man, language is so integral a part of his culture.”

Witherspoon (1980) believes that language and culture are highly interrelated and

proposes that cultures cannot be studied without attention to the native language

spoken within them, and language cannot be studied in isolation from the cultures

in which they are spoken. In addition, language and culture influence one another.

Language, in general, is a means of communication for people to interact with

other people. Specifically, language is also a means for the culture to share its

beliefs, values, and norms. Thus, cultural beliefs, values, and norms can also be

found in literary text as a product of language. Therefore, to study the literature as

a representation of language or people culture and tradition, people also need to


2

know the meaning and definition of certain cultural words or terms that exist in

literature of the target culture.

Translation plays an important role in studying the target culture. It

enables people to exchange information with others who speak in different

languages and come from some different culture. Nida and Taber (1982: 12) state

that translation consists of reproducing in the receptor language (target language)

the closest natural equivalent of the source language message in term of meaning

and style. It can be concluded that translation should transfer the real meaning of

the source language message instead of transferring only the form. That idea

defines what an ideal translation is. However, fulfilling the criteria of the ideal

translation is not an easy thing. Based on Larson (1984: 163), cultural differences

between the source and target language pose major difficulties for translators.

Certain concepts in the source language may have no equivalence in the target

language because of differences in aspects, such as geography, customs, beliefs,

and various other factors. For example, some Javanese words like macapat, which

means old traditional Javanese verses, paklik, which means the younger brother of

one’s parents, budhe, which means the older sister of one’s parents, and surjan,

which means traditional Javanese clothes for men, may be difficult to be

translated into English because English, the target language does not have cultural

equivalences for those words.

The problem of non-equivalence in translation has become a serious

threat to translators. Based on Nida and Taber (1974), a translation reaches the

highest degree of equivalence when the receptors of the target language respond


3

to it in substantially the same manner as the receptors in the source language; it is

also called dynamic equivalence. Meanwhile, non-equivalence is rooted the

untranslatability. The untranslatability itself, based on Catford (1965: 94), occurs

when it is impossible to build features of the situation which are functionally

relevant to the contextual meaning of the target language. There are two types of

untranslatability, linguistic and cultural untranslatability. Linguistic

untranslatability is caused by the failure to find a target language equivalence due

to the differences in source language and target language, while cultural

untranslatability is caused by the absence of the relevant source language situation

in the culture of the target language. Baker (1992: 20) reveals the occurence of

non-equivalence in the word level which is defined by the absence of direct

equivalence concept in the target language.

To analyze how problems of untranslatability and non-equivalence

rooted from the absence of local Indonesian cultural concepts in English, this

research focuses on some Indonesian poetry which is translated into English.

Poetry is chosen as the means of this research because of its likeliness of being

untranslatable, which Jakobson claims as an impact of the form of words that

contributes to the construction of the meaning in text (1959: 238). Thus, the

researcher considers that translating poetry is not an easy quest. As El-shafey

(2012: 12) states that it “is considered the highest forms of translation” as it

involves more than simply translating text. Poetry is an extraordinary kind of

text; it is the most personal and concentrated of all literary forms, no redundancy,

no phatic language, where, as a unit, the word has greater importance than in any


4

other type of text (Newmark, 1988: 163). Therefore, the research only focuses on

words which become the first unit of meaning—preceding the sentence.

In conducting this research, the researcher analyzed all poems featured

in On Foreign Shores: American Images in Indonesian Poetry (which is going to

be referred only as On Foreign Shores later). On Foreign Shores is an anthology

of Indonesian poems telling experience as a poetic record of travels by Indonesian

poets through The United States of America, which was published in conjunction

with the 1990-1991 Festival of Indonesia in the United States by the Lontar

Foundation. This book consists of 69 poems from 21 Indonesian most pioneering

poets from several generations. All of those poems are translated into English by

McGlynn who also becomes the editor of this book. Damono, in the introduction

of this anthology, said that this anthology gives a chance for Indonesian readers

through the eyes of fellow Indonesians, who are poets to view The United States

of America; while for American readers, this collection offers insight into

foreigner’s attitude toward American ways. For all readers, this book presents a

study of intercultural exchange between Indonesia and the United States of

America.

McGlynn, who translated all poems in On Foreign Shores, finds that

culture-bound expressions (e.g., culture-specific terms and onomatopoeic words)

become problematic for him because of the lack of cultural correspondences in

English. It can be inferred from his statement that “it is impossible to translate”

without explicitation, or “without paragraphs of explanation for each items”

(1990: 185). Therefore, there are procedures used to translate poems in On


5

Foreign Shores. In his effort to accommodate studies of intercultural exchange

and its global publication for readers in the United States, McGlynn, who

concerns about culture, takes these translation problems into account by carefully

addressing questions on how those cultural expressions in the poems which are

originally written in Bahasa Indonesia and some Javanese are translated into

English. Furthermore, a careful study of applied translation procedures in

translating from different cultural background was conducted by the translator to

accommodate the reader.

By conducting this research, the researcher expects that the findings of

this research will be beneficial in the practical field, as well as in the academic

field; moreover, for ‘Translation’ course in English Language Education Study

Program (ELESP) of Sanata Dharma University, in which the researcher majors

English Education. This research, which deals with cross-cultural translation and

procedures to translate literary work, is expected to equip Translation lecturers

and students with some decent comprehension on how translation procedures are

used in general and cultural purpose. In addition, this research is going to provide

ELESP students a vivid view on how culture-specific terms become threats in

translating English text into Bahasa Indonesia. This research is also expected to be

a consideration in designing syllabus used in Translation course. Generally, this

research is going to provide real and authentic examples of how translation

procedures are applied and analyzed.


6

B. Research Problem

Based on the research background, the problems of this research are

formulated as follows:

1. What are the culture-specific terms found in On Foreign Shores: American

Images in Indonesian Poetry?

2. What are the procedures adopted by McGlynn in translating the culture-

specific terms found in On Foreign Shores: American Images in Indonesian

Poetry?

C. Problem Limitation

Some theories on translation are applicable in general translation. It

means that those theories can be applied as the basic or standard principles to

translate any text from a language to other language. This research also focuses on

translating texts from Bahasa Indonesia into English; specifically on procedures

adopted by the translator, John H. McGlynn, to translate culture-specific terms.

The researcher also limits the procedures to those models proposed by Vinay and

Darbelnet (1995) and Newmark (1998).

This research is limited by analyzing only poems which are featured in

the anthology of poems entitled On Foreign Shores: American Images in

Indonesian Poetry as translated and edited by McGlynn. Those poems are selected

because they feature particular numbers of culture-specific term uses in them;

those culture-specific terms are mostly Indonesian and Javanese specific terms.

All poems in On Foreign Shores are translated by considering the intended


7

meaning and reproduction of the syntactic form in TL, yet, neglecting stylistic

form of SL in the TL, as seen in the fragment below:

Pada hari yang ketigakau siuman dan terjaga

Pada hari yang kelimakau sudah berganti nama

Pada hari kesebelaskau cicip udara bebas

Pada hari keduapuluhputusan jatuh: kau sembuh(Surachman R.M’s Sajak-Sajak dari Solarium, p. 56)

The fragment of Sajak-Sajak dari Solarium devices rhyme, as indicated

by bolded letters above, to enhance stylistic form of the poem. However, when the

poem is translated into English, the rhyme deviced to enhance the style is not

transferred. Therefore, only the original meaning and syntactical form remain, as

seen in the fragment of the translated version of Sajak-Sajak dari Solarium below.

On the third dayyou regained consciousness, awoke

On the fifth dayyou changed your name

On the eleventh dayyou tasted open air

On the twentieth daythe prognosis came: a clean bill of health

(Poems from the Solariums, an English version of Surachman R.M’sSajak-Sajak dari Solarium, p. 57)

Considering the fact that poems in On Foreign Shores are translated by

regarding the meaning and literal form only, the researcher also focuses on the

transferred meaning and literal form from the SL to the TL. To accommodate that

fact and the theories of culture-specific term, this research also limits the data


8

which are going to be translated only into word-level and phrase-level terms only.

Therefore, the researcher analyzes only culture-specific words and phrases in the

SL and their forms in the TL based on their intended meaning.

D. Research Objectives

The objectives of this research are:

1. To identify the culture-specific terms in On Foreign Shores: American

Images in Indonesian Poetry based on Newmark’s categorisation.

2. To find out the procedures applied in translating culture-specific terms in

On Foreign Shores: American Images in Indonesian Poetry, which are

translated by McGlynn based on Vinay and Darbelnet’s and Newmark’s

models.

E. Research Benefits

The researcher is expecting this research to have contribution to

academic and practical field, particularly for the development of English language

education, for the translators, and for the further research.

1. For the Development of English Education

a. English teachers, especially who teach translation, would know better

how translation procedures play roles in translating culture-specific terms

in literary work.

b. Students, who learn English, especially about translation, would be able

to learn about threats in translation and how translation procedures play

roles in translating culture-specific terms in literary work.


9

c. The research finding would be a consideration in designing material to

put in the syllabus of “Translation” course in English Language

Education Study Program.

2. For Translators

a. The research findings will give translators precautious aids on what

might be problematic in translating culture-specific terms in literary

work.

b. The research findings will give translators, especially who work for

Bahasa Indonesia-English translation, more considerations to take in

choosing the most appropriate procedures to translate culture-specific

terms in literary work.

3. For Further Research

a. This research will contribute to linguistics study, particularly related to

the translation of literary work, the translation of culture-specific terms,

and translation procedures for general and specific purpose.

b. The research findings will enrich the theories of linguistics which are

related to the translation of literary work and the translation of culture-

specific terms.

c. The research can be used and referred for other researchers in the future

as academic references to conduct further studies dealing with the

translation of literary work, especially with the translation of culture-

specific terms.


10

F. Definition of Terms

In this part, the researcher is going to give some definitions of terms

used in this research. The terms which are going to be described are translation,

translation procedure, culture-specific terms, source language, target language,

source text and target text.

1. Translation

Translation is simply known as a process of transferring message from

one language to another language. It is in lines with Newmark’s definition stating

that translation is rendering the meaning of a text into another language in the way

the author intended the text (1988: 5). In addition, Catford (1965: 20) states that

translation may be defined as the replacement of textual material in one language

by equivalent textual material in the target language. Similarly, Nida and Taber

(1974: 12) defines translation as the reproduction in receptor language of the

closest natural equivalent of the source message, first in terms of meaning, and

secondly in terms of style. Therefore, based on the definitions given by some

experts above, it can be concluded that translation deals with finding a Target

Language equivalence of a Source Language text.

2. Translation Procedure

Suryawinata and Haryanto (2003: 67) define translation procedures as

the way to translate words, phrases, clauses, or even the whole sentence if the

translated part cannot be separated into smaller units to be translated. Besides,

Krings (1986: 18) states that translation procedure is "translator's potentially

conscious plans for solving concrete translation problems in the framework of a


11

concrete translation task," and Loescher (1991: 8) defines translation procedure as

"a potentially conscious procedure for solving a problem faced in translating a

text, or any segment of it." From those definitions and explanations above, it can

be concluded that translation procedures deals with conscious act that a translator

used to overcome problems in sentences or smaller units of language within the

text.

In addition, some experts propose several translation procedures to

translate texts with or without corresponding equivalence. However, in this

research, only translation procedures proposed by Newmark (1988) and Vinay &

Darbelnet (1995) will be used.

3. Source Language (SL)

The Source Language or SL is the language in which the text requiring

translation is couched (Hervey and Higgins, 1992: 15). In other words, it is the

original language upon which the translation process happens. In this research, the

Source Language is Bahasa Indonesia in which the poems from On Foreign

Shores: American Images in Indonesian Poetry were originally written.

4. Target Language (TL)

The Target Language or TL is the language into which the original text

is to be translated (Hervey & Higgins, 1992: 15). In other words, it is the language

in which the translation is addressed. TL in this research is the language in which

the results of the translation of all poems in On Foreign Shores: American Images

in Indonesian Poetry were written. In a more negligible way, the TL mentioned in


12

this research is English, in which John H. McGlynn wrote the translation of those

poems.

5. Source Text (ST)

Hervey and Higgins define Source Text or ST as the text that requires

the translation (1992: 15). It is the text presented in the Source Language that was

translated. In this research, the STs are all poems in On Foreign Shores: American

Images in Indonesian Poetry.

6. Target Text (TT)

A Target Text or TT is defined as the text which is a translation of

Source Text or the result of translating Source Text (Hervey & Higgins, 1992:

15). It means that TT is a text in Target Language as a result of translating Source

Language text. In this study, the TTs are all English version of the poems in On

Foreign Shores: American Images in Indonesian Poetry..

7. Culture-specific Terms

Baker (1992: 21) defines culture-specific items as abstract and concrete

concepts in the ST which are totally unknown in target culture. Furthermore,

Newmark (1988: 95) mentions that culture-specific terms “are associated with a

particular language and cannot be literally translated.” Newmark, then,

categorizes culture-specific terms into five categories as follows: a) ecology, b)

material culture, c) social culture, d) organizations, customs, ideas, and e) gestures

and habits.


13

CHAPTER II

REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE

The contents of this chapter are to explain the theories related to the

conduct of this research. This chapter consists of two parts, namely theoretical

description and theoretical framework. The theoretical description presents the

theories of translation, culture-specific terms, translation procedures, and poems

underlying this research. The theoretical framework provides theories to solve the

research problems.

A. Theoretical Description

In this part, the researcher discusses three major parts of theoretical

description, namely the language, culture, and cross-cultural communication

theories, the culture-specific term theories, and the translation procedure theories.

The language, culture, and cross-cultural communication theories contain theories

which embrace the scope of the translation itself, types of translation, process of

translation, translation shift, untranslatability, translation equivalence. Separately,

the culture-specific term theories embrace the definition of which and the

categorisation; while, the translation procedure theories encompass procedures

proposed by Vinay and Darbelnet as well as Newmark.

The theoretical description begins with the discussion of the theories of

language, culture, and cross-cultural communication, including the types of

translation, process of translation, translation shift, untranslatability, and


14

translation equivalence. The next part concerns with further theories related to the

terms that will be used in analyzing part of this research, namely culture-specific

terms, which include categories of cultural words, and translation procedure,

which are limited to Newmark’s and Vinay and Darbelnet’s models only.

Subsequently, the culture-specific terms are described, in which it encompassed

two sections, namely the definition of culture-specific terms and the categories of

culture-specific terms. Afterwards, translation procedures are also described in

two sections, namely the definition of translation procedures and the types of

translation procedures as proposed by Newmark and Vinay and Darbelnet.

1. Language, Translation, and Cross-cultural Communication

Translation, in this modern situation, is not merely about transferring

meaning between texts from one language to another language. Based on Snell-

Hornby (1990), translation studies have moved from translation as text to as

culture and politics. It is implied that translation has gone beyond the text itself –

there are several cultural and politic concerns to be taken into account in

translation. Munday (2001: 125) also clarifies that comparisons between original

texts and the translations do not consider the text in its cultural environment. He

adds that translation goes beyond language and focuses on the interaction between

translation and culture, on an account where culture impacts and constrains

translation, and on the issues of context, history and conventions. Therefore,

culture has a major role in translation.

In translation, understanding the culture is definitely a serious concern.

Therefore, to understand translation, it is necessary to understand culture.


15

Different places in the world may have different culture. Each culture has specific

differentiator to differentiate to other cultures. Furthermore, certain culture is

differentiated from another culture by language. As Katan (1999: 75) states that

the key to cultural reality was in the lexicon, it is implied that words of a language

are what differentiate cultures. Language itself could be understood with reference

to a context of culture (Malinowski, 1923). He also states that language is

essentially rooted in the reality of culture.

In the light of culture, language must be explained with constant

reference. A language could only be understood when these two contexts

implicitly or explicitly clear to the addressee or interlocutors. Therefore, the role

of translation is to make the source text (ST) comprehensible to the target text

(TT) readers by providing them context. According to Malmkjaer (2005: 10), the

relationship between the linguistic form and the referent shows that “language

does not put names on things, but on concepts.” It reflects that the meaning of

word is conceptual-based. In the light of culture, it represents some concepts that

exist in certain culture. The problem is some concepts may exist in one culture but

some may not exist in other cultures. Therefore, the meaning of certain words in

one culture cannot be transferred into other culture’s word directly. Jakobson

(2004: 139) explains that the problem of equivalence in meaning between words

in different language, as a differentiator of culture, happens because there is

ordinarily no full equivalence between code-units. For example, the word gotong

royong, a tradition to work together within a society in Indonesia, has no


16

equivalence in English, and the word joglo, a traditional type of house in Javanese

tradition, has no equivalence in English as well.

a. Type of translation

There are several types of translation. Catford (1965:20-26)

differentiates them based on extent, level, and rank. He defines translation, as

follow:

1. Full vs. Partial Translation.

This distinction relates to the extent of SL text which is submitted to the

translation process. In a full translation, the entire text is submitted to the

translation process, which means all part of the SL text is replaced by the TL

material. In a partial translation, some part or parts of the SL text are left

untranslated. It is common to have this kind of treatment in most literary

translation.

2. Total vs. Restricted Translation

This distinction relates to the language involved in the translation. Total

translation is best defined as the replacement of SL grammar and lexis by

equivalent TL grammar and lexis, which may result in replacement of SL sounds

or spellings by non-equivalent TL sounds or spellings. On the other hand,

restricted translation is defined as the replacement of SL textual material by

equivalent TL textual material at only one level. It implies that translation is

performed only at the phonology (the sounds) or the spellings, or only at one level

between grammar and lexis.


17

3. Rank of Translation

The third type of differentiation in translation relates to the rank in a

grammatical (or phonological) hierarchy at which translation equivalence is

established. In normal total translation, the grammatical units between which

translation equivalences can be at any rank, while in a long text, the ranks where

translation equivalences occur are constantly changing. It can be sentence-to-

sentence, group-to-group, word-to-word, etc.

The popular terms free, literal, and word-for-word translation also partly

correlate with this distinction. A free translation is always unbounded between

larger units than the sentence. A word-for-word translation generally means what

it says; it is essentially at word-rank. A literal translation may start from a word-

for-word translation, but it makes changes in TL grammar. An example adopting

Catford (1965: 26) can be seen below:

SL text Siapa nama Anda?

TL text 1 Who name of yours? (Word-for-word)

2 Who is your name? (Literal)

3 What is your name? (Free)

The relation between free, literal, and word-for-word translation can be seen as

written above. Word-for-word translation performed in word rank, literal

translation performed in a higher level of word-for-word translation by the change

in grammar; while free translation seeks further than any rank beforehand.

On the other hand, based on the purpose of translation, Brislin (1976: 3-

4) categorizes translation into these following types:


18

1. Pragmatic Translation

It refers to the translation of a message with an interest in accuracy of

the information that was meant to be conveyed in the SL form. It is not concerned

with other aspects of the SL. The example of pragmatic translation is the

translation of procedure to do something, such as safety flight procedure on an

airlines and procedures of usage in electronic devices.

2. Aesthetic-Poetic Translation

This refers to translation in which the translator takes into account the

affect, emotion, and feeling of an original agnate version, the aesthetic form used

by the original author in SL, as well as any information in the message. The

example of aesthetic-poetic translation is the translation of sonnet, rhyme, heroic

couplet, dramatic dialogues, and novel.

3. Ethnographic Translation

It refers to translation whose purpose is to explicate the SL and TL

culture. Translators have to be sensitive to the way words are used. Accordingly,

translators must know how the words fit into cultures.

4. Linguistic Translation

It concerns with equivalent meanings of the constituent morphemes of

the SL. It also deals with the SL grammatical form. The example of which is the

language in computer program or machine translator.


19

In addition, Brislin (as cited in Choliludin, 2005: 26-29) also states that

based on the kinds of text to being translated, there are two types of translation,

namely factual translation and literary translation. Factual translation refers to

translating to convey information with precision, without emotion or feeling of the

translators but only based on real facts, i.e. translating scientific fields, reports,

newspaper, etc. Literary translation refers to the translation of art works in which

the translators involve his or her emotion or feeling and the translators have a perk

of being subjective. The example of which is translating poems, drama, novel, etc.

Larson (1984: 15) proposes that translation is classified into two main

types, namely form-based translation and meaning-based translation. Form-based

translation mostly follows the SL form; it is commonly known as literal

translation. Meaning-based translation attempts to make every effort to

communicate the meaning of the SL text in the natural form of TL. It is also

known as idiomatic translation.

b. Process of translation

Based on Larson (1984: 3), the goal of a translator is “an idiomatic

translation which makes every effort to communicate their meaning of the SL text

into the natural forms of the receptor language.” Furthermore, he adds that

translation is concerned with a study of the lexicon, grammatical structure,

communication situation, and cultural context of the SL, which is analyzed in

order to determine its meaning. The discovered meaning is later re-expressed

and/or re-constructed using the lexicon and grammatical structure which are

appropriate in the receptor language as well as in its cultural context. Therefore,


20

process of translation is not merely transferring the SL style directly to the TL

form, but it is transferring the SL meaning into TL meaning and reconstructing it

in the closest form of the TL. The following diagram is representing Larson’s

process of translation.

SOURCE LANGUAGE RECEPTOR LANGUAGE

Discover the meaning Re-express the meaning

Figure 2.1. Larson’s Translation Process (1984: 4)

On the other hand, Nida and Taber (1982: 33) categorize translation

process into three stages. The first stage is “analysis”, in which the surface

structure is analyzed in terms of (1) the grammatical relationship, and (2) the

meaning of the words and the combinations of words. The second stage is

“transfer”, in which the analyzed material is transferred in the mind of of ther

translator from SL to TL. The third stage is “restructuring”, in which the

transferred is restructured in order to make the final message fully acceptable in

the TL. The following diagram illustrates the process of translation based on Nida

and Taber (1988: 33).

Text to be translatedTranslation

Meaning


21

A (Source) B (Receptor)

(Analysis) (Restructuring)

X Transfer Y

Figure 2.2. Nida and Taber’s Translation Process (1988: 33)

c. Form and meaning in translation

Larson (1984: 3) states that translation is basically a change of form,

which are referred to as the surface structure of a language. It concerns with the

structural part of a language which is actually seen in print or heard in speech, or

in other words, it is the language of daily formal communication. In addition,

Baker (1992: 24) says that “the form of the source language in translation is

replaced by the equivalent lexical item of the receptor language.” The problem is

not every particular form in the SL has lexical equivalence in the TL.

Based on Larson (1984: 3), translation goes from thr SL form into the

TL form by the way of semantic structure. In making a translation, a translator

transfers the meaning of the SL text. Therefore, changes of form in the TL should

not change the meaning of the SL text; the meaning of the SL text is to keep

constantly. It refers to the characteristic of a language in which the same emaning

component occurs in several surface structure of lexical items.

The initial thing to do in translation process is to understand the

complete meaning of the SL text. There are several kinds of meaning. Nida and

Taber (1982:34) classifies meaning into two classes, namely referential and


22

connotative meaning. Referential meaning refers to words as symbols of objects,

event, abstracts and relations. Connotative meaning refers to how language users

react to the words and their combinations. By knowing the meaning of the SL

text, the translators are able to produce particular meaning to the TL and transfer

the meaning effectively into the TL environment. Therefore, well-transferred

meanings are easier to be understood by the target readers.

d. Untranslatability

There is a problem where some texts cannot be translated from ST into

TT found in the selected poems which are going to be analyzed; a problem which

mostly exists because of cultural absence of some cultural concept in American

culture and most English speaking countries (e.g.: gayam, a local food whose

concept only exists in Indonesian culture and is impossible to translate directly

into English). This problem is called as untranslatability. According to Catford

(1965), there are two kinds of untranslatability. The first is called Linguistic

Untranslatability, which happens when there is no lexical or syntactical substitute

in TL, and the second is called Cultural Untranslatability, which happens when

there is an absence in the TL culture of a relevant situational feature.

However, untranslatabilities can be translated indirectly by transferring

the source item and explaining it if no parallel item can be found in TL and no

compensatory effect to produce within the same paragraph (Newmark, 1981).

Each variety of meaning in a SL can be translated both directly and indirectly into

a TL. Therefore, every single item is translatable using that principle. Jakobson

(2004) also explains, in the light of overcoming untranslatabilities, that even if


23

there is no one-to-one correspondence between signs across language, full

semantic meaning of the words can still be expressed by that principle.

Untranslatabilities can be a source of information streams in translation.

Nida (1959) states that non-correspondence of grammatical and lexical categories,

as the main cause of untranslatabilities, is the main source of information loss and

gain in translation when SL category lacks information which is obligatory

expressed in the corresponding TL category. Furthermore, untranslatabilities can

also be a source of information streams in translating between different cultures

since language is an integral part of culture. Based on that situation, Snell-Hornby

(1988: 42) suggests that a translator needs not only proficiency in two languages,

but also be at home in those two cultures.

e. Translation Equivalence

Equivalence is not the same with correspondence, although those terms

have slight similarities. Correspondence happens in comparing two language

systems and describing differences and similarities contrastively. While

equivalence happens when there are equivalent items in specific ST-TT pairs and

contexts (Koller, 1979, in Munday, 2008: 47). Popovic (1976) explains further

about equivalence as he defines four types of equivalence (in Bardenstein, 2005):

1) Linguistic equivalence, where there is homogeneity on the linguistic level of

both SL and TL texts, i.e. word for word translation.

2) Paradigmatic equivalence, where there is equivalence of ‘the elements of

paradigmatic expressive axes, i.e. the elements of grammar.


24

3) Stylistic (syntacmatic) equivalence, where there is ‘functional equivalence of

elements in both original and translation aiming at an expressive identity with

an invariant of identical meaning’.

4) Textual (syntagmatic) equivalence, where there is equivalence of the

syntagmatic structuring of a text, i.e. equivalence of form and shape.

Nida (1964:162-165) distinguishes two types of equivalences, formal

and dynamic. Formal equivalence ‘focuses attention on the message itself, in both

form and content’. The concern of this type is such correspondences as poetry to

poetry, sentence to sentence, and concept to concept. Dynamic equivalence, on the

other hand, is based on the principle of equivalence effect, where the relationship

between the receiver and message should be the same as that between the original

receivers and the SL message.

2. Culture-specific Terms

Newmark (1988: 94) defines culture as “the way of life and its

manifestations that are peculiar to a community that uses a particular language as

its means of expression.” Furthermore, he distinguishes languages into ‘cultural’,

‘universal’, and ‘personal’ language. However, the more specific a language

becomes for natural phenomena (e.g., flora and fauna) the more it becomes

embedded in cultural features, and therefore creates translation problems. Those

‘cultural’ words is later mentioned as culture-specific terms. On the other hand,

Baker (1992: 21) defines culture-specific items as abstract and concrete concepts

in the ST which are totally unknown in target culture. Due to its unknown state in

target culture, there are some factors that influence translator’s choice of


25

procedures in translating culture-specific term to avoid mistranslation or

information loss.

In translating culture-specific term, a translator must recognize those

cultural words initially. Newmark (1988: 95) states that “most 'cultural' words are

easy to detect” because they are particular-language-associated and cannot be

literally translated, however, “many cultural customs are described in ordinary

language where literal translation would distort the meaning and a translation may

include an appropriate descriptive-functional equivalent.” Furthermore, he

categorizes cultural words into five categories, namely, (1) ecology, (2) material

culture, (3) social culture, (4) organizations, ideas, customs, and also (5) gestures

and habits (1988: 95-102).

a. Ecology

Newmark (1988: 96-97) states that geographical features can be

normally distinguished from other cultural terms in that they are usually value-

free, politically and commercially. Newmark’s examples of this category are the

local words for plains in many countries (i.e., ‘prairies’, ‘steppes’, ‘tundras’,

‘pampas’, ‘savannahs’, ‘llampos’, ‘campos’, ‘paramos’, ‘bush’, ‘veld’) with

strong elements of their local colours. Their familiarity is a function of the

importance and geographical or political proximity of their countries. These

words is normally transferred, with the addition of a brief culture-free third term

or explanation where necessary in the text. Mostly the examples of this category

are flora, fauna, winds, plains, hills. In On Foreign Shores, the example of

ecological culture-specific terms can be found in Darmanto Yatman’s Melintasi


26

Atlantik, as found in the word gayam, a local edible fruit found mostly in Java;

and daun ketapang, leaves from almond trees which grow near the seashore in

most area in Indonesia, as found in Subagio Sastrowardoyo’s Dan Kematian

Makin Akrab.

b. Material culture

Newmark (1988: 97-98) makes four sub-categories of material culture

category, namely, food, clothes, houses, and transports. Food is considered the

most sensitive and important expression of national culture; food terms cause the

widest variety of translation procedures, e.g., ‘zabaglione’, ‘sake’,

‘kaiserschmarren.’ Traditionally, national costumes when distinctive are not

translated, 2.g., sari, kimono, yukata, sarong. Clothes as cultural terms can be

explained in TL if the generic noun of classifier is added to indicate the part of

body that is covered. Furthermore, in many language communities, there are

typical houses which remain untranslated, e.g., ‘palazzo’, ‘hotel’, ‘bungalow’,

‘hacienda’, or ‘joglo.’ In addition, names of various carriages and transportation

are often used to provide local colours for prestige. However, an accurate

description is needed to precede or follow the transferred word. The examples of

‘transport’ sub-category are rickshaw, Mouton, Chalice, etc. In Linus Suryadi

AG’s Central Park and Darmanto Yatman’s Melintasi Atlantik, culture-specific

terms which are categorized into material culture are found, i.e., kopiah, a

ceremonial hat worn by Indonesian Muslim men, which belongs to terms for

clothes sub-category, and getek, a traditional raft made from bamboos, which

belongs to terms for transportations sub-category.


27

c. Social culture

Newmark (1988: 98-99) also proposes that social culture category refers

to words that indicate particular work and leisure activity or product of cultures,

e.g., ‘ajaki amah’, ‘condotttere’, ‘biwa’, ‘sithar’, ‘raga’, ‘reggae’, ‘rock.’

Examples given by Newmark (1988: 95) show that local music terms, music

instruments, and music genre (e.g., sithar and biwa—Indian traditional string

instrument, raga—Indian melodic mode, reggae—Jamaican music genre) also

belong to this category. In Darmanto Yatman’s Melintasi Atlantik, there are some

examples of culture-specific term which belong to social culture category; i.e.,

megatruh, bapak pocung, and dandanggula, which are Javanese traditional songs.

d. Organisations, ideas, and customs

Based on Newmark (1988: 99-102), organisations, ideas, and customs

terms come from political, social, legal, historical, religious, and artistic terms.

Names of several parliaments are not readily translatable, e.g., Storting (Norway),

Sejm (Poland), Riksdag (Sweden), Eduskunta (Finland). Organisations’ names

also need a study to translate, whether they need appropriate functional or

descriptive terms to explain. Those also include historical institute terms and

international terms, e.g., FAO, UNESCO, and UNICEF. Religious terms, mostly

Christianity, provide words which needs translation, e.g., Pharisees. Name of

buildings, museums, theatres, opera houses, are likely to be translated, since they

form part of street plans and addresses. Words like Sekolah Rakyat as a historical

institute term in Indonesia is an example of it, which is found in Taufiq Ismail’s

Trem Berklenengan di Kota San Fransisco.


28

e. Gestures and habits

Based on Newmark (1988: 102), “for ‘gestures and habits’ there is a

distinction between description and function which can be made where necessary

in ambiguous case.” Some gestures and habits exist and are practiced among

people in particular culture, however, the same gestures and habits do not exist in

other cultures, e.g., ‘cock a snook’, ‘spitting.’ Ongkang-ongkang is a local

Javanese gesture which belongs to this category, which can be found in

Surachman R.M.’s Hari Tua Mister Gilbert.

3. Translation Procedures

Translation procedures are important matters for translators.

Suryawinata and Haryanto (2003: 67) define it as the way to translate words,

phrases, clauses, or even the whole sentence if the translated part cannot be

separated into smaller units to be translated. Furthermore, Krings (1986: 18)

defines it as "translator's potentially conscious plans for solving concrete

translation problems in the framework of a concrete translation task,"

and Loescher (1991: 8) defines translation procedure as "a potentially conscious

procedure for solving a problem faced in translating a text, or any segment of it."

Translation procedures employ consciousness to help translating problematic text;

translator’s consciousness makes it difference from any non-strategic procedures

of translation. Newmark (1988: 81) differentiates translation procedures to

translation methods. He states that “translation methods relate to whole texts,”

while translation procedures “are used for sentences and the smaller units of

language” (1998: 81). It can be concluded that translation procedures deal with


29

conscious act that a translator used to overcome problems in sentences or smaller

units of language within the text.

Furthermore, Benjamin (1923) explains that translation can never be

completely adequate to foreign text (in Venuti, 2000: 20). Translation allowed the

translator to choose between a domesticating method, an ethnocentric reduction of

the foreign text to TL cultural value, “bringing the author back home,” and a

foreignising method, an ethno-deviant pressure on those values to register

linguistic and cultural difference of the foreign text, “sending the reader abroad.”

Venuti later adds some explanations to define foreignisation and domestication.

Foreignisation aims to preserve the differences of the source culture, while

domestication focuses on replacing the source culture with the target culture

(Venuti, 2000: 468). Translators should also consider their tendency and

possibility whether to foreignise or domesticate their translation.

There are many models of procedures proposed by experts to help

translating problematic SL text into the TL. However, Vinay and Darbelnet’s

models proposed in “A Methodology for Translation” and Newmark’s models

proposed in “A Textbook of Translation” are the most familiar procedures in

modern translation. Therefore, in this research, the researcher is going to use

Vinay and Darbelnet’s and Newmark’s models.

Vinay and Darbelnet’s model is the most familiar procedure in modern

translation. In their journal “A Methodology of Translation” which is originally

written in French, Vinay and Darbelnet (1958) elaborate two procedures to

translate from SL to TL. Those procedures are direct translation, procedures


30

which are SL-oriented, and procedures which are TL-oriented, oblique

translation, which are elaborated again into seven procedures, in which the first

three are direct translation, and the others are oblique translation: borrowing,

calque, literal translation, transposition, modulation, equivalence, and adaptation

(in Venuti, 2000: 84-93). That model is basically designed for translating from

French to English; to translate distant languages, such as Indonesian to English, or

Javanese to English, more procedures are needed.

Therefore, the researcher takes Newmark’s models into account to

provide more procedures. Newmark (1988) also develops some procedures to

translate foreign texts, only he focuses at level of sentence and smaller units of

language. Newmark adds some additional terms such as, transference, which are

actually the same with Vinay and Darbelnet’s borrowing with focus on meaning

rather than style, and naturalisation, which is similar to calque but the

pronunciation and morphology of SL are adapted to TL. Newmark (1998: 81-91)

also expands Vinay and Darbelnet’s model by combining two, three, or four

procedures to generate Newmark’s model which consists of: cultural equivalent,

functional equivalent, descriptive equivalent, synonymy, through-translation

(calque In Vinay and Darbelnet’s model), transposition, modulations,

equivalence, and adaptation (the last four procedures are the same with Vinay and

Darbelnet’s). He adds that notes, additions, and glosses are acceptable procedures

when differences between SL and TL cultures are obvious and none of the other

procedure can transfer the expressions satisfactorily, or when there is ambiguity in

the text (1988:91).


31

Vinay and Darbelnet’s and Newmark’s model of translation procedures

are described as follows:

a. Borrowing

Based on Vinay and Darbelnet (1958), borrowing is the simplest of all

translation procedures (in Venuti, 2000: 85). Borrowing is done by directly using

foreign terms without formal and semantic modification, e.g., déjà vu (borrowed

from French into English), orang-utan (borrowed from Bahasa Indonesia to

English), and tequila (borrowed from Mexican Spanish to English). The decision

to borrow SL word or expression for introducing an element of local colour or

taste is a matter of style and consequently of the message.

b. Calque

Calque is a special kind of borrowing in which TL borrows an

expression form of SL, but then translates literally each of its elements into TL.

This calque may results in (1) lexical calque, in which keeps the structure of the

TL, but introduces a new mode of translation, e.g., the calque in translating

compliments of the season from English into compliments de la saison in French,

or (2) structural calque, which introduces a new construction into TL, e.g., science

fiction in English, which is translated into science fiction in French. This

procedure is identical to Newmark’s through-translation and loan translation

(Newmark, 1988: 84), which translates text by substituting linear element of a

language into another. Newmark (1988: 84) emphasizes that calque or through-

translation is only used when the terms are already recognised terms. The most

obvious examples of calque or through-translations are the names of international


32

organisations, which are known by their acronyms, which may remain English

and internationalisms (UNESCO, FAO, OPEC).

c. Literal translation

Literal translation or also known as word for word translation is a direct

transfer of a SL text into a grammatically and idiomatically appropriate TL text

(Vinay and Darbelnet, 1958, in Venuti, 2000: 86), e.g., the clause Saya suka film

in SL (Bahasa Indonesia) is translated into I like movie in TL (English), or the

phrase Mereka adalah polisi is translated into They are police.

d. Transposition

Transposition involves replacing one word class with another without

changing the meaning of the message (Vinay and Darbelnet, 1958, in Venuti,

2000: 88). Newmark (1988: 85) also adds that it involves a change in grammar

from SL to TL, as he calls this procedure a shift (by borrowing the same term

introduced by Catford).

e. Modulation

Vinay and Darbelnet (1958) define modulation as a variation through a

change of viewpoint, of perspective, and very often of category of thought (in

Venuti, 2000: 89, and Newmark, 1988: 88-89)

f. Equivalence

Vinay and Darbelnet also state that equivalence involves substituting SL

text with its functional equivalence in the TL. In other words, the same situation

can be rendered by the two texts of SL and TL using completely different stylistic

and structural methods. The common cases of this procedure are onomatopoeic


33

expressions, e.g., kukuruyuk (the sound of a rooster in Bahasa Indonesia) is

equivalent to cock-a-doodle-doo in English, kwek (the sound of a duck in Bahasa

Indonesia) is equivalent to quack in English, dor (the sound of a gun in Bahasa

Indonesia) is equivalent to bang in English, and wan (the sound of a dog in

Japanese) is equivalent to woof in English. This procedure is also commonly used

in translating idioms, e.g., Bagai pinang dibelah dua in Bahasa Indonesia is

equivalent to Two peas in a pod in English, or Bagai makan buah simalakama in

Bahasa Indonesia is equivalent to Between the devil and the deep blue sea in

English. (1958, in Venuti, 2000: 90).

This procedure is also referred as functional equivalence in Newmark.

This procedure is applied to cultural words and it requires the use of culture-free

words, sometimes with new specific terms (Newmark, 1988: 83). This procedure

neutralises and generalises the SL word; and sometimes adds a particular

explanation. Functional equivalence is a cultural componential analysis and

considered as the most effective way of translating because it “deculturalises” a

cultural word, e.g. baccalaureat (French) is translated into French secondary

school leaving exam in English, or Sejm (Polish) is translated into Polish

parliament in English.

g. Adaptation

Adaptation is an effort of creating cultural equivalent between two

different situations. It happens when the situation being referred to by the the SL

message is unknown in the TL culture; therefore, translators have to create a

situation that can be considered as being equivalent (Vinay and Darbelnet, 1958).


34

This procedure is also called “Cultural Equivalence” by Newmark (1988: 82-83).

Cultural equivalence is an approximate translation where a SL cultural word is

translated by a TL cultural word. The translation uses are limited, since they are

not accurate. However, they have greater pragmatic effect than culturally neutral

terms, e.g. the phrase Montecrito (Italian) is translated into the English word

Westminster, the term café-pause (French) is translated into English phrase coffee

break, the term carte a’ identity (French) is translated into English phrase car

license (Newmark, 1988: 83); the phrase Dear Sir on the beginning of a letter

written in English is translated into Dengan hormat in a letter written in Bahasa

Indonesia; the word rugby in American English is translated into Sepakbola

Amerika in Bahasa Indonesia (Machali, 2000:6).

h. Transference

Transference, or commonly known as loan word, is the process of

transferring a SL word to a TL text as a translation procedure. It includes

transliteration related to the conversion of different alphabets of the SL, e.g.

Russian, Arabic, Greek, and Chinese, into the TL alphabets, in this term English

(Newmark, 1988: 82).

i. Naturalisation

Naturalisation succeeds the process of transference and adapts the SL

word initially to the normal pronunciation, then to the normal morphology (word-

forms) of the TL, e.g. humeur, thatcherisme in French; Performanz, Exhalation in

German; akselerasi, informasi, naturalisasi in Bahasa Indonesia (Newmark,

1988: 82).


35

j. Descriptive equivalence

Descriptive equivalence gives description to find an equivalence of SL

words to TL and sometimes combines it with function, e.g. Machete, the

description is a ‘Latin America broad, heavy instrument’, the function is ‘cutting

or aggression’; Samurai is described as ‘the Japanese aristocracy from the

eleventh to the nineteenth century’ which function is ‘to provide officers and

administrators’ (Newmark, 1988: 83-84).

k. Synonymy

Synonymy is used in the sense of a near TL equivalent of an SL word in

a context, where there is no clear one-to-one equivalent, and the word is not

important enough for the componential analysis in the text (Newmark, 1988: 84).

Examples of this procedure are adjectives and adverbs of quality, e.g. orang kikuk

in Bahasa Indonesia is translated into an awkward man, personne gentile in

French into a kind man.

l. Reduction and Expansion

Although both reduction and expansion are rather imprecise translation

procedures, they are “practiced intuitively in some case and ad hoc in others”

(Newmark, 1988: 90). Both procedures are used for SL text which is impossible

to be literally translated into TL. An example of reduction is the translation of SL

adjective of substance plus general noun, e.g., atleimes inflammatoires et

infectieuses in French is translated into “inflammation and infection” in English;

while in expansion, usually adjective, adverb plus past participle, or present


36

participle plus object is added to translate SL text, e.g., cheveux igaux, a French

ST, is translated into “evenly cut hair” in English.

m. Couplets

Couplets as well as triplets combine two or three of the above-mentioned

procedures respectively for dealing with a single problem (Newmark, 1988: 91).

Newmark (1988) exclaims that this combination of procedures is common for

cultural words. The most common example of a couplet is a combination of

transference with a functional or a cultural equivalence. An example of it is the

translation of insitutional terms, i.e., the translation of the UN (United Nations) in

English into PBB (Perserikatan Bangsa-Bangsa) in Bahasa Indonesia.

n. Notes, addition, glosses

Newmark (1988: 91) suggests that translators are allowed to put ‘notes’

or supply additional information in a translation. The additional information that

can be added into the translators’ version is normally cultural (accounting for

difference between SL and TL culture), technical (related to the topic), and

linguistic (explaining the use of word). He also suggests that additional

information in the translation may take various forms, which are described as

follows:

1) Within the text

a) As an alternative to the translated word: e.g., la gabelle becomes ‘the

gabelle or salt-tax’


37

b) As an adjectival clause: e.g., la taille becomes ‘la taille, which was the

old levy raised in feudal times from the civilian population.’

c) As a noun in apposition: e.g., les traites becomes ‘the traites, custom

dues.’

d) As a participial group: e.g., Voctroi becomes ‘Voctroi taxes imposed on

food stuffs and wine entering the town.’

e) In brackets, often for a literal translation of a transferred word: e.g., das

kombinat becomes ‘the kombinat (a “combine” or “trust”).’

f) In parentheses, the longest form of addition: e.g., aides become ‘aides–

these are excise dues on such things as drinks, tobacco, iron, precious

metals, and leather–where imposed in the eighteenth century.’

2) Notes at bottom of page

3) Notes at end of chapter

4) Notes or glossary at end of book

B. Theoretical Framework

There are two research problems in this research, namely culture-

specific terms within poems featured in On Foreign Shores and procedures used

in translating culture-specific terms in those poems. Based on the theoretical

description, the researcher employs theories from Catford (1965), Nida and Taber

(1982), Nida and Taber (1988), Brislin (1976), Jakobson (1004), Malmkjaer

(2005), Hornby (1990), Katan (1999), Malinowski (1923), Newmark (1981),


38

Newmark (1988), Larson (1984), Munday (2001), and Choliludin (2005) to

understand about the relation between language, translation, and cross-cultural

communication. Afterwards, the researcher employs theories from Newmark

(1988) about culture-specific terms and Newmark (1988) as well as Vinay and

Darbelnet (1958) about translation procedures to solve those two research

problems.

To solve the first research problem, the theory that will be used is

culture-specific term categorization proposed by Newmark (1988). There are five

types of culture-specific terms, namely ecology; material culture; social culture;

organisations, culture, and ideas; and gesture and habits. Based on Newmark’s

theory, the researcher attempts to analyze culture-specific terms in poems featured

in On Foreign Shores.

To solve the second research problem about procedures used in

translating culture-specific terms, the researcher uses theories of translation

procedures which are compiled from the study of Vinay and Darbelnet (1958) and

Newmark (1988). From that compilation of procedures, the researcher employs 15

translation procedures, namely borrowing, calque, literal translation, transposition,

modulation, transference, functional equivalence, adaptation or cultural

equivalence, naturalisation, descriptive equivalent, reduction or expansion,

synonymy, couplets, and notes (see page 31-36). Those procedures are used to

analyze what procedures used to translate culture-specific terms found within

poems in On Foreign Shores from Bahasa Indonesia into English.


39

CHAPTER III

RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

In this chapter, the researcher discusses the methodology used to answer

the research problems. This chapter consists of seven subtopics. The first subtopic

is the research method used to conduct this research. The second subtopic is the

setting in which and when the research was conducted. The third subtopic talks

about the research subject as the source of data used in conducting the research.

The fourth subtopic is the instrument used in collecting and analyzing the data.

The fifth is about the techniques used to gather the data. The sixth is the data

analysis. The seventh or the last subtopic is the research procedures.

A. Research Method

This research was qualitative research. Based on Borg and Galls (2007),

“Qualitative research is a research which presents facts in a narration with words.”

A description is also given by Hansen (2005) stating that qualitative methods rely

on experiences and phenomena that need to be interpreted and explained. The

results of the research problems are to be explained and interpreted. Those were

the application of descriptive-qualitative research in this study. Merriam et al

(2002) state that a descriptive-qualitative research is used when data collected

through interviews, observations, or documents analysis are analyzed to identify

the pattern of the data. In addition, the findings of the research are to be presented

and discussed in the lights of some relevant theories of culture-specific terms and

translations procedures. Therefore, the researcher analyzed the phenomena of


40

culture-specific terms in poems featured in On Foreign Shores, which were

translated into English and what procedures are used to translate those terms from

Bahasa Indonesia into English.

Ary, Jacobs, Sorensen, and Razavieh (2010) define a document analysis

as a method that is used when someone wants to analyze any physical documents,

in form of written or visual materials, in order to identify specific data.

Furthermore, the researcher took the sources of data by analyzing and interpreting

recorded materials which can be taken from public records, textbooks, letters,

films, tapes, diaries, themes, reports, etc (Ary, Jacobs & Razavieh, 2002). Based

on that study, the researcher selected an anthology of poems entitled On Foreign

Shores: American Images in Indonesian Poetry which features 69 Indonesian

poems which are translated into English.

B. Research Setting

The setting of this research refers to the setting in which the researcher

conducted this research. The researcher conducted this research during the period

of August 2013 to September 2013. The research was conducted in Yogyakarta

through library study.

C. Research Data

The data which are analyzed in this research are taken from On Foreign

Shores: American Images in Indonesian Poetry, an anthology of Indonesian

poems about the United States of America which was published in conjunction

with the 1990-1991 Festival of Indonesia in the United States by the Lontar


41

Foundation. This anthology consists of 69 Indonesian poems from 21 Indonesian

poets throughout generations, which are translated into 69 poems written in

English. From all poems featured in this anthology, the researcher only selected

culture-specific terms which bear Indonesian or Javanese culture to be presented

for discussion.

D. Research Instruments

There were two instruments used in this research; those instruments

were a human instrument and a document instrument. Human instrument became

the primary agent to collect the data in qualitative research (Merriam, 2002; Borg

and Galls, 2007; Ary, et al, 2010). In this research, the human instrument was the

researcher. The researcher was the one who identified the culture-specific terms in

the poems. Afterwards, the researcher analyzed the translation procedures used to

translate those poems from Bahasa Indonesia into English.

Document instruments were to find answer for the research problems. In

this research, the document instruments were the printed version of On Foreign

Shores: American Images in Indonesian Poetry published by The Lontar

Foundation and observation forms, which are depicted in Table 3.1 and Table 3.2.

The observation forms were employed to observe the occurrences of culture-

specific terms, to classify the data, and to identify the procedures used to translate

culture-specific terms from Bahasa Indonesia into English.

Table 3.1 was employed to classify the culture-specific terms in poems

from On Foreign Shores based on appropriate categories. Table 3.1 was used to

answer the first research problem about culture-specific terms in those poems


42

based on the categorization based on theories from Newmark (1988). There are

five categories proposed by Newmark, namely ecology; material culture;

functional culture; organization, ideas, and concepts; and gestures and habits.

Each category is given a specific code, e.g., ecology is given a code ECO, and

material culture is given a code MCU. The identification will be done as portrayed

in the table below.

Table 3.1. Table of Culture-Specific Terms(Based on Newmark (1988))

NoCulture-specificTerms

Line on Poems

Categories of Culture-SpecificTerms

ECO MCU SCU OIC GAH

1 Daunketapang

“daun ketapang makinlebat berguguran”(Sastrowardoyo’s DanKematian Makin Akrab)

√

2 Garuda “Ricky, sayang, garudakusayang”(Rendra’s Rick dariCorona,)

√

NotesECO : EcologyMCU : Material CultureSCU : Social CultureOIC : Organizations, Ideas, CustomsGAH : Gestures and Habits

Table 3.2 was used to organize procedures which were applied to

translate culture-specific terms in all poems taken from On Foreign Shores and to

solve the second research problem. There are 15 (fifteen) translation procedures

compiled from the studies of Vinay and Darbelnet (1958) also Newmark (1988),

namely: borrowing, calque, literal translation, transposition, modulation,


43

transference, functional equivalence, adaptation or cultural equivalence,

naturalisation, descriptive equivalence, synonymy, reduction, expansion, couplets,

and notes. Each procedure is also given a code; the identification of each

procedure can be seen in a table that will work similarly to the table below.

Table 3.2. Table of Procedures to Translate Culture-Specific Terms

(Based on Vinay & Darbelnet (1958), Newmark (1988))

No TT ST

Translation procedures

BO CA LT TP MO

TF CE FE NA

DE SY RE

EX CO

NO

1 garuda eagle √

2 bengawan TheBengawan √

TT : Target Text CE : Cultural EquivalenceST : Source Text NA : NaturalisationBO : Borrowing CA : CalqueDE : Descriptive Equivalence TP : TranspositionLT : Literal Translation SY : SynonymyMO : Modulation RE : ReductionTF : Transference EX : ExpansionFE : Functional Equivalence CO : CoupletsNO : Notes

E. Data Analysis Technique

This research is qualitative and further, its type is content analysis where

the researcher learned about the phenomena by studying the documents (Ary,

Jacobs and Razavieh, 2002). The phenomena to be studied are the culture-specific

terms in Indonesian poems and procedures used to translate them into English.

The data in this research are culture-specific terms in poems which are featured in On

Foreign Shores.


44

In qualitative research, there are general steps that are used to analyze the

data. Creswell (2007) defines the first steps of the data analysis as “preparing” and

“organizing” the data for analysis. In this step, the researcher read and analyzed all

poems in the anthology On Foreign Shores. The researcher identified culture-

specific terms based on the categorization proposed by Newmark (1988).

The second, sorting the data into some categories through a process of

“coding” (Creswell, 2007: 148). In this research, data were categorized in double

layers; The first layers are to analyze culture-specific terms in the all poems, while

the second layer is to analyze procedures used to translate them into English.

First, the researcher categorized the data and put them into categories of culture-

specific terms which had been given specific codes, e.g., ecology category was

given a code ECO. Each datum was put into specific categories in which they

belong. Second, the researcher categorized the data of culture-specific terms, and

then analyzed what procedures used in translating them into English based on

procedures proposed by Vinay and Darbelnet (1958) as well as Newmark (1988).

Each procedure had been given a specific code, e.g., Borrowing was given a code

BO. The first coding dealt with the solving of the first research problem, while the

second coding dealt with the solving of the second research problem.

The last step is presenting the data in the form of tables. After the data

were prepared and organized, the researcher put them into two tables. The first

table was Table 3.1 to distinguish the categories of culture-specific terms in the

poems, as to solve the first research problem. Furthermore, the second table,

namely Table 3.2 was used to analyze procedures applied to translate culture-


45

specific terms from Bahasa Indonesia into English, as to solve the second research

problem. In the end, the researcher described Table 3.1 based on each category

and Table 3.2 based on each applied procedure.

F. Research Procedures

In this part, the researcher explained the steps in conducting the research.

The steps were as follows:

1. Deciding the topic to discuss

The researcher decided one topic to discuss among many topics. The

decided topic was “procedures to translate culture-specific terms and

onomatopoeic words from Bahasa Indonesia to English in On Foreign Shores.”

To proceed discussing this topic, the researcher needed theories from related

literature, such as theories of language, translation, and cross-cultural

communication; theories of culture-specific terms; and theories of translation

procedures.

2. Conducting library study

After deciding the topic, the researcher conducted a library study to

support the topic with theories from experts. At first, the researcher equipped

himself with knowledge on how language, translation, and cross-cultural

communication are interrelated by employing the studies from Catford (1965),

Nida & Taber (1982), Larson (1984), Munday (2001), Choliludin (2005), and

other experts. Later, the researcher employed the theory from Newmark (1988)


46

about categorisation of culture-specific terms as a basis of the research.

Furthermore, the researcher also equipped himself with theories from Vinay and

Darbelnet (1958) as well as Newmark (1988) about translation procedures to

prepare analyzing the data of this research.

3. Collecting data from On Foreign Shores

Being equipped with theories to support the topic, the researcher

collected data for this research from the sources. Those data were taken from

poems featured in On Foreign Shores. The researcher used Newmark’s

categorisation of culture-specific terms in collecting the data.

4. Classifying culture-specific terms using Table 3.1

From the poems taken from On Foreign Shores, the researcher identified

culture-specific terms in Bahasa Indonesia based on the theory proposed by

Newmark (1988). To identify those terms, the researcher employed the third

edition of Kamus Besar Bahasa Indonesia, the latest prime Indonesian dictionary,

and Stevens and Schmidgall-Tellings’s A Comprehensive Indonesian-English

Dictionary, a bilingual Indonesian dictionary which has the largest entries and is

recommended by professional translators; the researcher employed those two

dictionaries to check whether those data were available and cultural—which

means they have no direct equivalence in English. The researcher also deviced

Google search engine to check whether each data cultural or universal. In

addition, the researcher analyzed the context of the poems in which those terms

occur to find out the contextual term of those terms.


47

After identifying those culture-specific terms, the researcher classified

those culture-specific terms based on Newmark’s categorisation and put the

results in Table 3.1 (see page 40). Thus, the result of this analysis and

classification solved the first research problem.

5. Identifying procedures to translate culture-specific terms using Table 3.2

From the culture-specific terms identified from the initial identification

and classification, the researcher identified what procedures were used to translate

them from Bahasa Indonesia to English as seen in the English version of those

poems in On Foreign Shores. Those data from Table 3.1 (page 40) were put on

the Table 3.2 along with their original version and their English translation to be

analyzed. The analysis focused on what procedures were used to translate them.

To document the translation procedures, the researcher employed Table 3.2 (see

page 41) which were adapted from procedures proposed by Vinay and Darbelnet

(1958) also Newmark (1988). Therefore, the result presented in Table 3.2 became

the basis to solve the third research problem.

6. Describing procedures applied to translate culture-specific terms

Based on the findings of translation procedure identification, the

researcher analyzed the procedures which were applied in translating culture-

specific terms from Bahasa Indonesia to English based on theories proposed by

Vinay and Darbelnet (1958) and Newmark (1988). The researcher described how

those procedures were used by comparing the meaning and syntactical form of the


48

ST and the TT only, yet neglecting the stylistic form in the TT, since it is not

developed well in the result of the translation.

7. Reporting the result of the research

To display the final findings of this research, the researcher wrote a

report of the final result consisting of the answers of all research problems

formulated initially. Firstly, the researcher wrote down the result from Table 3.1

and described those findings based on the categorisation of culture-specific term

compiled from the theory from Newmark (1988); the researcher did that to report

the findings of the first research problem.

The researcher wrote down the result from Table 3.2 and described how

the procedures are applied; the researcher, thus, reported the findings of the

second research problem. Finally, the researcher drew conclusions of the whole

research and gave suggestion towards translators, Translation teachers and

students, as well as future researchers who have the similar passion dealing with

translation.


49

CHAPTER IV

RESEARCH RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

This chapter consists of two parts, namely the discussion of culture-

specific terms found in poems featured in On Foreign Shores based on

Newmark’s categorisation of culture-specific terms and the discussion of

procedures used to translate culture-specific terms found from Bahasa Indonesia

into English based on translation theories compiled from Newmark’s and Vinay

and Darbelnet’s.

A. The Discussion of Culture-Specific Terms in Selected Poems Taken from

On Foreign Shores

The researcher discovered twenty-three (23) culture-specific terms in On

Foreign Shores. The distribution of those terms is described as follows: seven

terms belong to the category of ecology, three terms belong to the category of

material culture, nine terms belong to the category of social culture, one term

belong to organization, ideas, and culture category, and three terms belong to the

category of gesture and habit. Those 23 terms were found in 15 poems (of 69

poems) written by 10 poets (of 21 poets) featured in this anthology. Furthermore,

those terms were all in word-level and phrase-level.

In this section, the researcher discussed and analyzed each culture-

specific term found in On Foreign Shores. The discussion is based on Newmark’s

categorisation of culture-specific terms established in 1988. In addition, each

datum is presented based on its category.


50

1. Ecology

This category refers to geographical and ecological features which can be

normally distinguished from other cultural term because they are “usually value-

free, politically and commercially” (Newmark, 1988: 96). Mostly, terms which

are categorized into this category are related to flora, fauna, winds, plain, and hills

(p. 97). In this research, this category refers to Indonesian ecological terms which

have no direct equivalence in English due to their cultural bound. The researcher

discovered seven (7) culture-specific terms which belong to the category of

ecology in 5 poems, namely W.S. Rendra’s Rick dari Corona, Surachman R.M’s

Sajak-Sajak dari Solarium, Subagio Sastrowardoyo’s Dan Kematian Makin

Akrab, Taufiq Ismail’s Pantun Terang Bulan di Midwest, and Darmanto Yatman’s

Melintasi Atlantik.

a. “daun ketapang makin lebat berguguran” (Sastrowardoyo’s Dan Kematian

Makin Akrab, p. 6)

Ketapang is an Indonesian local plant which grows near the beach. In

Kamus Besar Bahasa Indonesia, ketapang is defined as “pohon besar yang

daunnya lebar, buahnya bertempurung keras, kulitnya untuk menyamak kulit,

bijinya dapat dibuat minyak” (p. 494). That definition means that ketapang is a

big tree which has broad leaves with hard-shelled fruits, barks that can be used to

tan skins and seeds that can be used to produce oil. Similarly, according to

Stevens and Schmidgall-Tellings’ A Comprehensive Indonesian-English

Dictionary, ketapang is a “Singapore almond” (p. 495). In addition, the scientific

name of which is Terminalia catappa. In Sastrowardoyo’s Dan Kematian Makin


51

Akrab, daun ketapang refers to the leaves of a tree that fall very thickly in the late

hours of the night. The descriptive definition in dictionaries implies that ketapang

carries cultural element and does not have direct equivalence in the TL. Thus,

ketapang, as local flora belongs to the category of ecology.

b. “Ricky, sayang, garudaku sayang” (Rendra’s Rick dari Corona, p. 54)

Garuda is a well-known bird in Indonesia; moreover, this bird becomes

the national symbol of the country as depicted in Garuda Pancasila symbol. In

Kamus Besar Bahasa Indonesia, garuda is defined as (1) “burung besar pemakan

daging yang menyerupai elang dan memiliki kekuatan terbang yang luar biasa”

(p. 295) or literally translated into “a big carnivorous bird which looks like an

eagle and has tremendous flying power” and (2) “lambang negara Indonesia” (p.

295) or “the symbol of Indonesia.” This word is also defined as a “griffin”,

“mythical bird that transported the god Vishnu through space”, and “the eagle in

the state coat of arms of the Republic Indonesia” in A Comprehensive Indonesian-

English Dictionary (p. 298). Yet, in Rendra’s Rick dari Corona, garuda refers to a

nickname given to Rick—a character in the poem; that nickname is taken from the

name of a strong bird whose definition is close to the first definition stated in

Kamus Besar Bahasa Indonesia. Since it refers to a kind of bird in the SL culture,

the word garuda belongs to the category of ecology.

c. “Dan, ah, seekor kijang” (Surachman’s Sajak-Sajak dari Solarium, p. 58)

In Surachman’s Sajak-Sajak dari Solarium, the word kijang refers to an

animal that crosses a street as indicated by the quantifier seekor, which in the SL

determines quantity for animal. Furthermore, the word kijang itself, in Kamus


52

Besar Bahasa Indonesia, is defined as “binatang seperti rusa, tubuhnya lebih

kecil dan tanduknya lebih pendek” which is scientifically known as Cervulus

muntjac (p. 500). That definition means that kijang is an animal which looks like a

deer with a smaller body and shorter horns. Meanwhile, Stevens and Schmidgall-

Tellings define kijang as a “barking deer with short antlers” (p. 501). Although,

there are differences in both dictionary definitions, a conclusion can still be

drawn. Literally, kijang refers to a kind of deer with small body. Therefore, kijang

belongs to the category of ecology.

d. “Lembah. Bengawan. Lembah. Bengawan” (Surachman’s Sajak-Sajak dari

Solarium, p. 58)

Bengawan is literally a Javanese term for river. The most obvious

example of this term is the phrase Bengawan Solo which refers to a great river in

Solo, Central Java. Kamus Besar Bahasa Indonesia defines bengawan as a big

river (originally written as “sungai besar,” p. 116), whilst Stevens and

Schmidgall-Tellings’ A Comprehensive Indonesian-English Dictionary defines it

as a “large river” in Javanese (p. 119). In ST, the word bengawan literally refers

to a geographical object which is mentioned along with other objects during a

road trip. That object refers to a great river seen by a SL-speaking beholder. As a

geographical term in the SL, bengawan belongs to the category of ecology.

e. “seribu burung belibis” (Ismail’s Pantun Terang Bulan di Midwest, p. 78)

Stevens and Schmidgall-Tellings functionally define belibis as a “lesser

tree duck, whistling teal” (p. 114). However, according to Kamus Besar Bahasa

Indonesia, it is a wild bird which looks like a duck (originally written as “burung


53

liar yang rupanya seperti itik, Dendrocygna javanica, p. 111). Based on its

occurrence in the ST, the researcher concludes that belibis is a kind of bird which

looks like a duck moving in a large flock. According to the definitions and the

interpretation from the poem, this bird refers to a kind of local fauna in the SL

origin; thus, it belongs to the category of ecology.

f. “dari sekian petani penanam gayam” (Yatman’s Melintasi Atlantik, p.128)

Gayam is an Indonesian word which refers to a kind of plant. According

to Kamus Besar Bahasa Indonesia, gayam means “pohon yang daunnya lebat dan

dapat dipakai sebagai pembungkus, biasanya tumbuh di daerah yang banyak air”

(p. 297) or a kind of tree which has dense leaves that can be used to wrap foods

and it usually grows around an area surrounded by water. The scientific name of

this plant is Inocarpus edulis. In Stevens and Schmidgall-Tellings’, gayam is

defined as a “Tahitian or Polynesian chestnut” (p. 301). In Yatman’s Melintasi

Atlantik, gayam refers to a cropping fruit in Indonesia which is a subject to

harvest. Therefore, as a kind of local flora known in the SL culture, this term can

be categorized as a culture-specific term under the category of ecology.

g. “Kalau butuh kacang kangkung” (Yatman’s Melintasi Atlantik, p.130)

Kangkung, is a kind of vegetable in Indonesia. Kamus Besar Bahasa

Indonesia defines it very specifically as “tumbuhan sayuran yang menjalar,

batangnya berair, daunnya berbentuk tameng dan meruncing pada bagiannya,

bertangkai panjang dengan permukaan daun sebelah atas berwarna hijau yang

lebih tua daripada permukaan sebelah bawah, bunganya berbentuk terompet

berwarna lila, buahnya berbentuk bulat telur” (p. 440). In other words, kangkung


54

refers to a kind of creeper plant whose trunk is succulent. It has shield-shaped

leaves, long stems, lilac-colored trumpet-shaped flowers, and fruits which look

like eggs; it is scientifically known as Ipomoea reptans. Similarly, kangkung, in A

Comprehensive Indonesian-English Dictionary, is defined as a “swamp cabbage,

water convolvulus” (p. 445). Furthermore, in ST the word kangkung literally

refers to a vegetable in Indonesia which is sold along with peanuts. Thus, as a

kind of local flora, kangkung belongs to the category of ecology.

The occurrence of culture-specific terms that belong to the category of

ecology is illustrated in Table 4.1.

Table 4.1. The Ecology Category of Culture-Specific Terms

Culture-specificterm

Poem Example

Daun ketapangDan Kematian MakinAkrab (SubagioSastrowardoyo)

daun ketapang makin lebat berguguran

Garuda Rick dari Corona (W.S.Rendra)

Ricky, sayang, garudaku sayang

Kijang Sajak-Sajak dari Solarium(Surachman R.M.)

Dan, ah, seekor kijang

BengawanSajak-Sajak dari Solarium(Surachman R.M.)

Lembah. Bengawan. Lembah. Bengawan

Belibis Pantun Terang Bulan diMidwest (Taufiq Ismail)

seribu burung belibis

Gayam Melintasi Atlantik(Darmanto Yatman)

dari sekian petani penanam gayam

Kangkung Kalau butuh kacang kangkung

Based on the conducted analysis, the researcher found out that there are

seven culture-specific terms that belong to the category of ecology found in On

Foreign Shores. Those terms are mostly terms related to local flora and fauna


55

known in the SL culture. However, one term referring to a geographical object is

also found in On Foreign Shores.

2. Material Culture

Material culture, which is also called as artifacts, is associated to local

foods, clothes, houses, and transports which Newmark (1988: 97-98) proposes as

four sub-category of it. This category embraces names of traditional foods which

is “the most sensitive and important expression of national culture” (p. 97),

traditional clothes which refers to national costumes which is distinctive (p. 97),

traditional and national houses which refers to typical house of particular

language communities (p. 97), and also local transportation referring to names of

various carriages to provide local colour and to connote prestige (p. 98). The

researcher found three terms that belong to the category of material culture in

Taufiq Ismail’s Trem Berklenengan di Kota San Fransisco, Darmanto Yatman’s

Melintasi Atlantik, and Linus Suryadi AG’s Central Park.

a. “Amerika mengeluarkan bunyi kerupuk kentang kering” (Ismail’s Trem

Berklenengan di Kota San Fransisco, p. 72)

Kerupuk is an Indonesian culture-specific term which belongs to the food

sub-category of material culture. It refers to a kind of Indonesian chip which is

made of flour. In Kamus Besar Bahasa Indonesia, kerupuk is a food made of flour

dough mixed with crushed shrimp and fish. To cook it, the dough is steamed, cut

slightly, molded, and sun-dried (originally written as “makanan yang dibuat dari

adonan tepung dicampur dengan lumatan udang atau ikan, setelah dikukus

disayat-sayat tipis atau dibentuk dengan alat cetak, kemudian dijemur agar


56

mudah digoreng, p.492). In Stevens and Schmidgall-Tellings’ A Comprehensive

Indonesian-English Dictionary, kerupuk is defined as a “generic term for all kinds

of chips made from starch base and ground shrimps, fish, or other ingredients” as

“they come dried and are fried before eaten” (p. 493). Based on the context in

Ismail’s Trem Berklenengan di Kota San Fransisco, an overview can be taken

explaining that kerupuk refers to dried, fried chips made of flour dough with

potatoes. Henceforth, kerupuk carries cultural element that makes it a material

culture-specific terms.

b. “Bagai geteknya Joko Tingkir” (Yatman’s Melintasi Atlantik, p. 132)

Getek is a traditional kind of water transportation in Indonesia. It is made

of bamboos which are arranged and tied up together as a flat-formed raft.

According to Kamus Besar Bahasa Indonesia, the term getek is a Jakarta Malay

word for a raft (originally “rakit”, p. 317). Similarly, Stevens and Schmidgall-

Tellings in A Comprehensive Indonesian-English Dictionary define getek as a

“raft” (p. 322). Based on the ST, the word getek literally refers to a water

transportation used by Joko Tingkir, a fictional character in Javanese legend, to

sail down a river. Therefore, the word getek belongs to material culture-specific

terms

c. “Kopiahnya bertengger di atas kepala” (Suryadi’s Central Park, p. 164)

The term kopiah in Bahasa Indonesia refers to a hat which is also called

‘peci’; this hat is usually worn by men in a formal ceremony regardless of the fact

that it becomes an identity of Muslim men. This term belongs to clothes sub-

category. According to Kamus Besar Bahasa Indonesia, kopiah is a hat which is


57

usually worn by Muslim men when practicing their prayer (originally written as

“topi biasa dipakai orang Islam waktu salat,” p. 525). In Stevens and Schmidgall-

Tellings’, kopiah is defined as a “cap, headdress (worn by Muslim men and as a

symbol of nationalism), an untasseled fez” (p. 519).

In Suryadi’s Central Park, the word kopiah refers to the hat worn by a

bishop; that hat physically looks like the headdress worn by Muslim men.

Nevertheless, the word kopiah still belongs to the category of material culture;

since it still refers to national clothes, specifically a nationally acclaimed

headdress. This fact marks kopiah as one of Indonesian national identities.

The findings of material culture terms are illustrated in Table 4.2 below.

Table 4.2. The Material Culture Category of Culture-Specific Terms

Terms Sub-category Poems ExamplesKerupuk Food Trem Berklenengan

di Kota SanFransisco (TaufiqIsmail)

Amerika mengeluarkan bunyikerupuk kentang kering

Getek Transport Melintasi Atlantik(Darmanto Yatman)

Bagai geteknya Joko Tingkir

Kopiah Clothes Central Park(Linus Suryadi)

Kopiahnya bertengger di ataskepala

3. Social Culture

The category of social culture refers to words that indicate particular

work and leisure activity or product of cultures (Newmark, 1988: 98). Based on

examples provided by Newmark, it can be concluded that music terms, music

instruments, and music genre (e.g., sithar and biwa—Indian traditional string

instruments, raga—Indian melodic mode, reggae—Jamaican music genre, p. 95)


58

also belong to this category. Furthermore, it also includes terms which denote

leisure activity in “national games with their lexical sets” (p. 99). In this research,

nine terms that belong to the category of social culture were found. Those terms

were found in six poems, namely Taufiq Ismail’s Pantun Terang Bulan di

Midwest, Darmanto Yatman’s Melintasi Atlantik, Darmanto Yatman’s Impresi

Honolulu, Frans Nadjira’s Sepasang Turis, Abdul Hadi’s Kidung Putih, and

Abdul Hadi’s Landskap 1971 untuk Angela Davis.

a. “Pantun Terang Bulan di Midwest” (Ismail’s Pantun Terang Bulan di

Midwest, p. 78)

Pantun is a kind of traditional poetry known in Malay and traditional

Jakarta. The word pantun is found in the title of Ismail’s poem and it refers to the

kind of poetry Ismail applies in this poem. In Kamus Besar Bahasa Indonesia, the

word pantun is defined as “bentuk puisi Indonesia (Melayu), tiap bait (kuplet)

biasanya terdiri atas empat baris yang bersajak (a-b-a-b), baris pertama dan

kedua biasanya untuk tumpuan (sampiran) dan baris ketiga dan keempat

merupakan isi (p. 728).” The definition implies that pantun is a form of

Indonesian poetry; each verse consists of four couplets with specific rhymes. The

first 2 couplets are called “sampiran”—not the literal meaning; and the second 2

couplets are called “isi”—the content it addresses. Meanwhile, the word pantun is

described as a kind of “quatrain, old poetry form consisting of verses of four lines

each” or “kinds of epigrammatic style” in Stevens and Schmidgall-Tellings’ A

Comprehensive Indonesian-English Dictionary (p. 708).

The example of pantun can be seen in the following illustration.


59

Jika ada sumur di ladang —aBoleh kita menumpang mandi —b sampiran—not literal meaningJika ada waktu yang panjang —aBoleh kita bertemu lagi —b isi—literal meaning

The first and the third line bear the same final sound ang, while the second and

the fourth line bear the same i sound. That kind of poetry is what Ismail wants to

show in Pantun Terang Bulan di Midwest. Since it refers to a traditional work of

art as leisure poetry, pantun, belongs to the category of social culture.

b. “dalam megatruh blues” (Yatman’s Melintasi Atlantik, p. 130)

Megatruh is one of macapat song—Javanese traditional songs with

specific lines and rhymes. The constraint on macapat’s specific numbering of

syllables is called guru wilangan; while the constraint on macapat’s final sound of

each line is called guru swara. According to Kamus Besar Bahasa Indonesia,

megatruh is defined as a form of macapat composition which is usually used to

express disappointment or deep sadness; it has five lines (gatra) in which the first

line consists of 12 syllables finalized with n sound (originally written as “bentuk

komposisi tembang macapat, biasanya dipakai untuk melukiskan perasaan

kecewa atau kesedihan yang mendalam, mempunya bait lagu yang terdiri atas

lima baris, baris pertama mempunyai dua belas suku kata yang berakhir bunyi n

(12n), kemudian berturut-turut 8i, 8i, dan 8a,” p. 641). The word megatruh does

not have equivalence in English indicated by the absence of it in Stevens and

Schmidgall-Tellings’ A Comprehensive Indonesian-English Dictionary. From the

definition in Kamus Besar Bahasa Indonesia, it is apparent that megatruh is a

cultural word which belongs to social culture as a music term.


60

c. “sambil nembang bapak pocung” (Yatman’s Melintasi Atlantik, p.130)

Bapak pocung is also one of macapat songs in Javanese tradition. Bapak

pocung is sometimes called as bapak pucung or pucung. According to Kamus

Besar Bahasa Indonesia, bapak pocung or pucung is defined as a form of

macapat composition which is usually used to tell spoof, anecdote, and riddle

(originally defined as “bentuk komposisi tembang macapat, biasanya dipakai

untuk menceritakan hal-hal yang ringan, jenaka, atau teka-teki,” p. 794). Pucung

has 4 lines (4 gatra), in which the first line has 12 syllables finalized in u sound,

the second line has six syllables ended in a sound, the third line has 8 syllables

ended in i sound, and the fourth line has 12 syllables ended in a sound. The same

as the word megatruh, bapak pocung also literally refers to a macapat song. In

Stevens and Schmidgall-Tellings’ A Comprehensive Indonesian-English

Dictionary, the word pucung is defined as a “song form” in Javanese (p. 779).

Therefore, this word as a music term in particular culture belongs to the category

of social culture.

d. “dalam tetembangan dandanggula” (Yatman’s Melintasi Atlantik, p. 132)

The word dandanggula in Yatman’s Melintasi Atlantik also refers to a

macapat song in the Javanese tradition. Kamus Besar Bahasa Indonesia

categorizes it as an art word and defines it as a form of Javanese and Sundanese

poem or song that express joyfulness or victory (it is originally defined as “bentuk

pusi Jawa dan Sunda termasuk jenis tembang, yang melukiskan rasa suka cita

atau kemenangan,” p. 208). Dandanggula has 10 lines (10 gatra) and the guru

wilangan and guru swara structure of which is described as follows: 10i, 10a, 8e,


61

7u, 9i, 7a, 6u, 8a, 12i, 7a. Meanwhile, the word dandanggula is defined as a

“Javanese meter (in music)” (p 225). In addition, based on the context given in the

poem, the word dandanggula also literally refers to a title of macapat song.

Therefore, the word dandanggula, an existing ancient form of traditional music in

Javanese culture, belongs to the the category of social culture.

e. “nina bobo” (Yatman’s Impresi Honolulu, p. 134) or “ninabobo yang

menentramkan, kupahatkan padanya” (Hadi’s Dini Hari Musim Semi, p. 160)

Nina bobo or ninabobo is a title of a song which is sung to aid the

process of a child to go to sleep. In other word, nina bobo is a title of a lullaby in

Indonesia. This word is coined into Bahasa Indonesia becoming a noun which

means a song sung before a child go to sleep (originally written “nyanyian untuk

menidurkan anak,” Kamus Besar Bahasa Indonesia, p. 690) and a verb which

means to sing a song for children in order to make them sleep (originally defined

as “menyanyikan lagu untuk anak supaya tidur,” Kamus Besar Bahasa Indonesia,

p. 690). In other hand, Stevens and Schmidgall-Tellings in A Comprehensive

Indonesian-English Dictionary define the word ninabobo as a “lullaby” (p. 665).

The contexts also emphasize that the phrase nina bobo here exactly refers to the

title of the song described in dictionaries, which is sung to led someone to sleep.

According to its origin, nina bobo belongs to the category of social culture.

f. “Dewa-dewa di pulau ini tidak membenci sabung ayam.” (Nadjira’s Sepasang

Turis, p.138)

Sabung ayam is a kind of leisure activity which is often practiced in Bali,

Indonesia. This phrase refers to a contest of rooster fighting which is sometimes


62

attached to betting games. Kamus Besar Bahasa Indonesia defines sabung ayam

as a fighting between two roosters (as originally written as “perkelahian atara dua

ekor ayam jantan,” p. 858). Whereas, based on Steven and Schmidgall-Tellings’

A Comprehensive Indonesian-English Dictionary, sabung ayam is “fighting cock”

(p. 852). Those dictionary definitions imply that sabung ayam is a kind of leisure

activity done by engaging two roosters in a fight; moreover, the context stated in

the poem also shows that it precisely refers to the reference defined by

dictionaries. Therefore, since this leisure activity is renowned in Indonesian

culture, the word sabung ayam belongs to Indonesian culture-specific term

specifically to the category of social culture.

g. “musim panas datang berduaan dengan angin si gender” (Abdul Hadi’s

Kidung Putih, p. 154)

Gender is a Javanese traditional music instrument—one of gamelan

instrument which looks like a xylophone with metal to resemble each tone. From

its use, it can be concluded that gender is a term of art specifically originated from

Javanese tradition. Kamus Besar Bahasa Indonesia defines gender as a Javanese

gamelan instrument made from 14 metallic plates and bamboos to echo the sound

(originally defined as “gamelan Jawa yang dibuat dari bilah-bilah logam

berjumlah empat belas buah dengan pernggema dari bambu,” p. 308). Whilst,

according to Steven and Schmidgall-Tellings’ A Comprehensive Indonesian-

English Dictionary, gender is a “gamelan instrument” or “xylophone with bronze

keys suspended over bamboo sounding tubes” (p. 314). By considering the


63

context in the poem, the researcher also found out that the word gender exactly

refers to a traditional musical instrument included in the ensemble set of gamelan.

Newmark (1988: 95) shows that example of social culture are mostly

words related to work and leisure. Furthermore, some of examples he proposes are

related to terms which includes music and its instrument as representations of it.

Thus, gender represents the category of social culture of culture-specific terms

due to its definition and use as a traditional music instrument.

h. “berpesta di angkasa riuh memukul kendangnya di rimba-rimba” (Hadi’s

Landskap 1971 untuk Angela Davis, p. 162)

Kendang is defined as a Javanese term of gendang (originally written as

“gendang,” p. 478), while gendang, in Kamus Besar Bahasa Indonesia, is defined

as a musical instrument in the shape of long and round wood covered with leather

on one or both side with a cavity inside (originally written as “alat bunyi-bunyian

berupa kayu bulat panjang, di dalamnya berongga dan pada salah satu

lubangnya atau kedua-duanya diberi kulit,” p. 308). Meanwhile, Steven and

Schmidgall-Tellings describe kendang as a “conical-shaped drum resting on

crossbeams and beaten with both hands; used to direct or conduct a group of

players” (p. 480).

Based on dictionary definitions presented above and judgments made

from the context, a conclusion can be drawn about the meaning of the word

kendang. Apparently, the word kendang refers to a music instrument used in

Indonesian leisure activity. Therefore, it belongs to the category of social culture.


64

The terms of the category of social culture are illustrated in Table 4.3

below.

Table 4.3. The Social Culture Category of Culture-Specific Term

Culture-specificterms

Poems Examples

Pantun Pantun Terang Bulan diMidwest (Taufiq Ismail)

Pantun Terang Bulan di Midwest

Megatruh Melintasi Atlantik (DarmantoYatman)

dalam megatruh blues

Bapak pocung Melintasi Atlantik (DarmantoYatman)

sambil nembang bapak pocung

Dandanggula Melintasi Atlantik (DarmantoYatman)

dalam tetembangan dandanggula

Nina bobo /ninabobo

Impresi Honolulu (DarmantoYatman)

nina bobo

Dini Hari Musim Semi (AbdulHadi)

ninabobo yang menentramkan, kupahatkanpadanya

Sabung ayam Sepasang Turis (Frans Nadjira) Dewa-dewa di pulau ini tidak membencisabung ayam

Gender Kidung Putih (Abdul Hadi) musim panas datang berduaan denganangin si gender

Kendang Landskap 1971 untuk AngelaDavis (Abdul Hadi)

berpesta di angkasa riuh memukulkendangnya di rimba-rimba

4. Organisations, Ideas, and Customs

Organisations, ideas, and customs category theoretically attains the

largest population among all categories of culture-specific terms. Based on

Newmark (1988: 99-102), this category embraces political, administrative,

historical, international, religious, and artistic terms. Terms within the scope of

this category are political and administrative terms of a country which “is

reflected in its institutional terms,” i.e., Sejm, Polish parliament (p. 99), historical

terms which are shown in “historical institutional terms,” i.e., kulturkampf in

Germany, (p. 101), international terms which refer to international institutional

terms “known by their acronyms,” i.e., United Nations or UN, (p. 101), religious


65

terms which refer to terms used by “the other world religions,” i.e., Pharisees

from Christian Bible, (p. 102), and artistic terms which refer to art “movements,

processes, and organizations,” i.e., Amsterdam Concertgebouw—an art movement

in Holland (p. 102).

Although it has the largest population of culture-specific terms, the

researcher only found one term priors to this category. That term was found in

Taufiq Ismail’s Trem Berklenengan di kota San Fransisco.

a. “…pada pelajaran ilmu bumi di Sekolah Rakyat partikelir.” (Ismail’s Trem

Berklenengan di kota San Fransisco, p. 70)

Sekolah Rakyat is an Indonesian educational term referring to one level

of education in the past. Sekolah Rakyat levels with primary or elementary school

(Sekolah Dasar) in the present context. Nowadays, the term Sekolah Rakyat is no

longer used in Indonesian education since it is replaced by the term Sekolah

Dasar. The term Sekolah Dasar refers to a school which provides education as a

basic knowledge to proceed to a higher school (“sekolah tempat memberikan

pendidikan sebagai dasar pengetahuan untuk melanjutkan ke sekolah yang lebih

tinggi,” Kamus Besar Bahasa Indonesia, p. 893). In other hand, Stevens and

Schmidgall-Tellings precisely define sekolah rakyat as being equivalent to

elementary school or grammar school (A Comprehensive Indonesian-English

Dictionary, p. 892). Meanwhile, based on the context given in the poem, the

phrase Sekolah Rakyat indeed refers to the elementary school in Indonesia during

the past time.


66

Nevertheless, Sekolah Rakyat is categorized into culture-specific term

because of the historical bound it has. A term which has specific bound to

Indonesian history is therefore categorized in the category of organisations, ideas,

and customs.

There is only one term which belongs to the category of organisations,

ideas, and customs in On Foreign Shores, namely Sekolah Rakyat. That term

belongs to historical sub-category. The occurrence of culture-specific term which

belongs to the category of organisations, ideas, and customs is illustrated on the

Table 4.4 below.

Table 4.4. The Organisations, Ideas, Customs Category

Culture-specificterms Sub-categories Poems Examples

Sekolah Rakyat Historical Trem Berklenengan diKota San Fransisco(Taufiq Ismail)

...pada pelajaran ilmubumi di Sekolah Rakyatpartikelir.

5. Gestures and Habits

The category of gestures and habits refers to those culture-specific terms

related to particular gestures and habits “which occur in some cultures and not in

others” (Newmark, 1988: 102). Later, Newmark also mentions some gestures and

habits from all along the world, such as smiling a little when someone dies, doing

a slow hand-clap to express warm appreciation, spitting as a blessing, nodding to

dissent or shake their head to assent, kissing their finger tips to greet or to praise,

giving a thumbs-up to signal affirmation, that belong to this category. Therefore,


67

this category embraces some movements and postures which occur in particular

culture only and not in other culture.

In this research, terms that were considered to come under this category

are terms of gestures and habits practiced within any culture in Indonesia and

barely practiced in other cultures. At last, two terms that belong to this category

were found in three poems, namely Surachman RM’s Hari Tua Mister Gilbert,

Goenawan Mohamad’s Potret Taman untuk Allen Ginsberg, and Eka Budianta’s

Instrumentalia. One of those terms is found in two different poems, yet, still

referring to the same posture in Indonesian culture.

a. “ongkang-ongkang dan goyang kaki” (Surachman’s Hari Tua Mister Gilbert,

p. 66)

Ongkang-ongkang is a kind of movement made by Indonesian people,

mostly Javanese, when they are sitting. People in Javanese tradition practice this

gesture for relaxation. Functionally, this term is defined as a position of sit with

legs dangling in Kamus Besar Bahasa Indonesia (originally written as “duduk

dengan kaki berjuntai,” p. 704), whilst Stevens and Schmidgall-Tellings’ A

Comprehensive Indonesian-English Dictionary defines the term ongkang-ongkang

as an act to “sit with one’s legs dangling” (p. 679). Based on the context, this term

literally refers to the movement of one’s feet as followed by another act involving

one’s feet. This movement is mostly practiced in Indonesia, especially in Java,

and is not practiced in other cultures, especially in English speaking country.

Because of its reference to a local movement in the SL culture, it becomes a

member of the category of gestures and habits.


68

b. “Ia kini duduk bersila” (Mohamad’s Potret Taman untuk Allen Ginsberg, p.

116) and “Kini bercerita lagi sambil bersila” (Budianta’s Instrumentalia, p.

174)

Bersila is another local term related to a local sitting position in

Indonesia. Bersila is an act to sit by folding crossing-legs (“duduk dengan

melipat kaki yang bersilangan,” Kamus Besar Bahasa Indonesia, p. 939). The

word sila itself is defined in several ways in Steven and Schmidgall-Tellings’ A

Comprehensive Indonesian-English Dictionary; if it stands by itself, sila means

“cross-legged” (p. 936). In other hand, the term duduk bersila is defined as an act

to “sit neatly cross-legged” or “sit with one leg placed across the other” (p. 936),

which is in line with the posture pictured in both poems. The act of bersila is

often practiced in traditional Javanese ceremonies. Therefore, it belongs to the

category of gestures and habits.

Culture-specific terms that belong to this the category of gestures and

habits are illustrated in Table 4.5.

Table 4.5. The Gestures and Habits Category of Culture-Specific Terms

Culture-specificTerms Poems Examples

Ongkang-ongkang Hari Tua Mister Gilbert(Surachman R.M.)

ongkang-ongkang dan goyang kaki

Bersila Potret Taman untuk AllenGinsberg (GoenawanMohamad)

Ia kini duduk bersila

Instrumentalia (EkaBudianta)

Kini bercerita lagi sambil bersila


69

The distribution of the 23 culture-specific terms found in On Foreign

Shores based on the categorisation proposed by Newmark (1988: 95-102) is

illustrated in Table 4.6.

Table 4.6. The Distribution of Culture-Specific Terms in On Foreign Shores

Categories Examples Numbers ofoccurence

Ecology Daun ketapang, belibis, kijang, garuda, bengawan,gayam, kangkung 7

Material Culture Kerupuk, getek, kopiah 3

Social CulturePantun, megatruh, bapak pocung, dandanggula,nina bobo, ninabobo, sabung ayam, gender,kendang

9

Organisations,Ideas, andCultures

Sekolah Rakyat1

Gestures andHabits

Ongkang-ongkang, bersila3

Total numbers of occurrence 23

Those 23 terms were all culture-specific terms in Indonesia found in On

Foreign Shores based on the categorization proposed by Newmark (1988). In this

anthology, the category which contributes the largest amount of culture-specific

terms is the category of social culture with nine terms, which are contributed

mostly by music terms (e.g., megatruh, bapak pocung, dandanggula, nina bobo,

kendang, and gender) as the most frequently terms to occur. The poem which

contributes the most culture-specific terms is Darmanto Yatman’s Melintasi

Atlantik with 6 terms. Furthermore, the poet who uses the most culture-specific

terms is Darmanto Yatman with seven terms through his two poems, namely

Melintasi Atlantik and Impresi Honolulu.


70

B. The Discussion of Procedures to Translate Culture-Specific Terms in On

Foreign Shores

In On Foreign Shores, there are twenty-three (23) Indonesian culture-

specific terms found. Those culture-specific terms are abstract and concrete

concepts in the ST which are totally unknown in target culture (Baker, 1992: 21).

Furthermore, they are particular-language-associated and cannot be literally

translated; yet, many cultural customs are described in ordinary language where

literal translation would distort the meaning and a translation may include an

appropriate descriptive-functional equivalence (Newmark, 1988: 95). Due to their

characteristic of being untranslatable, literal translation cannot provide

appropriate equivalence in the TL. Dealing with untranslatability and small units

of language, translation procedures are used to translate not only the form, but

also the meaning of the terms into the TL.

In this section, the researcher analyzed and discussed the procedures

applied by McGlynn to translate those 23 culture-specific terms in On Foreign

Shores from the SL into the TL. In analyzing those procedures, the researcher

deviced procedures proposed by Vinay and Darbelnet (1958) and Newmark

(1988). However, not all translation procedures proposed by experts are used by

McGlynn.

The researcher found out that there are five translation prociedures used

to translate culture-specific terms in On Foreign Shores. Those procedures are

functional equivalence (Newmark, 1988: 83) or equivalence (Vinay & Darbelnet,

1958, in Venuti, 2000: 90), cultural equivalence (Newmark, 1988: 82-83) or


71

adaptation (Vinay & Darbelnet, 1958, as cited in Venuti, 2000: 86), descriptive

equivalence (Newmark, 1988: 83-84), transference (Newmark, 1988: 82), and

reduction (Newmark, 1988: 90). In this section, the researcher is going to discuss

the use of each translation procedures in translating culture-specific terms in On

Foreign Shores.

1. Functional Equivalence

Based on Newmark (1988:83), functional equivalence neutralises and

generalises the SL word; and sometimes adds a particular explanation. Functional

equivalence is a cultural componential analysis and considered as the most

effective way of translating because it “deculturalises” a cultural word. In Vinay

and Darbelnet’s model, this procedure is called ‘equivalence’ (1958, in Venuti,

2000: 90).

The researcher found out that functional equivalence is used 17 times to

translate Indonesian culture-specific terms in On Foreign Shores into English.

This procedure translates Indonesian culture-specific terms from five different

categories. There are six ecology terms; two material culture terms; seven social

culture terms; one organisations, ideas, customs term; and one gestures and habits

term translated using this procedure.

a. Procedure to translate daun ketapang in Sastrowardoyo’s Dan Kematian

Makin Akrab

Sastrowardoyo’s Dan Kematian Makin Akrab is translated into English

by McGlynn; the eventual title becomes And Death Grows More Intimately in its


72

English version. The term daun ketapang is found in the ST as seen in the

following fragment.

ST: ...Di jam larutdaun ketapang makin lebat bergugurandi luar rencana.(Sastrowardoyo’s Dan Kematian Makin Akrab, On ForeignShores, p. 6)

The term daun ketapang there refers to the leaves of Terminalia catappa

tree that heavily fall in the late hours of the night. However, the TT version by

McGlynn tends to neutralise the cultural element in the word daun ketapang, as

seen in the fragment of And Death Grows More Intimately below.

TT: ...In the late hours of the nightleaves fall more thicklyunplanned.(And Death Grows More Intimately, On Foreign Shores, p. 7)

McGlynn strips off the cultural element in daun ketapang by

generalising the kind of leaves in the poem—leaves of ketapang tree into the

leaves in general. Instead of explaining the word ketapang as the origin of the

leaves, he drops the word ketapang. By so doing, McGlynn applies ‘functional

equivalence’ procedure which neutralises and generalises the SL word (Newmark,

1988: 83). The possible reason why McGlynn employs functional equivalence is

its role to “deculturalise” a cultural word (Newmark, 1988: 83); it helps the TL

readers to understand the original meaning in ST using TL words which

functionally relevant and equivalent to the SL word.


73

b. Procedure to translate garuda in Rendra’s Rick dari Corona

Rendra’s Rick dari Corona is translated into Rick from Corona. The

poem itself tells about Rick, a man from Corona, and his relationship with a girl

named Betsy in New York City. The occurrence of the word garuda in the ST can

be seen in the following fragment.

ST: …+ Dari Queens. Dari Brooklyn. Dan dari Manhattan –- Ricky, sayang, garudaku sayang....(Rendra’s Rick dari Corona, On Foreign Shores, p. 54)

The word garuda in the poem whose fragment is shown above refers to a

nickname given to Rick by Betsy. That nickname points out that Rick is a strong

man—possibly in bed—as strong as a garuda, a carnivorous bird which in Kamus

Besar Bahasa Indonesia is defined to be looked like an eagle.

Having known the definition of the word garuda, the researcher would

be likely to adapt the word garuda into the TL or give extra information about it.

However, McGlynn translated the word garuda in the TT differently, as seen in

the following fragment.

TT: ...+ From Queens. From Brooklyn. And from Manhattan –- Ricky, honey, my loving eagle....(Rick from Corona, On Foreign Shores, p. 55)

In that translation, McGlynn once again drops the cultural element in

the SL, yet, instead of making a generalization to the word garuda, he uses a

culture-free word eagle, which has close relation to the word garuda (See Page


74

51) as a replacement. To bring the word eagle out, a translation procedure which

is taken into account is functional equivalence (Newmark, 1988: 83); as it

deculturalises the word in the TT and uses a culture-free term in the TL which fits

the context and original meaning.

The use of functional equivalence is important since there is no word-to-

word or cultural equivalence for the word garuda in the TL environment.

However, the word eagle in the TL is functionally acceptable to replace the word

garuda, since both eagle and garuda refers to kinds of strong carnivorous bird.

Besides, the word garuda in the TT refers to a nickname given by Betsy to Rick

for his impressive act; thus, replacing the word garuda with eagle in the TT is

acceptable. Although the word eagle cannot accommodate the loss of the cultural

element in the word garuda, it fits the original ST meaning as the name of a

“large bird of prey with a massive hooked bill and a long broad wings, known for

its keen sight and powerful soaring flight”

(http://www.oxforddictionaries.com/definition/english/eagle), which is similar to

the definition of garuda in Kamus Besar Bahasa Indonesia and reflecting Rick’s

impressive act praised by Betsy in the poem.

c. Procedure to translate kijang in Surachman’s Sajak-Sajak dari Solarium

Surachman’s Sajak-Sajak dari Solarium is translated into Poems from

the Solarium. This poem originally consists of 5 segments in which each segment

tells different story and theme. The word kijang is found in the fifth segment of

this 5-segmented poem, which tells about the natural scenery highlighted in


75

someone’s road trip. The occurrence of the word kijang in the ST can be seen in

the following fragments.

ST: ...Dan, ah seekor kijangmelintas jalandalam gerimis hujanLalu menghilang(Surachman’s Sajak-Sajak dari Solarium, On Foreign Shores, p.58)

In the ST, it can be seen that a kijang crosses the street when rain falls,

yet, it disappears eventually. The word kijang in the ST refers to a kind of

antelope, which looks like a deer with a smaller body (as discussed in page 51).

The animal it refers is familiar in the SL culture, not only literally but also non-

literally since it is also depicted as a brand symbol of a commercial car.

Thereafter, McGlynn translates that word into deer in the TT; a word that has

close relation to kijang. Thus, it implies that McGlynn employs Newmark’s

functional equivalence (1988: 83) to translate this term as seen in this fragment.

TT: ...And, yes, a deer, tooflitting across the roadto disappearin the drizzling rain(Poems from the Solarium, On Foreign Shores, p. 59)

The functional equivalence procedure is applied to neutralize the word

kijang from its cultural element based on its previously-discussed defintion and

replace it with a near TL equivalent which is functionally known by the readers of

the TT. The word deer in the TT refers to “a hoofed grazing or browsing animal

with branched bony antlers that is shed annually and typically borne only by the


76

male” (http://www.oxforddictionaries.com/definition/english/deer) which is

functionally acceptable to replace the word kijang. In the definition in Kamus

Besar Bahasa Indonesia, kijang is defined as a horned animal which looks like a

deer.

d. Procedure to translate belibis in Ismail’s Pantun Terang Bulan di Midwest

The word belibis is found in Ismail’s Pantun Terang Bulan di Midwest,

which is translated into Full Moon in the Midwest by McGlynn in the TL. The

original poem consists of five verses marked as five pantun with unique rhyme

patterns. The word belibis refers to the birds found in the fifth verse of this poem.

The detail of its occurrence can be seen in the fragment below.

ST: Danau yang di sanaSeribu burung belibisLereng pohon pinaAngin pun gerimis(Ismail’s Pantun Terang Bulan di Midwest, On Foreign Shores,p. 78)

The word belibis in this poem refers to a kind of bird which flies in a

large flock. In the ST, the poem is in a form of pantun (See Page 58), but, in the

TT, the poem is in a free form which still accommodates the meaning of each

verse in the ST. Therefore, the translation of the poem is not limited to the

stylistic form of pantun. The translation of the word belibis in the TT Full Moon

in the Midwest can be seen in the following fragment.

TT: On the lake beyondsA thousand ducksThe hillside pinesEven the wind is wet(Full Moon in the Midwest, On Foreign Shores, p.79)


77

The word belibis is translated into ducks in the TT. The omission of the

pantun form in Full Moon in the Midwest makes this translation possible. The

word belibis in the ST carries cultural element; while the word ducks in the TT

does not carry cultural element since it bears universal element. Therefore, the

possible procedure used in that translation is Newmark’s functional equivalence

(1988: 83), which deculturalises the word belibis and replaces it with a culture-

free term. This procedure is possibly used with a consideration that belibis is

defined as a bird which looks like duck (See Page 52). In addition, the

consideration that belibis is not familiar in the TL culture and duck is more

recognized in the TL is possibly taken into account to functionally replace belibis

with ducks in the TT.

e. Procedure to translate gayam in Yatman’s Melintasi Atlantik

The word gayam is found in Yatman’s Melintasi Atlantik, which tells

about the experience of Yatman’s uncle, a character in this poem, when he was in

The United States; the characters tells it in a humorous way by making

comparison between the view of The United States with the view of his

hometown in Bantul, Yogyakarta. The word gayam can be seen in this fragment.

ST: ...(Setidak-tidaknyaAku tidak merasa seperti ColumbusSekalipun mungkin sekaliAkulah orang pertamaDari sekian petani penanam gayamDari sekian yang berincome 150 U.S. DollarPer kapita per annumYang menyeberangi samudera!)(Yatman’s Melintasi Atlantik, On Foreign Shores, p. 128)


78

The word gayam in the ST refers to Indonesian local cultivated fruit

which is edible (See Page 53). Thus, gayam belongs to a culture-specific term.

However, gayam is translated differently in the TT as seen in the fragment below.

TT: ...(LeastwaysI didn’t feel like ColumbusThough very likelyI was the firstOf the many fruit farmersFrom a country with an incomeOf US$ 150 per capitaPer yearTo have crossed this very ocean!)(Crossing the Atlantic, On Foreign Shores, p. 129)

In the TT, gayam is replaced by a general word fruit instead of being

replaced by a more specific word or an adaptation of the word gayam. The

character is still a farmer and still cultivates fruit, yet, McGlynn does not specify

what fruit he cultivates. Thus, the original meaning remains the same on the TT.

In translating the word gayam, McGlynn employs a functional

equivalence procedure (Newmark, 1988: 83). Based on Newmark (1988: 83), this

procedure is “neutralizing” the word gayam from its cultural element and

“generalizing” it. This procedure is possibly employed with a consideration that

the word gayam literally refers to a kind of fruit growing in Indonesia (See Page

53), which is not recognized in the TL. Therefore, a word which is culturally-

neutral and able to accommodate the meaning of gayam in the TL environment is

needed.


79

f. Procedure to translate kangkung in Yatman’s Melintasi Atlantik

The word kangkung is also found in Yatman’s Melintasi Atlantik—a

poem about an Indonesian farmer who crosses the ocean and goes to The United

States. Literally, it refers to a kind of Inocarpus tree growing in water (See Page

53). In the ST—Yatman’s Melintasi Atlantik, the word can be found in this

fragment.

ST: Sambil nembang bapakpocung

Mbokku cukupmelenggang ke pasarPundong

Kalau butuh kacangkangkung

(Yatman’s Melintasi Atlantik, On Foreign Shores, p. 130)

In the ST, kangkung refers to a kind of vegetable the character’s mother

wants to buy in Pundong market. With peanuts, the equivalence of kacang,

kangkung is a kind of vegetable sold in markets. However, kangkung is often

associated to red water spinach, although both of them belong to different species

of Inocarpus family.

In the TT, kangkung is not translated literally or transferred immediately.

McGlynn translates it into spinach—a culturally-neutral item which has

immediate association to the word kangkung as an Inocarpus tree. However, it

still refers to a kind of vegetable sold in Pundong market along with peanuts.

Thus, the original meaning of it in the TT can still be accommodated by the

translation. The translation of the word kangkung in the TT can be seen in the

following fragment.


80

TT: As I singmy ancient verses

All mother must dois going to Pundong market

If its peanuts and spinachwe need

(Crossing the Atlantic, On Foreign Shores, p. 131)

From the comparison between ST and TT, it is apparent that McGlynn

employs Newmark’s functional equivalence procedure (1988: 83) to translate the

word kangkung into spinach. Based on Newmark (1988: 83), this procedure

“generalises the SL word” kangkung and provides a culture-free word in the TL.

This procedure is possibly used in consideration that spinach, “an edible Asian

plant of the goosefoot family, with large dark green leaves which are widely eaten

as a vegetable,” (www.oxforddictionaries.com/definition/english/spinach) fits the

definition of the word kangkung (See Page 53) in the SL.

g. Procedure to translate kerupuk in Ismail’s Trem Berklenengan di Kota San

Fransisco

The word kerupuk belongs to food sub-category of of material culture.

This word is found in Ismail’s Trem Berklenengan di Kota San Fransisco, which

is translated into The Clatter of Cable Cars in San Fransisco. Kerupuk is local

Indonesian chips which are made of flour dough with particular seasoning (See

Page 55). In the ST, the word kerupuk can be found in the fragment below.

ST: Amerika mengeluarkan bunyi kerupuk kentang keringyang dikunyah lambat-lambat(Ismail’s Trem Berklenengan di Kota San Fransisco, On ForeignShores, p. 72)


81

The word kerupuk in the ST refers to dry chips made of flour dough with

potato mixture non-literally chewed by America to produce crunch sound.

However, in the translation of the poem which is taken from point of view of a

man who is bizarre with the technology in The United States, kerupuk is replaced

with a general word, chips, which is more common in the target culture. The

translation of the word kerupuk in the TT can be seen in the fragment below.

TT: America sounds like crispy potato chipsbeing chewed slowly(The Clatter of Cable Cars in San Fransisco, On Foreign Shores,p. 73)

In the TT, the word kerupuk is translated into chips—a general word that

functionally describes what kind of food kerupuk is in the TL culture. Chips is the

plural form of the word chip, a noun referring to “a long rectangular piece of

deep-fried potato” (http://www.oxforddictionaries.com/definition/english/chip).

Naturally, kerupuk, as a kind of food, cannot be found in the TL culture, yet, the

word chips resembles its function and form. Although the word kerupuk is

translated differently from the real reference, the original meaning does not

change since chip is a kind of food that can produce crunch sound the way

kerupuk produces. The original word kerupuk is deculturalised and replaced by a

culturally-neutral word which functionally represents the meaning of which to

accommodate the original meaning in the ST to be reproduced in the TT.

Therefore, the procedure employed to translate this word is functional equivalence

proposed by Newmark (1988: 83).


82

h. Procedure to translate getek in Yatman’s Melintasi Atlantik

The word getek in Yatman’s Melintasi Atlantik is a culture-specific term

which belongs to transport sub-category of the category of material culture. It

refers to a kind of water transportation used by a legendary Javanese character,

Joko Tingkir. Getek is a kind of water transportation structured of bamboos tied

up together functioned as a flat boat or a raft (See Page 56). Getek in this poem is

used to liken how history floats and oscillates like the boat sailed by Joko Tingkir

which is drifted away by a female crocodile. The occurrence of the word getek

can be seen in the following fragment.

ST: …Ah. Ah.Melintasi AtlantikSejarah mengambangBagai geteknya Joko TingkirDigoyang goyang pinggul buaya wanita(Yatman’s Melintasi Atlantik, On Foreign Shores, p. 132)

The word getek in the TT refers to particular water transportation. In the

TT, that word is translated into raft, a water transportation which is known

overseas. The word raft has an immediate association to the word getek as a mean

of transportation. The former is literally defined as a noun which refers to “a flat

buoyant structure of timber or other materials fastened together, used as a boat or

floating platform” (hhttp://www.oxforddictionaries.com/definition/english/raft);

this definition is similar to the definition of getek discussed previously (See Page

56). The occurrence of the word raft to translate getek in the TT can be seen on



83

TT: …Psshaw!Crossing the AtlanticHistory floatsLike Joko Tingkir’s raftRocking on the back of a crocodile woman(Crossing the Atlantic, p. 133)

The word raft functionally replaces the word getek in the translation and

in the generating of meaning in the TT. Rather than transferring the whole word

getek or explaining it, McGlynn prefers to use functional equivalence which is

proposed by Newmark (1988: 83). For this word, McGlynn does not generalize

the ST word, yet, he finds a culturally-neutral term known in the TL culture to

translate it.

i. Procedure to translate megatruh in Yatman’s Melintasi Atlantik

Megatruh is one of three culture-specific terms found in Yatman’s

Melintasi Atlantik which belongs to the category of social culture. Literally,

megatruh refers to one kind of traditional Javanese macapat songs. The

occurrence of that word in the ST can be seen below.

ST: ...Namun di atas Atlantik ini pulaKudengar biyungku menangisDalam megatruh bluesYang mengusik suarga(Yatman’s Melintasi Atlantik, On Foreign Shores, p. 130)

In the ST, megatruh refers to a form of macapat composition which is

usually used to express disappointment or deep sadness with unique rhyming

patterns (See Page 59). The character on this poem vaguely hears the sound of his


84

mother cries blends with megatruh and blues. However, McGlynn translates the

word megatruh very differently in the TT as seen in the following fragment.

TT: ...But above the Atlantic I heard as wellMy grandmother cryingIn traditional Javanese bluesThat could not have but touched heaven(Crossing the Atlantic, On Foreign Shores, p. 131)

In the TT, the word megatruh is translated into an adjectival phrase

traditional Javanese. It appears that McGlynn uses the functional equivalence

procedure proposed by Newmark (1988: 83) to translate that word and transfer the

meaning of which into SL. The word megatruh does not have word-for-word

equivalence in the SL; moreover, a cultural equivalene may not accommodate the

uniqueness of megatruh in the SL due to the absence of similar kind of song in the

TL culture. Since megatruh refers to a traditional song in Javanese culture which

lasts for excessive period, the translation done by McGlynn functionally fits the

definition of megatruh. Therefore, functional equivalence allows the translator to

generalize the word in the ST and express it in the TT with a more understandable

term.

j. Procedure to translate bapak pocung in Yatman’s Melintasi Atlantik

The term bapak pocung is also in Yatman’s Melintasi Atlantik. Bapak

pocung, literally refers to a form of macapat composition which is usually used to

tell spoof, anecdote, and riddle. The occurrence of bapak pocung in the ST is

illustrated in this fragment.


85

ST: Sambil nembang bapakpocung

Mbokku cukupmelenggang ke pasarPundong

Kalau butuh kacangkangkung

(Yatman’s Melintasi Atlantik, On Foreign Shores, p. 130)

In the ST, bapak pocung is described as a title of song that the character

sings while his mother goes to Pundong market. Furthermore, this term is defined

as a form of macapat composition to express happiness (See Page 60); this

definition explains what kind of song is sung by the character’s mother in the ST.

However, this term is translated differently in the TT as seen in the fragment

below.

TT: As I singmy ancient verses

All mother must dois going to Pundong market

If its peanuts and spinachwe need

(Crossing the Atlantic, On Foreign Shores, p. 131)

In the TT, the term bapak pocung is translated into the phrase my

ancient verse. According to dictionary, the word verses is defined as a noun which

means “writing arranged with a metrical rhythm, typically having a rhyme”

(http://www.oxforddictionaries.com/definition/english/verse), while the word

ancient is defined as an adjective which means “belonging to the very distant

past” (http://www.oxforddictionaries.com/definition/english/ancient). Hence, the

phrase my ancient verse in the TT refers to a kind of writing with metrical rhythm

coming from the distant past—known by the character in the poem. Functionally,


86

it refers to the same thing the term bapak pocung referring in the ST, yet, uses

common vocabulary in the TL. Therefore, the procedure employed for this term is

a functional equivalence proposed by Newmark (1988: 83).

The functional equivalence in this translation is employed to

deculturalise the word bapak pocung—neutralizing it without altering the general

meaning. It is employed because the SL term does not have TL equivalence. Thus,

it applies what Newmark states about functional equivalence which

“deculturalises a cultural word” (1988: 83).

k. Procedure to translate dandanggula in Yatman’s Melintasi Atlantik

Dandanggula is also one of three culture-specific terms found in

Yatman’s Melintasi Atlantik which belongs to the category of social culture.

Literally, dandanggula also refers to one kind of traditional Javanese macapat

songs that expresses joyfulness or victory (See Page 61). The occurrence of the

term bapak pocung in the ST can be seen in the fragment below.

ST: Dalam tetembangan dandanggulaApa yang bisa kukerjakan selama iniCuma nanem, matun, panenHanya terkadang saja ada waktuBuat semadiDan baca sajak Li Po dan Tu FuSambil latihan yoga dan Tai Chi(Yatman’s Melintasi Atlantik, On Foreign Shores, p. 132)

In the ST, the word dandanggula refers to a kind of macapat song telling

about what the character in the poem can do all the time, such as cultivating,

meditating, reading verses, and practicing yoga as well as practicing Tai Chi. It

corresponds the dictionary definition of dandanggula as a form of macapat


87

composition to express joyfulness as depicted in the activities the character can

do. In Indonesian-English dictionary, this word does not have corresponding

equivalence in the TL.

Even though the word dandanggula has no word-for-word equivalence in

the TL, McGlynn is able to transfer its meaning in the TT by employing a

procedure to translate it into the TL. In the TT, Crossing the Atlantic, the word

dandanggula is translated in a similar way like the word bapak pocung in the

same poem. The translation of this word can be seen in the fragment below.

TT: As I sing my ancient songsWhat is it that I can doBut plant and weed and harvestAnd, sometimes, when there’s timeA little meditationAnd reading the poems of Li Po and Tu FuWhile practicing yoga and tai chi(Crossing the Atlantic, On Foreign Shores, p. 133)

In the TT, the word dandanggula is translated into the phrase my ancient

song. The procedure employed to translate it is similar to the one employed to

translate the term bapak pocung. Practically, the translation in the TT refers to

some songs that have been lasting since the ancient time; it also refers to the

definition of the word dandanggula in a general and neutral way. Generalizing a

cultural word and neutralizing it are characteristics of the functional equivalence

procedure proposed by Newmark (1988: 83).

l. Procedure to translate nina bobo in Yatman’s Impresi Honolulu

The term nina bobo is found twice in On Foreign Shores. However,

those two nina bobo have different form but belong to the same part of speech. In


88

Yatman’s Impresi Honolulu, nina bobo is a noun which belongs to the category of

social culture. Its occurrence can be seen in the following fragment.

ST: -berbaring tengah siangseekor burung perkutut bernyanyinina bobo(Yatman’s Impresi Honolulu, On Foreign Shores, p. 134)

In the ST, nina bobo refers to a song sung by a turtledove while lying

down in the middle of the noon. Furthermore, that song actually refers to a title of

song which is popularly used as a lullaby in Indonesian culture (See Page 62). In a

brief way, McGlynn translates nina bobo practically as seen in this fragment.

TT: -napping in the middle of the daya turtledove singsa lullaby(Honolulu Impression, On Foreign Shores, p. 135)

In the TT, the word nina bobo is translated into the word lullaby. This

translation is very functional since the culture-specific term in the ST is translated

into a word which is culturally neutral and understandable in the TL culture. The

word lullaby in the TT defines the meaning of the coined word nina bobo in the

TL culture as “a quiet, gentle song sung to send a child to sleep”

(http://www.oxforddictionaries.com/definition/english/lullaby). Since the word

lullaby is culture-free, it is implied that McGlynn employs a functional

equivalence by Newmark, which neutralizes cultural word and replaces it with a

culturally-neutral term (1988: 83).


89

m. Procedure to translate ninabobo in Hadi’s Dini Hari Musim Semi

The term ninabobo in Hadi’s Dini Hari Musim Semi is the one of two

nina bobo terms found in On Foreign Shores. In addition, it is an orthographical

variant of the word nina bobo found in Yatman’s Melintasi Atlantik. Ninabobo in

this poem is also a noun which refers to the kind of song sung to lull someone to

sleep (See Page 62). The occurrence of this word in the ST can be seen in the

following fragment.

ST: ...Menjelang tidur kupahat sinar bulan yang letih ituyang menyelinapkan dalam semak-semak salju terakhirninabobo yang menentramkan, kupahat padanyasebelum matahari memasang kaca berkilauan(Hadi’s Dini Hari Musim Semi, On Foreign Shores, p. 160)

In the ST, figurative expressions are used frequently. However, the

culture-specific term ninabobo in the ST does not belong to figurative

expressions. In this poem, the word ninabobo refers to a title of song used as

lullaby which is soothing. The same as the word nina bobo in Yatman’s Impresi

Honolulu, the word ninabobo in this poem refers to the same reference. Therefore,

the translation of it in Hadi’s Dini Hari Musim Semi is the same as the translation

of Yatman’s Impresi Honolulu—as seen in the following fragment.

TT: ...As sleep approaches I carve the listless moon’s lighthiding in the bushes of the last snowI carve on it a soothing lullabybefore the sun erects its shimmering mirror(Early Spring Morning, On Foreign Shores, p. 161)

The same as in the TT of Yatman’s Impresi Honolulu, the word

ninabobo in the TT of Hadi’s Dini Hari Musim Semi is translated into lullaby.


90

Similarly, the procedure employed by McGlynn in translating this item is a

functional equivalence by Newmark (1988: 83). In this translation, McGlynn also

strips off the cultural element in the word ninabobo, and then replaces it with a

neutral item lullaby which functionally fits the meaning of the word ninabobo in

the TL culture.

n. Procedure to translate gender in Hadi’s Kidung Putih

The word gender is an Indonesian culture-specific term which belongs

to the category of material culture in accordance to its reference as a music

instrument. This term can be found in Hadi’s Kidung Putih. Literally, gender is a

traditional music instrument in Javanese culture which is also one instrument of

gamelan set; its appearance looks like a xylophone with a kind of sounding tube

(See Page 63). In the ST, the occurrence of the word gender is illustrated in the

following fragment.

ST: Sebelum gugur atas daunan itu pusingan debubersilengking pada kayu (musim panas datangberduaan dengan angin si gender) bunga-bungamenahan bibirnya dari ciuman(Hadi’s Kidung Putih, On Foreign Shores, p. 154)

In the ST, the word gender refers to one of gamelan instrument whose

sound is carried by the wind during summer. In the TL, the reference of the word

gender is unknown. Although cultural equivalence of this term is available in the

form of xylophone, McGlynn does not use this kind of equivalence. He

generalizes the word gender and uses a cultural word which is universally known

to maintain the original sense. The translation of the word gender can be seen in



91

TT: Before the fall of the leaves the whirl of the dustwhistling ‘round branches (the summer arrives,the gamelan resounds) flowersavert their lips from kisses(White Ballad, On Foreign Shores, p. 155)

In the TT, McGlynn translates the word gender into the word gamelan.

The word gamelan, although it carries cultural element, is known in the TL as a

set of music instrument from Indonesia. It is proven by the fact that gamelan can

be found in the TL dictionary; in dictionary, gamelan is defined as “a traditional

instrumental ensemble in Java and Bali, including many bronze percussion

instruments” (http://www.oxfordditionaries.com/definition/english/gamelan).

Thus, it is apparent that McGlynn generalizes the word gender to find out a

general word that covers the definition of it; this act of translation follows the

procedure of functional equivalence proposed by Newmark (1988: 83) which

generalizes a cultural word and replaces it with a recognized word in the TL

without altering the original meaning in the SL. The word gamelan is a general

word to explain the specific word gender that becomes part of it; therefore, to do

this replacement, it is apparent that McGlynn employs Newmark’s functional

equivalence.

o. Procedure to translate kendang in Hadi’s Landskap 1971 untuk Angela Davis

As a traditional music instrument, the word kendang belongs to the

category of social culture proposed by Newmark (1988: 95, 98-99). Literally, this

term refers to a Javanese music instrument resembling drums covered with leather

(See Page 63). The occurrence of kendang in the ST can be seen in this fragment.


92

ST: dicarinya usus si mati setelah kolera yang panjangmenyerang dari laut membentuk bulan jadi jinggadalam gugusan angin laut yang beku, tiada ubahnyaseperti para dewa yang putus asaberpesta di angkasa riuh memukul kendangnya ke rimba-

rimba(Hadi’s Landskap 1971 untuk Angela Davis, On ForeignShores, p. 162)

In the ST, the seeking for the bowels of the dead by nightingale after a

long cholera epidemic is described like an attack from the ocean or a feast of

desperate gods. Kendang refers to a drum or percussion played by gods upon the

woods. Similarly, McGlynn translates the word kendang according to how it is

played. The translation of this term can be seen in the fragment below.

TT: they search the bowels of the dead after the invasionof cholera

from the sea turned the moon orangein a clump of frozen sea winds, no different from the godswho without hope celebrate in the heavens andbeat their drums in the forest.(Landscape for Angela Davis, 1971, On Foreign Shores, p.163)

In the TT, the word kendang is translated into drums. From that

translation, it is implied that McGlynn employs a functional equivalence

procedure proposed by Newmark (1988: 83). From the translation in the TT, it

can be seen that McGlynn strips the cultural element from the word kendang off

by generalizing it and replaces it with the general word that covers the original

meaning of that word in the ST. The process of bringing out the word drums as

the translation of kendang follows Newmark’s principle of functional equivalence

(1988: 83).


93

p. Procedure to translate Sekolah Rakyat in Ismail’s Trem Berklenengan di Kota

San Fransisco

Based on Newmark (1988: 101), historical term also belongs to

organsiations, ideas, and customs category of culture-specific terms. As a

historical institutional term, Sekolah Rakyat belongs to which. That term refers to

a level of education in Indonesia in the past; that level equals to Sekolah Dasar or

elementary school in the present (See Page 66). In the ST, the occurrence of the

term Sekolah Rakyat can be seen in the fragment below.

ST: … ketika aku masih bercelana pendek dan asyik menghafalkannama-nama hebat dengan huruf c, v, x, dan y pada pelajaran ilmubumi di Sekolah Rakyat partikelir.(Ismail’s Trem Berklenengan di Kota San Fransisco, On ForeignShores, p. 70)

In the ST, it is apparent that Sekolah Rakyat refers to an educational

institutional term—a level of education in which the character in the poem

memorized some names of westerners in geography and still wore short pants in

school. From the information in the ST and the definition discussed previously, it

can be concluded that Sekolah Rakyat refers to a level of education in Indonesia

which equals to elementary school or primary school in the present time.

Therefore, McGlynn translates it functionally as seen in the following fragment.

TT: : …when I was still in grade school uniform and busy memorizingthe great names beginning with the letters c, v, x, and y for mygeography class at a private primary school.

(The Clatter of Cable Cars in San Fransisco, On Foreign Shores,p. 71)

In the TT, it can be seen that McGlynn translates Sekolah Rakyat into

primary school. That translation implies that McGlynn adopts the principle of


94

functional equivalence procedure proposed by Newmark (1988: 83) as he uses a

culturally neutral term to replace the term in the ST. Furthermore, Newmark also

states that functional or descriptive term with as much descriptive details as

required is also needed to transfer historical term (1988: 101). Therefore, the

application of functional equivalence in this translation is considered appropriate.

q. Procedure to translate bersila in Budianta’s Instrumentalia

The culture-specific term bersila in Budianta’s Instrumentalia is one of

two of two bersila words found in On Foreign Shores. This term belongs to the

category of social culture. The function and the meaning of the word bersila in

this poem is exactly the same with the one in Surachman’s Hari Tua Mister

Gilbert. The occurrence of this term in Budianta’s Instrumentalia is portrayed in


ST: Kuli yang miskin ituKini bercerita lagi sambil bersila…(Budianta’s Instrumentalia, On Foreign Shores, p. 174)

In the ST, the word bersila refers to a sitting posture done by the poor

coolie while telling stories. From the discussion previously, it is implied that the

coolie sits with his legs crossing. His sitting posture resembles a meditation

posture viewed from an Indonesian point of view.

Although, both bersila terms in this anthology refer to the same posture,

McGlynn translates them differently. The translation of bersila in the TT can be

seen in the following fragment.


95

TT: The poor old coolieCross-legged, speaks…(American Instrumental, On Foreign Shores, p. 175)

The word cross-legged functionally defines bersila literally, yet, it poses

as the equivalence of bersila in the TT. From the translation, it can be seen that

for this term, McGlynn employs a functional equivalence procedure as he

neutralizes the word bersila from its cultural element. Consequently, a culturally

neutral term cross-legged is used to translate bersila; cross-legged is a neutral and

known term in the TL culture posing as an adjective which refers to a kind of

sitting position “with the legs crossed at the ankles and the knees bent outwards”

(http://www.oxforddictionaries.com/definition/english/cross-legged). Therefore, a

conclusion can be drawn that McGlynn has employed a functional equivalence

procedure (Newmark, 1988: 83).

Based on the analysis, the researcher discovered 17 uses of functional

equivalence procedures to translate culture-specific terms in On Foreign Shores.

Functional equivalence is used to help translating six terms that belong to the

category of ecology; two terms that belong to the category of material culture;

seven terms that belong to the category of social culture; one term that belongs to

the category of organisation, idea, custom; and one term that belongs to the

category of gestures and habits.

The distribution of how functional equivalence is used can be seen in the

following Table 4.7.


96

Table 4.7. The Use of Functional Equivalence Procedure

No ST TT Category

1Daun ketapang

(Sastrowardoyo’s Dan KematianMakin Akrab, p. 6)

Leaves(And Death Grows More

Intimately, p. 7)Ecology

2Garuda

(Rendra’s Rick dari Corona, p.54)

Eagle(Rick from Corona, p. 55) Ecology

3Kijang

(Surachman’s Sajak-Sajak dariSolarium, p. 58)

Deer(Poems from the Solarium, p.

59)Ecology

4Belibis

(Ismail’s Pantun Terang Bulan diMidwest, p. 78)

Ducks(Full Moon in the Midwest, p.

79)Ecology

5Gayam

(Yatman’s Melintasi Atlantik, p.128)

Fruit(Crossing the Atlantic, p. 129) Ecology

6Kangkung


Spinach(Crossing the Atlantic, p. 131) Ecology

7Kerupuk

(Ismail’s Trem Berklenengan diKota San Fransisco, p. 72)

Chips(The Clatter of Cable Cars in

San Fransisco, p. 73)Material Culture

8Getek


Raft(Crossing the Atlantic, p. 133) Material Culture

9Megatruh


Traditional Javanese(Crossing the Atlantic, p. 131) Social Culture

10Bapak pocung


My ancient verses(Crossing the Atlantic, p. 131) Social Culture

11dandanggula


My ancient songs(Crossing the Atlantic, p. 133) Social Culture

12Nina bobo

(Yatman’s Impresi Honolulu, p.134)

Lullaby(Honolulu Impression, p. 135) Social Culture

13Ninabobo

(Hadi’s Dini Hari Musim Semi, p.160)

Lullaby(Early Spring Morning, p. 161) Social Culture

14 Gender(Hadi’s Kidung Putih, p. 154)

Gamelan(White Ballad, p. 155) Social Culture

15Kendang

(Hadi’s Landskap 1971 untukAngela Davis, p. 162)

Drums(Landscape for Angela Davis,

1971, p. 162)Social Culture

16Sekolah Rakyat

(Ismail’s Trem Berklenengan diKota San Fransisco, p. 70)

Primary school(The Clatter of Cable Cars in

San Fransisco, p. 71)

Organisations,Ideas, Customs

17Bersila

(Budianta’s Instrumentalia, p.174)

Cross-legged(American Instrument, p. 175) Gestures and Habits


97

2. Cultural Equivalence

Based on Newmark (1988:82), cultural equivalence is an approximate

translation where a SL cultural word is translated by a TL cultural word. This

translation procedure is known as ‘adaptation’ in Vinay and Darbelnet’s model

(1958, as cited in Venuti, 2000: 86). It is used when the situation being referred to

by the the SL message is unknown in the TL culture.

Based on the analysis, the researcher found out that cultural equivalence

or adaptation is used three times. This procedure is used to translate one material

culture term, one social culture term, and one gestures and habits term. In this

section, the researcher is going to discuss the use of cultural equivalence to

translate culture-specific terms in On Foreign Shores.

a. Procedure to translate kopiah in Suryadi’s Central Park

The word kopiah is a culture-specific term which belongs to clothes sub-

category of the category of material culture. This word is found in Suryadi’s

Central Park, which is eventually translated into Central Park. The occurrence of

this word in the ST is illustrated in the following fragment taken from Suryadi’s

Central Park.

ST: Dan seorang bishop menawarkan ice juiceLengkap dengan pakaian kebesarannyaPerutnya gendut kebanyakan keju dan anggurKopiahnya bertengger di atas kepalanya(Suryadi’s Central Park, On Foreign Shores, p. 164)

In the ST, the word kopiah refers to a headdress worn by the bishop.

Meanwhile, in the previous discussion, kopiah refers to a headdress worn by

Muslim men as a national identity (See Page 57). Thus, it may also mean that


98

Suryadi, the poet, sees the headdress worn by the bishop the way he sees the hat

as the identity of Muslim men. However, the word kopiah is translated differently

in the TT as illustrated in the following fragment.

TT: Complete in holy vestmentsA bishop plies sno-coneHis stomach massive from excess wine and cheeseHis miter askew on top of his head(Central Park, p. 165)

In the TT, the bishop wears a miter rather than a kopiah as depicted in the

ST. Thus, the word kopiah is translated into miter in the TT. This translation is

considered acceptable since miter also refers to a headdress. The word miter

literally means “a tall headdress worn by bishops and senior abbots as a symbol of

office, tapering to a point at front and back with a deep cleft between”

(http://www.oxforddictionaries.com/definition/english/mitre). Therefore, a hat in

the ST is translated into another hat in the TT.

The procedure employed to translate the word kopiah into miter is known

as cultural equivalence (Newmark, 1988: 83) or adaptation (Vinay & Darbelnet,

1958). Vinay and Darbelnet (1958) claim this procedure as “an effort of creating

cultural equivalence between two different situations.” In this procedure, a

translator translates an SL cultural word with a TL cultural word. In this case, the

cultural equivalence procedure allows McGlynn to translate kopiah, a cultural

word in the SL into miter, a headdress known in the TL to be worn by a bishop.

This procedure is reasonable to employ since the word kopiah is unknown in the

TL, yet, there is a word miter which have greater pragmatic effect in the TL.


99

b. Procedure to translate sabung ayam in Nadjira’s Sepasang Turis

Sabung ayam refers to a traditional game in Indonesia in which people

engaging two roosters in a fight. As a kind of leisure activity, it belongs to the

category of social culture. The occurrence of sabung ayam can be seen in the

following fragment.

ST: Kita tak menemukan yang beda, ternyataBunga-bunga seperti ini juga ada di Vietnam(ketika bersin, jahitan di lambung terasa nyeri)Apa? Permainan nyawa?Dewa-dewa di pulau ini tidak membenci sabung ayam.(Nadjira’s Sepasang Turis, On Foreign Shores, p. 138)

In the ST, this word also refers to a traditional game which is allowed by

gods of particular tropical area (See Page 62). Although this term does not have

direct word-for-word equivalence the TL culture, the translation for this term can

be done by McGlynn. This translation is possible because there is a cultural

concept in the TL that can accommodate the SL original meaning of sabung ayam

in the TL. The translation of the term sabung ayam in the TT can be seen in the

following fragment.

TT: We cannot tell the difference, in factThere are flowers like this in Viet Nam, too(sneezing, he winces from the stitches in his side)What is this? A fight to the finish?The gods on this island are not averse to cockfights(A Tourist Couple, On Foreign Shores, p. 139)

In the TT, the term sabung ayam in the ST is translated into cockfights.

Based on dictionary, the term cockfight or cockfighting is defined as a kind of

“sport (illegal in the UK and some other countries) of setting two cocks to fight

each other” (http://www.oxforddictionaries.com/definition/english/cockfighting).


100

Hence, those two terms in the ST and the TT are similar and both pose as cultural

equivalence to each other. The SL cultural word is translated into by a TL cultural

word which is known by the speaker of TL. Therefore, it can be concluded that

McGlynn employs Newmark’s cultural equivalence (Newmark, 1988: 82-83),

which is also known as adaptation in Vinay and Darbelnet’s model (1958, as cited

in Machali, 2000:6).

c. Procedure to translate bersila in Mohamad’s Potret Taman untuk Allen

Ginsberg

The word bersila occurs twice in On Foreign Shores; each occurs in

different poems. One of those words can be found in Mohamad’s Potret Taman

untuk Allen Ginsberg. It is an Indonesian culture-specific term which belongs to

the category of gestures and habits. In the ST, the occurrence of this word can be

seen in this fragment.

ST: Ia kini duduk bersiladi bangku taman kotaprajamungkin semadimungkin aku tak mengertikarena ia berkata:“Di Vietnam tak ada orang matiTak ada Vietnam dan orang tak mati.”(Mohamad’s Potret Taman untuk Allen Ginsberg, On ForeignShores, p. 116)

In the ST, the word bersila refers to a sitting posture acted by someone on

a bench in the city park. In the previous discussion, bersila is defined as an act of

sit with legs crossed (See Page 68). In the TT, the cultural word bersila is

translated into another cultural world as seen in the following fragment.


101

TT: Now he sits in lotus positionon a bench in the city parkin meditation, maybemaybe I don’t knowbecause he said“In Viet Nam there are no deadThere is no Nam, there are no dead”(Picture of A City Park for Allen Ginsberg, On Foreign Shores, p.117)

In the TT, McGlynn translates the word bersila into a TL term in lotus

position. Both terms indicates a sitting posture acted by the character in the poem.

The term lotus position, or also known as, lotus posture refers to “a cross-legged

position for meditation, with the feet resting on the thighs”

(http://www.oxforddictionaries.com/definition/english/lotus-position). This word

accommodates TL readers to understand the original meaning of which. By using

TL cultural word to replace cultural word, McGlynn has already employed

cultural equivalence (Newmark, 1988: 82-83), or adaptation in Vinay and

Darbelnet’s model (1958, as cited in Machali, 2000: 6).

Cultural equivalence is used three times in translating culture-specific

terms in On Foreign Shores. This procedure is used to translate one material

culture term, one social culture term, and one gesture and habit term. The

distribution of this procedure can be seen in Table 4.8.

Table 4.8. The Use of Cultural Equivalence Procedure

No ST TT Category

1 Kopiah(Suryadi’s Central Park, p. 164)

Miter(Central Park, p. 165) Material Culture

2Sabung ayam

(Nadjira’s Sepasang Turis, p.138)

Cockfights(A Tourist Couple, p. 139) Social Culture

3Bersila

(Mohamad’s Potret Tamanuntuk Allen Ginsberg, p. 116)

In lotus position(Picture of A City Park for Allen

Ginsberg, p. 117)Gestures and Habits


102

3. Descriptive Equivalence

The researcher found out that descriptive equivalence procedure is used

once to translate culture-specific terms in On Foreign Shores. Descriptive

equivalence itself gives description to find an equivalence of SL words to TL

(Newmark, 1988:84). This procedure is used to translate a culture-specific term

which belongs to the category of gestures and habits.

a. Procedures to translate ongkang-ongkang in Surachman’s Hari Tua Mister

Gilbert

The term ongkang-ongkang refers to a local body movement in Indonesia

associated to relaxing position. This movement involves an act of dangling legs

while sitting (See Page 67-68). As a local body movement, this term belongs to

the category of gestures and habits of culture-specific term (Newmark, 1988:

102). In the ST, the occurrence of the term ongkang-ongkang can be seen in the

following fragment.

ST: ...Dan kau sendiriGilbert! Kau cumaongkang-ongkang dan goyang kakidan tak pernah maupunya istri.(Surachman’s Hari Tua Mister Gilbert, On Foreign Shores, p. 66)

In the ST, it can be concluded from that Gilbert only loves to relax and to

have no burdens in his life. The reference of ongkang-ongkang can be seen in

what activities Gilbert always do—ongkang-ongkang, dangling his legs and


103

rocking them as well as persisting on having no wife. This gesture is not known

and practiced in the TL culture, yet it can be described. Therefore, McGlynn gives

a description to find the its equivalence in the TL as seen in the this fragment.

TT: ...And you yourselfMr. Gilbert?dangling your legsand twiddling your thumbsa man who never wanted a wife.(The Last Days of Old Man Gilbert, On Foreign Shores, p. 67)

In the TT, the term ongkang-ongkang is translated by describing it as an

act of dangling legs in the clause dangling your legs. By giving description of a

term and sometimes providing additional information about it to find an

equivalence of SL words to TL, a descriptive equivalence procedure is conducted

(Newmark, 1988: 102-103). Thus, the act of giving description done by McGlynn

has already employed this procedure.

Terms that do not have cultural equivalence or barely have functional

concepts in the TL are usually described with words known in the TL culture.

Furthermore, Newmark (1988: 84) states that description is also essential in

explanation and translation of cultural word. Therefore, this procedure is

applicable.

In this research, the researcher found out that descriptive equivalence is

used once. This procedure is used to translate a culture-specific term which

belongs to the category of gestures and habits. The distribution of how descriptive

equivalence is used can be seen in Table 4.9.


104

Table 4.9. The Use of Descriptive Equivalence Procedure

No ST TT Category

1Ongkang-ongkang

(Surachman’s Hari Tua MisterGilbert, p. 66)

Dangling your legs(The Last Days of Old Man

Gilbert, p. 67)

Gesture and Habit

4. Transference

Transference is commonly known as loan word. Based on Newmark

(1988:82), it is the process of transferring a SL word to a TL text as a translation

procedure. In this research, the researcher discovered one employment of

transference to translate a culture-specific term which belongs to ecology term.

a. Procedure to translate bengawan in Surachman’s Sajak-Sajak dari Solarium

The same as the word kijang, the word bengawan is also found in the

fifth segment of Surachman’s Sajak-Sajak dari Solarium. Along with other

geographical objects, this word refers to one of the scenery seen in a nature trip.

The term bengawan in the ST can be seen in the fragment below.

ST: Ladang. Kota. Ladang. KotaBukit. Hutan buatan dan pina.Lembah. Bengawan. Lembah. Bengawan.Tunnel. Kanal dan pelabuhan.(Surachman’s Sajak-Sajak dari Solarium, On Foreign Shores, p.58)

The word bengawan in that fragment refers to a geographical object which in the

previous discussion (see page 52) is defined as a kind of great river in the SL

culture.

In Poems from the Solarium, the translation of Surachman’s Sajak-Sajak

dari Solarium, bengawan is partially altered as seen in the following fragment.


105

TT: Fields. City. Fields. City.Hills. Man-made forests, pines.A Valley. The Bengawan River. A Valley. The Bengawan.A tunnel. A canal. The port.(Poems from the Solarium, p. 59)

The first bengawan word in the ST is translated into The Bengawan River, while

the second bengawan word is translated into The Bengawan in the TT. Hence,

McGlynn translates both bengawan words by directly transferring them to the TT;

therefore, he has applied transference proposed by Newmark (1988: 81).

The use of transference in this case is considerably appropriate.

According to Newmark (1988: 82), transference normally transfers “geographical

and topographical” term known in particular culture. In addition, Newmark (1988)

also exclaims that “cultural words are often transferred to give a local colour” and

“to give a sense of intimacy between the readers and the text” (p. 82). Since

bengawan is both geographical and cultural term in Indonesian culture, to transfer

it the way it looks in the TT is appropriate.

The researcher found out that transference is used once in translating

culture-specific term in On Foreign Shores. This procedure is used to translate an

ecology term. The distribution of the use of transference can be seen in Table

4.10.

Table 4.10. The Use of Transference

No ST TT Category

1 Bengawan(Surachman’s Sajak-Sajak dari

Solarium, p. 58)

The Bengawan(Poems from the Solarium, p.

59)

Ecology


106

5. Reduction

Reduction deals with the omission of particular word from the

translation. It is “practiced intuitively in some case and ad hoc in others”

(Newmark, 1988: 90). This procedure is used for SL text which is impossible to

be literally translated into TL. In this analysis, the researcher discovered that

reduction is used once to translate a social culture term.

a. Procedure to translate pantun in Ismail’s Pantun Terang Bulan di Midwest

Pantun is a culture-specific term found in the title of Ismail’s Pantun

Terang Bulan di Midwest, which is translated into Full Moon in the Midwest. In

the ST, the word pantun represents the form of the whole poem itself. The

comparison between the occurrence of the word pantun in the ST and the TT can

be seen in the following fragment.

ST: Pantun Terang Bulan di Midwest(Ismail’s Pantun Terang Bulan di Midwest, p. 78)

TT: _____ Full Moon in the Midwest(Full Moon in the Midwest, p. 79)

The word pantun in the title of the ST refers to a kind of Indonesian

traditional poetry with unique rhyming patterns (See Page 58-59). This word

refers to what kind of poem Ismail’s Pantun Terang Bulan di Midwest is.

However, the word pantun is not translated in the TT; it is removed from the title

and no meaning of it transferred into the TT. Therefore, the procedure which

allows this act is called reduction.

According to Newmark (1988: 90), reduction is only used for SL text

which is impossible to be literally translated into TL. In the TT, the reduction of


107

the equivalence for the word pantun is reasonable since pantun has no literal or

cultural equivalence. In addition, transferring the word directly into the TL or

giving a functional equivalence without further explanation is impossible since the

word pantun is in the title of the poem and it represents the form of the poem.

Finally, the reduction of the equivalence for pantun is allowed. In consequence,

the procedure takes its toll to the form of poem in the TT, which does not

resemble the concept of pantun as depicted in the ST.

Reduction is used once in translating culture-specific term in On Foreign

Shores. This procedure is used to translate a social culture term. The distribution

of which can be seen in Table 4.11.

Table 4.11. The Use of Reduction Procedure

No ST TT Category

1 Pantun(Ismail’s Pantun Terang Bulan

di Midwest, p. 78)

-(Full Moon in the Midwest, p.

79)

Social Culture

Of 15 translation procedures compiled from models proposed by

Newmark (1988: 81-91) and Vinay and Darbelnet (1958, as cited in Venuti, 2000:

84-93), only 5 procedures are employed to translate 23 culture-specific terms

found in On Foreign Shores. Those five procedures are transference (Newmark,

1988: 82), cultural equivalence (Newmark, 1988: 82-83) or adaptation (Vinay &

Darbelnet, 1958, as cited in Venuti, 2000: 86), functional equivalence (Newmark,

1988: 83) or equivalence (Vinay & Darbelnet, 1958, in Venuti, 2000: 90),

descriptive equivalence (Newmark, 1988: 83-84), and reduction (Newmark, 1988:


108

90). Of those procedures, functional equivalence is the most frequently procedure

to employ; it is employed 17 times in all five categories of culture-specific term

(Newmark, 1988: 95-102). Furthermore, the procedures which are not employed

are borrowing, calque, literal translation, transposition, modulation, naturalisation,

synonymy, expansion, couplets, and notes. The distribution of procedures

employed to translate culture-specific terms in On Foreign Shores in accordance

to the categories of which is illustrated in Table 4.12.

Table 4.12. The Distribution of Translation Procedures in On Foreign Shores

Translationprocedure

The occurrence of translation procedures in categoryof culture-specific term Total

occurrenceECO MCT SCT OIC GAH

Transference 1 - - - - 1Culturalequivalence

- 1 1 - 1 3

Functionalequivalence 6 2 7 1 1 17

Descriptiveequivalence

- - - - 1 1

Reduction - - 1 - - 1Total 7 3 9 1 3 23

From Table 4.12, it is clear that there were 23 culture-specific terms

found in On Foreign Shores. From those 23 terms, seven terms belong to the

category of ecology (i.e., daun ketapang, belibis, kijang, garuda, bengawan,

gayam, and kangkung), three terms belong to the category of material culture (i.e.,

kerupuk, getek, and kopiah), nine terms belong to the category of social culture

(i.e., pantun, megatruh, bapak pocung, dandanggula, nina bobo, ninabobo,

sabung ayam, gender, and kendang), one term belongs to the category of

organisations, ideas, and customs (i.e., Sekolah Rakyat), and three terms belong to


109

the category of gestures and habits (i.e., ongkang-ongkang and bersila).

Therefore, the discovery of 23 culture-specific terms in On Foreign Shores solves

the first research problem regarding culture-specific terms found in the anthology.

From Table 4.12, it is also clear that the researcher also found out that

McGlynn, the translator of this anthology, employs five procedures to translate

those 23 culture-specific terms in On Foreign Shores. Those procedures are

transference (Newmark, 1988: 82) which is used once, cultural equivalence

(Newmark, 1988: 82-83) or adaptation (Vinay & Darbelnet, 1958, as cited in

Venuti, 2000: 86) which is used 3 times, functional equivalence (Newmark, 1988:

83) or equivalence (Vinay & Darbelnet, 1958, in Venuti, 2000: 90) which is used

17 times, descriptive equivalence (Newmark, 1988: 83-84) which is used once,

and reduction (Newmark, 1988: 90) which is used once. These findings, thus,

solve the second research problem regarding what procedures are used to translate

culture-specific terms in On Foreign Shores.


110

CHAPTER V

CONCLUSIONS, IMPLICATIONS, AND RECOMMENDATIONS

This chapter consists of three parts, namely conclusions, implications

and recommendations. Conclusions summarize the research findings and highlight

the main aspects, implications point out how the research findings contribute to

ELESP, while recommendations consist of recommendations for the current study

and the further research.

A. Conclusions

There are two objectives of this research. Those objectives are to

discover and analyze culture-specific terms found in anthology of poems On

Foreign Shores and to analyze translation procedures employed to translate those

culture-specific terms from Bahasa Indonesia to English. The data were taken

from an anthology of Indonesian poems entitled On Foreign Shores which is

edited and translated into English by John H. McGlynn and later published by The

Lontar Foundation.

First, regarding the first objective, there were 23 culture-specific terms

discovered from 15 poems featured in On Foreign Shores. Those data were found

by using categorisation of culture-specific terms proposed by Newmark (1988:

96-102) and employing two dictionaries, namely Kamus Besar Bahasa Indonesia

and Kamus Indonesia Inggris. Of those 23 data found, 7 terms belong to ecology

category (Newmark, 1988: 96-97), 3 terms belong to material culture category

(Newmark, 1988: 97-98), 9 terms belong to social culture category (Newmark,


111

1988: 98-99), 1 term belongs to organisations, ideas, and customs category

(Newmark, 1988: 99-102), and 3 items belong to gestures and habits category

(Newmark, 1988: 102).

Regarding the second objective, 5 of 15 translation procedures

compiled in the review of related literature were employed to translate those 23

culture-specific terms found in On Foreign Shores. Those procedures were

transference (Newmark, 1988: 82), cultural equivalence (Newmark, 1988: 82-83)

or adaptation (Vinay & Darbelnet, 1958, as cited in Venuti, 2000: 86), functional

equivalence (Newmark, 1988: 83) or equivalence (Vinay & Darbelnet, 1958, in

Venuti, 2000: 90), descriptive equivalence (Newmark, 1988: 83-84), and

reduction (Newmark, 1988: 90). Furthermore, the procedures which were not

employed were borrowing, calque, literal translation, transposition, modulation,

naturalisation, synonymy, expansion, couplets, and notes.

The researcher also learned to find out the most frequently translation

procedures employed to translate culture-specific terms found in On Foreign

Shores although this research did not focus on that concern. The researcher

discovered that functional equivalence (Newmark, 1988:83), or also known as

equivalence (Vinay & Darbelnet, 1958, in Venuti, 2000: 90), was the most

frequently translation procedure employed. This procedure was employed 17

times through all 5 categories of culture-specific term proposed by Newmark

(1988: 96-102). Newmark (1988: 83) explains this phenomenon as a common

procedural thing as he states that functional equivalence is a “common procedure,

applied to cultural words, requires the use of culture-free items” He later points


112

out that functional equivalence procedure, “which is a cultural componential

analysis, is the most accurate way of translating and deculturalising cultural word”

(1988:83).

Instead of finding out the reason to use functional equivalence as the

most frequently used procedure, the researcher also learned to find out the reasons

underlying the applications of other translation procedures to translate culture-

specific terms in On Foreign Shores. Other four procedures, like functional

equivalence, have immediate effects in translating culture-specific terms. Cultural

equivalence allows a TL cultural word to translate an SL cultural word since it

produces greater pragmatic effects to the TT (Newmark, 1988: 82-83).

Descriptive equivalence allows words known in TL culture to describe an SL

culture-specific term. Based on Newmark (1988: 84), description is also essential

in explanation and translation of cultural word. Transference allows the translator

to transfer the SL term to the TL; in addition, transference normally transfers

“geographical and topographical” term known in particular culture (Newmark,

1988: 82). Since local geographical terms also belong to ecology category of

culture-specific term, the application of transference for them is reasonable. The

use of reduction procedure in translating a culture-specific term in On Foreign

Shores is also reasonable. According to Newmark (1988: 90), reduction is only

used for SL text which is impossible to be literally translated into TL. Since the

culture-specific term in On Foreign Shores which is translated by using reduction

has no word-for-word or cultural equivalence in the TL and becomes the part of

the title, reduction is the appropriate procedure to take. Those are the reason why


113

such procedures are applied in translating culture-specific terms in On Foreign

Shores compiled from Newmark’s theories.

B. Implications

Based on the findings of this research, there are some implications of

this research that can contribute to ELESP. The findings of this research can

contribute to the Translation course in ELESP, as they provide examples on how

translation procedures are employed to translate culture-specific terms in a real-

world text—specifically; they provide examples of how transference, cultural

equivalence or adaptation, functional equivalence or equivalence, descriptive

equivalence, and reduction are employed in translation. The findings of this

research also provide theoretical base on the use of translation procedure to

translate texts whose source language is Bahasa Indonesia specifically into

English, since some terms in Bahasa Indonesia do not have direct word-for-word

equivalence in English and some Indonesian cultural concepts are not available in

cultures of English-speaking countries.

C. Recommendations

Based on the research findings, there are some recommendations

proposed for the current study and the further research. For the current study,

local words, or simply known as culture-specific terms, in Bahasa Indonesia can

be an interesting field to study in the scope of translation. Furthermore, what kind

of local words which tend to be culture-specific terms can also be studied. The

translation of Indonesian poetry can also be an interesting field to study since


114

Indonesian literature, especially poetry, is developed from time to time. Besides,

Indonesian literature lately meets international recognition.

Since the researcher only found five translation procedures; thus, the

researcher only analyzed how those five procedures is employed in translating

culture-specific terms. However, there are many other translation procedures

which are not yet analyzed in accordance their application to translate culture-

specific terms. Accordingly, it is expected that the future research analyzes the

other procedures which have not been analyzed yet in this research. Besides, this

research only focused on translating culture-specific terms within word level.

Thus, the future research is also expected to focus on broader level, for instance,

clause or sentence level—which needs more complex translation.

For translators, the findings of this research about culture-specific

terms provide additional knowledge and consideration of what words carrying

cultural element. Furthermore, the analyses of how translation procedures are

employed to translate culture-specific terms in poems are expected to become

considerations and models for translators when they face similar cases. Finally,

this research is expected to become a reference for translators to study translation

threats related to culture-specific terms.


115

REFERENCES

Anderson, E. R. (1998). A grammar of iconism. London: Associated UniversityPress.

Ary, D., Jacobs, L. C., Sorensen, C., & Razavieh, A. (2010). Introduction toresearch in education (8thed.). Belmont: Wadsworth Cengage Learning.

Baker, M. (1992). In other words: A coursebook on translation. London:Routledge.

Bardenstein, C. (2005). Translation and transformation in modern Arabicliterature. Leipzig: Harrassowitz.

Bassnett, S. (1980).Translation studies. London: Routledge.

Biguenet, J., & Schulte, R. (Ed.). (1989). The craft of translation. Chicago: TheUniversity of Chicago Press.

Borg, W. R., & Galls, M. D. (2007). Education research an introduction. Boston:Pearson Education.

Brislin, R. (1976). Translation: Application and research. New York: GardnerPress and Wiley.

Catford, J. C. (1965). A linguistic theory of translation. London: OxfordUniversity Press.

Challer, S. (1996). The little Oxford dictionary of English grammar. New York:Oxford University Press.

Choliludin. (2005). The technique of making idiomatic translation. Jakarta:Kesaint Blanc.

Creswell, J. (2007). Qualitative inquiry and research design: Choosing amongfive approaches (2nded.). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publication, Inc.

Depdikbud.(1996). Kamus besar Bahasa Indonesia. Jakarta: Balai Pustaka.

Echols, J. M., & Shadily, H. (Eds). (2002). Kamus Indonesia-Inggris: AnIndonesian-English dictionary (3rded.). Jakarta: Gramedia.

El-shafey, F. (2012). Definition and kinds of translation. In Simultaneoustranslation. Retrieved from http://bu.edu.eg/olc/images/fart/425.pdf onAugust 30, 2013.

Hatim, B. (2001). Teaching and researching translation. Essex: PearsonEducation Ltd.


116

Hatim, B., & Mason, I. (1990). Discourse and the translator. Essex: PearsonEducation Ltd.

Hervey, S., & Higgins, I. (1992). Thinking translation: A course in translationmethod. London: Routledge.

Jakobson, R. (2004). On linguistics aspect of translation. In The translationstudies reader (2nd ed.). Venuti, L. (Ed.). London: Routledge.

Katan, D. (1999). Translating culture: An introduction for translators,interpreters, and mediators. Manchester: St. Jerome Publishing.

Krings, H. P. (1986). Translation problems and translation strategies of advancedGerman learners of French. Tubingen: Gunter Narr. In Ordudari, M.(2007). Translation procedures, strategies, and methods. Retrieved fromhttp://translationjournal.net/journal/41culture.htm on September 4, 2013.

Larson, M. L. (1984). Meaning-based translation. Lanham: University Press ofAmerica.

Loescher, W. (1991). Translation performance, translation process and translationstrategies. Tubingen: Gunter Narr. In Ordudari, M. (2007). Translationprocedures, strategies, and methods. Retrieved fromhttp://translationjournal.net/journal/41culture.htm on September 4, 2013.

Machali, R. (2000). Pedoman bagi penerjemah: Panduan lengkap bagi anda yangingin menjadi penerjemah professional. Bandung: Kaifa.

Malinowski, B. (1923). The problem of meaning in primitive languages. In Themeaning of meaning, 146-152. Ogden, C. K., & Richards, I. A. (Eds).London: Routledge.

Malmkjaer, K. (2005). Linguistic and the language of translation. Edinburgh:Edinburgh University Press.

McGlynn, J. H. (Ed. And trans.). (1990). On foreign shores: American images inIndonesian poetry. Jakarta: The Lontar Foundation.

Merriam, S. B., & Associates. (2002). Qualitative research in practice: Examplesfor discussion and analysis. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass Publishers.

Munday, J. (2001). Introducing translation studies: Theories and applications.London: Routledge.

Munday, J. (2008). Introducing translation studies: Theories and application.London: Taylor and Francis group.

Newmark, P. (1981). Approaches to translation. Oxford: Pergamon Press.

Newmark, P. (1988). A Textbook of Translation. Hertfordshire: Prentice Hall.


117

Nida, E. (1959). Bible translating. In On translation. Brower, R.A. (Ed.). 11-31.Cambridge: Harvard University Press.

Nida, E. A. (1964). Towards a science of translating. Leiden: E. J. Brill.

Nida, E. A., & Taber, C. R. (1974). The theory and practice of translation.Leiden: E. J. Brill.

Nida, E. A., & Taber. C. R. (1982). The theory and practice of translation.Leiden: E. J. Brill.

Riffaterre, M. (1992). Transposing presuppositions on the semiotics of literarytranslation. In Theories of translation. Biguenet, J., and Schulte, R. (eds.).Chicago: The Chicago University Press.

Roberts, E. V. (1991). Writing themes about literature. London: Prentice-HallInternational, Inc.

Schjoldager, A. (2008). Understanding translation. Aahrus: Academica.

Snell-Hornby, M. (1988). Translation studies: An integrated approach.Amsterdam: John Benjamin Publishing.

Snell-Hornby, M. (1990). Linguistic transcoding or cultural transfer? A critiqueon translation theory in Germany. In Translation, history and culture, 79-86. Bassnett, S., and Levefere, A. (eds.),. London: Pinter.

Suryawinata, Z., & Haryanto, S. (2003). Translation: Bahasan teori dan penuntunpraktis menerjemahkan. Yogyakarta: Kanisius.

Venuti, L. (1995). The translator's invisibility: A history of translation. London:Taylor & Francis group.

Venuti, L. (2000). The translation studies reader. London: Routledge.

Vinay, J.P., & Darbelnet, J. (1995) Comparative stylistics of French and English:Amethodology for translation, translated by Sager, J. C., & Hamel, M. J.Amsterdam : John Benjamins Publishing.

Witherspoon, G. (1980). Language in culture and culture in language. InInternational journal of American linguistics, Vol. 46, No. 1 (Jan., 1980),pp. 1-13. Chicago: The Chicago University Press. Retrieved fromhttp://www.jstor.org/stable/1264442on September 28, 2012.


APPENDICES


118

APPENDIX ATable 3.1. Table of Culture-specific Terms

(Based on Newmark, (1988))

No.


Line on poems

Categories of culture-specificterms

ECO MCU SCU OIC GAH

1 Daun

ketapang

“daun ketapang makin lebatberguguran”(Sastrowardoyo’s Dan KematianMakin Akrab, p.7)

√

2 Garuda “Ricky, sayang, garudaku sayang”(Rendra’s Rick dari Corona, p. 54) √

3 Kijang “Dan, ah, seekor kijang”(Surachman’s Sajak-Sajak dariSolarium, p. 58)

√

4 Bengawan “Lembah. Bengawan. Lembah.

Bengawan”

(Surachman’s Sajak-Sajak dariSolarium, p. 58)

√

5 Ongkang-ongkang

“ongkang-ongkang dan goyangkaki”(Surachman’s Hari Tua MisterGilbert, p. 66)

√

6 SekolahRakyat

“...pada pelajaran ilmu bumi diSekolah Rakyat partikelir.”(Ismail’s Trem Berklenengan diKota San Fransisco, p. 70)

√

7 Kerupuk “Amerika mengeluarkan bunyikerupuk kentang kering”(Ismail’s Trem Berklenengan diKota San Fransisco, p. 72)

√

8 Pantun “Pantun Terang Bulan di Midwest”(Ismail’s Pantun Terang Bulan diMidwest, p. 78)

√

9 Belibis “seribu burung belibis”(Ismail’s Pantun Terang Bulan diMidwest, p. 78)

√


119

No.


Line on poems


ECO MCU SCU OIC GAH

10 Bersila “Ia kini duduk bersila”Potret Taman untuk Allen Ginsberg(Goenawan Mohamad)

√

11 Gayam “dari sekian petani penanamgayam”(Yatman’s Melintasi Atlantik, p.128)

√

12 Megatruh “dalam megatruh blues”(Yatman’s Melintasi Atlantik, p.130)

√

13 Bapakpocung

“sambil nembang bapak pocung”(Yatman’s Melintasi Atlantik, p.130)

√

14 Kangkung “Kalau butuh kacang kangkung”(Yatman’s Melintasi Atlantik, p.130)

√

15 Dandanggula “dalam tetembangandandanggula”(Yatman’s Melintasi Atlantik, p.132)

√

16 Getek "Bagai geteknya Joko Tingkir”(Yatman’s Melintasi Atlantik, p.132)

√

17 Nina bobo “nina bobo”(Yatman’s Impresi Honolulu, p.134)

√

18 Sabung ayam “Dewa-dewa di pulau ini tidakmembenci sabung ayam”(Nadjira’s Sepasang Turis, p. 138)

√

19 Gender “musim panas datang berduaandengan angin si gender”(Hadi’s Kidung Putih, p. 154)

√

20 ninabobo “ninabobo yang menentramkan,kupahatkan padanya”(Hadi’s Dini Hari Musim Semi, p.160)

√


120

No.


Line on poems


ECO MCU SCU OIC GAH

21 Kendang“berpesta di angkasa riuh memukulkendangnya di rimba-rimba”(Hadi’s Landskap 1971 untukAngela Davis, p. 162)

√

22 Kopiah “Kopiahnya bertengger di ataskepala”(Suryadi’s Central Park, p. 164)

√

23 Bersila “Kini bercerita lagi sambil bersila”(Budianta’s Instrumentalia, p. 174) √

Total 7 3 9 1 3

Notes

ECO : Ecology

MCU : Material Culture

SCU : Social Culture

OIC : Organizations, Ideas, Customs

GAH : Gestures and Habits


121

APPENDIX BTable 3.2. Table of Strategies to Translate Culture-specific Terms

(Based on Vinay and Darbelnet (1958), Newmark (1988))

No. ST

(Source Text)TT

(Target Text)

Translation Strategies

BO

CA

LT TP

MO

TF

CE FE NA

DE SY RE

EX

CO

NO

1

Daun ketapang(Sastrowardoyo’s

Dan KematianMakin Akrab, p. 6)

Leaves(And Death GrowsMore Intimately, p.

7)√

2Garuda

(Rendra’s Rick dariCorona, p. 54)

Eagle(Rick from Corona,

p. 55)√

3

Kijang(Surachman’s

Sajak-Sajak dariSolarium, p. 58)

Deer(Poems from theSolarium, p. 59)

√

4

Bengawan(Surachman’s

Sajak-Sajak dariSolarium, p. 58)

The Bengawan(Poems from theSolarium, p. 59)

√


122

No. ST

(Source Text)TT

(Target Text)


BO

CA

LT TP

MO

TF

CE FE NA

DE SY EX

RE

CO

NO

5

Belibis(Ismail’s PantunTerang Bulan diMidwest, p. 78)

Ducks(Full Moon in theMidwest, p. 79)

√

6

Gayam(Yatman’s

Melintasi Atlantik,p. 128)

Fruit(Crossing the

Atlantic, p. 129)√

7

Kangkung(Yatman’s


Spinach(Crossing the


8

Kerupuk(Ismail’s Trem

Berklenengan diKota San

Fransisco, p. 72)

Chips(The Clatter ofCable Cars in

San Fransisco, p.73)

√

9

Getek(Yatman’sMelintasi

Atlantik, p. 132)

Raft(Crossing the



123

No. ST

(Source Text)TT

(Target Text)


BO

CA

LT TP

MO

TF

CE FE NA

DE SY EX

RE

CO

NO

10

Kopiah(Suryadi’s

Central Park, p.164)

Miter(Central Park, p.

165)√

11

Pantun(Ismail’s PantunTerang Bulan diMidwest, p. 78)

-(Full Moon in theMidwest, p. 79)

√

12

Megatruh(Yatman’s


TraditionalJavanese

(Crossing theAtlantic, p. 131)

√

13

Bapak pocung(Yatman’s


My ancient verses(Crossing the


14

dandanggula(Yatman’s


My ancient songs(Crossing the



124

No. ST

(Source Text)TT

(Target Text)


BO

CA

LT TP

MO

TF

CE FE NA

DE SY EX

RE

CO

NO

15Nina bobo

(Yatman’s ImpresiHonolulu, p. 134)

Lullaby(Honolulu

Impression, p. 135)√

16

Ninabobo(Hadi’s Dini HariMusim Semi, p.

160)

Lullaby(Early Spring

Morning, p. 161)√

17

Sabung ayam(Nadjira’s

Sepasang Turis, p.138)

Cockfights(A Tourist Couple,

p. 139)√

18Gender

(Hadi’s KidungPutih, p. 154)

Gamelan(White Ballad, p.

155)√

19

Kendang(Hadi’s Landskap1971 untuk Angela

Davis, p. 162)

Drums(Landscape forAngela Davis,1971, p. 162)

√


125

No. ST

(Source Text)TT

(Target Text)


BO

CA

LT TP

MO

TF

CE FE NA

DE SY EX

RE

CO

NO

20

Sekolah Rakyat(Ismail’s Trem

Berklenengan diKota San

Fransisco, p. 70)

Primary school(The Clatter ofCable Cars in

San Fransisco, p.71)

√

21

Ongkang-ongkang

(Surachman’sHari Tua MisterGilbert, p. 66)

Dangling yourlegs

(The Last Days ofOld Man Gilbert,

p. 67)

√

22

Bersila(Mohamad’sPotret Tamanuntuk Allen

Ginsberg, p. 116)

In lotus position(Picture of A City

Park for AllenGinsberg, p. 117)

√

23

Bersila(Budianta’s

Instrumentalia, p.174)

Cross-legged(American

Instrument, p.175)

√


126

Notes

TT : Target Text CE : Cultural Equivalence

ST : Source Text NA : Naturalisation

BO : Borrowing CA : Calque

DE : Descriptive Equivalence TP : Transposition

LT : Literal Translation SY : Synonymy

MO : Modulation RE : Reduction

TF : Transference EX : Expansion

FE : Functional Equivalence CO : Couplets

NO : Notes


127

APPENDIX C

Transcripts of Poems from On Foreign Shores

Dan Kematian Makin Akrab And Death Grows MoreIntimate

Written by Subagio Sastrowardoyo(On Foreign Shores, p. 6 & p. 8)

Translated by John H. McGlynn(On Foreign Shores, p. 7 & p. 9)

(Sebuah Nyanyian Kabung untuk JFK) (Requiem for JFK)

Di muka pintu masih On the door still hangsbergantung tanda kabung the sign of mourningSeakan ia tak akan kembali – As if he will not return —Memang ia tak kembali No, he will not returntapi ada yang mereka tak but there is something they do notmengerti – mengapa ia tinggal diam understand — why he was so quietwaktu berpisah. Bahkan tak upon departure. There was not evenada kesan kesedihan a trace of sadnesspada muka on his facedan mata itu, yang terus or in his staring eyes,memandang, seakan mau bilang that seemed to saydengan bangga: — Matiku muda — with pride: — I died young —

Ada baiknya Yes, there is some goodmati muda dan mengikut in dying young and followingmereka yang gugur sebelum waktunya. those who fell before their time.Di ujung musim yang mati dulu At the close of the seasonbukan yang dirongrong penyakit the first to dietua, melainkan dia was not the infirmed, the one wasted by

ageyang berdiri menentang angin but he who stood

braving the winddi atas bukit atau dekat pantai on a hill or near the shoredi mana badai mengancam nyawa. where storms threaten life.Sebelum umur pahlawan ditanam Before their time the heroes are burieddi gigir gunung atau di taman-taman on mountain ridges or in city parksdi kota where children fly kites.tempat anak-anak mainlayang-layang. Di jam larut. In the late hours of the nightdaun ketapang makin lebat berguguran leaves fall more thicklydi luar rencana. unplanned:Dan kematian makin akrab, seakan And death grows more intimate, like a


128

kawan berkelakar convivial friendyang mengajak who goads onetertawa — itu bahasa to laugh — the universal languagesemesta yang dimengerti always understood —Berhadapan muka Face to faceseperti lewat kaca as if through a clear glassbening

Page 6 Page 7Masih dikenal raut muka, The face: still recognizable,bahkan kelihatan bekas luka even the scar of a former wounddekat kening is visible on his forehead.Ia menggapai tangan He reaches outdi jari melekat cincin. a ring linging to his finger.— Lihat, tak ada batas — You see, there is no barrierantara kita. Aku masih between us, I am stillterikat kepada dunia tied to the worldkarena janji karena kenangan by promises and memoriesKematian hanya selaput While death is only a veilgagasan yang gampang diseberangi a concept whose threshold is easily

crossedTak ada yang hilang dalam Nothing is lost in parting everythingperpisahan, semua is restored,pulih,juga angan-angan dan selera as are daydreams and urgeskeisengan — of fancy —

Di ujung musim At the close of the seasondinding batas bertumbangan the dividing wall comes tumbling downdan andkematian makin akrab. death grows more intimate.Sekali waktu bocah One day there will becilik tak lagi a little boysedih karena layang-layangnya who no longer grieves for his kiterobek atau hilang tattered or flown away— Lihat, bu, aku tak menangis — See, Mom, I’m not cryingsebab aku bisa terbang sendiri because I can fly myselfdengan sayap with my own wingske langit — to the sky —

Page 8 Page 9


129

Rick dari Corona Rick from CoronaWritten by W. S. Rendra(On Foreign Shores, p. 48, p. 50, p. 52, &p. 54)

Translated by John H. McGlynn(On Foreign Shores, p. 49, p. 51, p.53, & p. 55)

(Di Queens Plaza (In the Queens Plazadi stasiun trem bawah tanah subway stationada tulisan di satu temboknya: there was written on the wall:“Rick dari Corona telah di sini. “Rick from Corona was here.Di mana engkau, Betsy?”) Where were you, Betsy?”)

Ya. Yeah....Rick dari Corona telah di sini. Rick from Corona was here.Di mana engkau, Betsy? Where were you, Betsy?

- Akulah Betsy. - I’m BetsyIni aku di sini. Here I am.Betsy Wong dari Jamaika. Betsy Wong from Jamaica.kakek buyutku dari Hongkong. My great-grandfather was from Hong

Kong.Suamiku penjaga elevator My Husband’san elevator operatorPedro Gonzales dari Puerto Rico Pedro Gonzales from Puerto Ricosuka mabuk dan suka berdusta a liar and drunk.Kalau ingin bertemu, telpon saja aku. If you want to get together, give me a

ring.Pagi hari aku kerja di pabrik roti Mornings I work at a bakerySelasa dan Kamis sore Tuesday and Thursday nightsaku miliknya Mickey Ragolsky I belong to Mickey Ragolskysi kakek Polandia this old Polish guyyang membayar sewa kamarku. who pays the rent on my room.Cobalah telpon hari Rabu. Try calling on Wednesday.Jangan kuwatirkan suamiku. Don’t worry about my husband.Ia akan pura-pura tak tahu. He’ll pretend not to know.O, ya, sebelum lupa, Oh, yeah, before I forget:dua-puluh dollar ongkosnya. it’ll cost ya twenty bucks.

Betsyku bersih dan putih sekali My Betsy is pure and whitelunak dan halus bagaikan karet busa soft and smooth like a rubber spongeRambutnya mewah tergerai Her hair is long and thickbagai berkas benang-benang rayonwarna emas.

like a skein of gold yarn.

Dan kakinya sempurna. And her legs are perfect:


130

Singsat dan licin like a salmonbagaikan ikan salmon. lean and smooth

Page 48 Page 49(Rick dari Corona (Rick from Coronadi perut kota New York in the bowels of New Yorkmemandang kanan kiri looks right and leftsambil minum jeruk soda) and drinks his orange soda)

Betsy. Betsy.Di mana engkau, Betsy? Where are you, Betsy?

- Ini, Betsy Hudson di sini. - Here, Betsy Hudson here.Aku merindukan alam hijau I love naturetapi benci agraria. but hate to farm.Aku percaya pada dongeng aneka ragam. I believe in all sorts of fairy tales.Aku percaya pada benua Atlantis. I believe in Atlantis.Dan juga percaya bahwa hidup di bulan And that life on the moonlebih baik dari hidup di bumi. must be better than life on earth.Pada politik aku tak percaya. But I don’t believe in politics.Namaku Betsy. My name is Betsy.Memang. Really.Tapi kita tak mungkin ketemu. But there’s no way we can meet.Siang hari aku kerja jadi akuntan. Days I work as an acountant.Malam hari aku suka nulis buku harian. Night I write in my diary.Untuk merias diri And besides, taking care of myselfmemelihara rambut dan kuku my hair and nailstelah pula memakan waktu. all that takes time too.Namaku Betsy. My name is Betsy.Cantik. I’ll something to look at.Aku suka telanjang di depan kaca. I like to stand naked in front of the

mirror.Aku benci lelaki. But I hate men.

(Dengan mobil sport dari Inggris (With his British sports carRick dari Corona and ink-black sunglasses.mengitari kota New York Rick from Coronaberkaca mata hitam sekali. cruises New York city.Melanggar aturan lalu lintas But for a traffic violationia disetop polisi he’s stopped by the copssambil masih mimpi siang hari) in the middle of a daydream)

Betsy gemerlapan bagai lampu-lampu Betsy shines like the lights of


131

Broadway. Broadway.Betsy terbang dengan indah. Betsy is beautiful when she flies.Bau minyak wanginya menidurkan NewYork

Her perfume puts New York to sleep

Dan selalu sesudah itu And always, after thataku diselimutinya she covers medengan selimut katun with a cotton blanketyang ditenunnya sendiri. that she herself made.

Page 50 Page 51Betsy, di mana engkau, Betsy. Betsy, where are you, Betsy?

- Di sini, bodoh! - Here I am, stupid!Kau selalu tak mendengarkan aku.Ricky!

You never listen to me, Ricky!

Kau selalu menciptakan kekusutan. You’re always picking fights.Sepatu tak pernah kauletakkan padaraknya.

You never put your shoes on the rack.

Selalu kaupakai dasi yang kacauwarnanya.

You always wear those loud ties.

Berapa kali pula kau kuperingatkan And how many times have I told youkalau tidur jangan mendengkur. not to snore when you sleep.Itu barbar. It’s barbaric.Dan, Ricky! And, Ricky!Kau harus belajar makan sup yang lebihsopan!

You gotta stop slurping your soup!

(New York mengangkang. (New York spreads its legs.Keras dan angkuh. Hard and arrogant.Semen dan baja. Cement and steel.Dingin dan teguh. Cold and rigid.Adapun di tengah-tengah cahaya lampugemerlapan

And in the middle of bright lights

terdengar musik gelisah comes the sound of restless musicyang tentu saja which of coursetak berarti apa-apa) means nothing.)

Rick dari Corona telah di sini. Rick from Corona was here.Ya. Ya. Yeah, yeah.Betsy, engkau di mana Betsy, where were you?

- Ricky, sayang, aku di sini. - Ricky, honey, I’m here.Ya. Ya. Yeah, yeah.


132

+ Engkau hitam. + You’re black.Engkau bukan Betsy. You’re not Betsy.Engkau macan negro dari Harlem. You’re a black tigress from Harlem.

- Pegang pinggulku. - Squeeze my ass.Rasakan betapa lunak dan penuhnya. feel how soft and full it is.Namaku Betsy. Ya. Ya. My name’s Betsy. Yeah, yeah.

+ Gadisku selalu menjawab dengansabar.

+ My girl always takes the time

segala pertanyaanku yang bodoh dansangsi.

to answer my stupid uncertainquestions.

- Aku Betsy karena aku negro. - I’m Betsy because I’m black.Karena aku negro Because I’m black.aku adalah tanggungjawabmu. I’m in your hands.Ya, namaku Betsy. I’m Betsy. Yeah...Telah kuputuskan namaku Betsy. I decided my name is Betsy.

Page 52 Page 53+ Apyun. Apyun. Drugs, drugs

Aku hasratkan pengalaman mistis. I long for mystical experienceAku ingin melukis tubuhmu telanjang I want to paint your naked bodysambil kuhirup marijuana. while smoking marijuana.

Ricky, sayang, engkau akankuninabobokan.

Ricky, honey, I’ll sing you a lullaby

Dan bagai bayi akan kaupuja tetekku. And like a baby you can adore my tits

+ Dari Queens. Dari Brooklyn. Dan dariManhattan —

+ From Queens. From Brooklyn. Andfrom Manhattan —

- Ricky, sayang, garudaku sayang. - Ricky, honey, my loving eagle.

+ Sebab irama combo, sebab buaiansaxophone —

+ Because of the combo rhythm,because of the saxophone swing

- Pejamkan matamu. - Shut your eyes.Dan bagaikan banjo And play memainkanlah aku. like a banjo

(Di Harlem, Manhattan, New York (In Harlem, Manhattan, New York


133

di mana orang tinggal penuh sesak where people live in huddled massesdi mana udara bau air kencing dansampah

the air smells of rubbish and piss

di musim panas dengan udara sembilanpuluh lima drajat

in summer when it’s ninety-five

para negro menari watusi di tepi jalan the blacks watusi in the streetdan pada drajat keseratus dua and when it climbs to a hundred and

twoterjadi perkelahian antara mereka) they begin to roll).

Hallo. Hallo. Hello. Hello.Di sini Rick dari Corona. This is Rick from Corona.Dan Betsy juga di sini — Betsy’s here too —Hallo, Dokter. Hello, Doctor.Kami harus disuntik sekarang juga. We need some shots right away.Kami kena raja singa. Cause we got a royal dose.

Page 54 Page 55

Sajak-Sajak dari Solarium Poems from the SolariumWritten by Surachman R.M.(On Foreign Shores, p. 56 & p. 58)


(1) (1)

Tubuhnya diterbangkan dari Clinton His body was flown from Clintonjiwanya dicincang di Dellroy, Ohio His soul became mincemeat in Dellroy,

OhioDengan mimpi antara Hong Kong danTokyo,

Along with daydreams of Hong Kong,Tokyo

Sebuah ibukota bernamaWashington

A capital city namedWashington

menyediakan baginya suatu gedung offered him a buildinguntuk bersemayam dan diperam where on the sixth floor

di tingkat keenam he was placed and prayed over

Duh, hatinya tertinggal di Bandung Dear God, he left his heart in Bandung

Ada sebuah jendela There was a windowterlalu baik untuk bunuh diri one much too fine for suicide


134

Sayangnya butuh terdera With the will whipped back and forthantara halusinasi misteri between mystery and hallucination

O, Pangeran yang malang Poor PrinceSelamat tidur, Para inang Good night. The nursestengah mempersiapkan bagimu: mimpi prepare for you: dreamsdalam dua buah tabung injeksi in two intravenous bottles

(2) (2)

Pada hari yang ketiga On the third daykau siuman dan terjaga you regained consciousness, awoke

Pada hari yang kelima On the fifth daykau sudah berganti nama you changed your name

Pada hari kesebelas On the eleventh daykau cicip udara bebas you tasted open air

Dan hari keduapuluh On the twentieth dayputusan jatuh: kau sembuh the prognosis came: a clean bill of

healthPage 56 Page 57

(3) (3)

O, dear, jagalah dirimu! Oh, dear, take care ofyourselfTulislah Don’t forget

surat to write meuntukku Good-bye

Selamat jalan

(4) (4)

Ranjang kiamat Death bedKamar sekarat and lonely roomSelamat tinggal Good-bye

Para penghuni All thoseyang terdampar di sini stranded hereSelamat tinggal Good-bye

Dokter budiman Good doctorPerawat sekawan nurses


135

Selamat tinggal Good-bye

Adapun untukmu But as for youkuucapkan di Terminal I’ll take my leave at the terminal

Selamat tinggal, Good-bye,selamat tinggal good byedan selamat tinggal and good bye(5) (5)

Bosan jaringan awan Bored with the network of cloudsdipilihnya jalan daratan he chose the overland routeJarak sepuluh jam and ten hoursbisa berkencan dengan alam: toconverse with nature:

Ladang. Kota. Ladang. Kota Fields. City. Fields. City.Bukit. Hutan buatan dan pina. Hills. Man-made forests, pines.Lembah. Bengawan. Lembah. Bengawan A Valley. The Bengawan River. A

Valley. The Bengawan.Tunnel. Kanal dan pelabuhan. A tunnel. A canal. The port.

Dan, ah seekor kijang And, yes, a deer, too.melintas jalan flitting across the roaddalam gerimis hujan to disappear

Lalu menghilang. in the drizzling rain.Page 58 Page 59

Hari Tua Mister Gilbert The Last Days of Old ManGilbert

Written by Surachman R.M.(On Foreign Shores, p. 66 & p. 68)


Di negeri yang paling kaya Oncce in the richest country of theworld

sebulan dua pernah kusewa I rented for a month or twoapartemen buruk an apartment, a miserable placesekedar ingin tahu just out of curiositydan memancing pengalaman. and the experience.


136

Tidak lama, tapi It wasn’t for very long, butaku long enoughcukup berkenalan to become acquainteddengan seluruh penghuni. with the tenants there.Sebelahku Gilbert tua Next door was Old Man Gilbertbatuk-batuk dan sakitan. always coughing

a sickly man.Lainnya hippies remaja The rest of teh renters were hippiesmalas dan gelandangan lazy and unemployedbertualang dengan kenikmatan dunia seeking adventuredalam ganja in marijuanadan keberandalan. and depravation.“Perduli benar dengan “To hell with them,”mereka” umpat Gilbert tua. Old Gilbert swore.“Apa yang bisa diharapkan “What is America coming to”untuk kemajuan Amerika?”Dan kau sendiri And you yourselfGilbert! Kau Cuma Mr. Gilbert?ongkang-ongkang dan goyang kaki dangling your legs

and twiddling your thumbsdan tak pernah mau a man who never wanted a wife.punya istri.Kauhabiskan umurmu You spend your daysdalam busa alkohol. in alcoholic stupor.Kau nganggur lama jua You’ve been out of work for a long

time, toodengan tunjangan mingguan with your weekly supportdari jawatan sosial: from the social security office:Tapi kalau kau mati But if you die,penguburanmu dijamin asuransi. there’s no need to worry

your burial is covered by insurance.Pekerjaan terakhir: Your last job:sopir. driver.Dalam perang dunia kedua: And in World War IIanggota eskwadron udara serving in the air forcedi Perancis Selatan. in southern France.

Page 66 Page 67Hanya kemujuran But war’s fortune, tooperang pun berakhir came to an endBegitu kau datang. not long after your enlistment.Tapi kau cukup bangga Even so, you’re proud of yourselfdalam kemalasan di hari tua now in the laziness of old age


137

Dan tak bosan You never tire of talkingbercerita tentang apa about anything, except, that is,saja, kecuali perempuan. women.Cuaca bukan rintangan The weather is no obstaclebagimu: keluar for you: to go outdi sore hari eveningsDuduk-duduk dalam bar to sit in barsmenyaksikan gambar-gambar watch showsdan warta berita senja and the evening newsyang disiarkan teve on televisionSedang tengorokanmu serak while you warm your raw throatdihangati suam wisky. with shots of whiskey.Menyusul regukan-regukan bir chased by swigs of beerdi beranda apartemen kita on the stoop

of our apartment building.Membolak-balik koran lokal You turn the pages of the local paperyang lumayan tebal a fairly thick compendium

over and back againBaru pada botol ketiga Only after the third beerkaunaiki tangga. I proceed up the stairsDan musik-musik klasik to classical musicmengalirlah dari radio tua flowing fromyang setia. a faithful old radio.Adapun botol kesekian The umpteenth bottlemenunggu regukanmu awaits your throatdi sudut kamarmu apak. in the ccorner of your stuffy apartment.“Negriku luar biasa “My country is so goddamned rich,kaya. Tapi but only my country!”negriku saja!” gerutumu you grumbledsuatu pagi. one morning.“Sedang para warganya “But the people themselves,kausaksikan sendiri see for yourself how they livedi sarang tikus ini!” here in this rat hole of ours!”Demikianlah Gilbert tua Yes, that was Old Man Gilbertyang sendiri aloneSakitan dan miskin sick and wantingTapi biaya penguburannya but whose burialtelah terjamin. is covered by insurance.

Page 68 Page 69


138

Trem Berklenengandi Kota San Fransisco

The Clatter of Cable Carsin San Fransisco

Written by Taufiq Ismail(On Foreign Shores, p. 70 & p. 72)


Pagimu yang cerah, San Fransisco,sampai padaku di atas bukit itu, lautmubagai bubur agar-agar, uap air dilangitmu mencecerkan serbuk kabutseoperti tepung nilon dan terjela-jelasepanjang jembatan raksasamu tepatseperti kartu pos bergambar yangpernah kubeli di kedai Hindustanduapuluh empat tahun yang silam diGeylang Road ketika aku masihbercelana pendek dan asyikmenghafalkan nama-nama hebatdengan huruf c, v, x dan y padapelajaran ilmu bumi di Sekolah Rakyatpartikelir.

Your bright morning, San Fransisco,caught me on top of that hill, your sealike aspic, the haze in your air sprinkledbits of fog like nylon flour windingthrough your giant bridge like the picturepost card I bought twenty four years agoin a Hindustani kiosk on Geylang Roadwhen I was still in grade school uniformand busy memorizing the great namesbeginning with the letters c, v, x and yfor my geography class at a privateprimary school.

Matahari terlalu gembira menyinaribukit-bukitmu, Bukit-bukit yangditumbuhi rumah-rumah Eropa,Meksiko, Habsyi dan Cina, bercatputih beratap merah tua denganbunga-bungaan yang mekar karenapersekutuan akrab dengan musim semibagai tak kunjung habisnya. Debusegan padamu. Kotoran mekanika danasam arang kau serahkan sepenuhnyapada Los Angeles si buruk muka. Diacemburu padamu.

The sun shines too cheerfully on yourhills. Hills overgrown with European,Mexican, Persian and Chinese houses,painted white with burnt-red tile roofsand flowers in bloom thanks to a closealliance with a never-ending spring. Thedust leaves you alone while the industrialfumes and carbon monoxide you giveover entirely to Los Angeles, she of thepoker face. She is jealous of you.

Pasar buah dan rempah-rempah. Tremberklenengan dan meluncur gila padapenurunan bukit-bukit sama-kaki yangsempit. Sebuah peti cat meledak diudara dan warna-warna pun dibagi-bagi pada deretan bangunan dindingtrem kota, tulang jembatan, atap, pintudan jendela. Angin mengeringkannyadan mengaduknya dengan aroma

Markets for fruit and herbs. Cable carsclatter and careen madly down the slopesof hillsas narrow at their bottoms as attheir tops. A paint box explodes in the airand colors are splattered on rows ofbuilding, the sides of cable cars, bridgebeams, roofs, doors and windows. Thewind dries the paint and mixes in thearoma of leaves from citrus groves and


139

daun-daun perladangan jeruk sertauap perairan dermaga lalu dikibas-kibaskan oleh sayap kawanan burungcamar mengatasi muara lautan.

the mist rising from the harbor is fannedby the wings of a flock of gulls flyingover the bay.

Percintaan bulan dengan lekuk-lekuktubuhmu semacam percintaan anak-anak muda yang garang kemudiandilukiskan oleh pelukis-pelukis kubistis.Emas yang diburu-buru abad yang laludilambangkan dalam cahaya natrium,amat geometris, lewat tingkap-tingkapdan pipa-pipa kaca, simetris, dan tidaksimetris. Kapal-kapal angkat jangkar.

The love of the moon for the curves ofyour body is the passion of a youngcouple as portrayed by cubist painters.The gold that was sought a centuryearlier is now symbolized in geometricsodium-vapor lights, through symmetricland asymmetrical awnings and glasspipes The ships lift anchor.

Page 70 Page 71Di ujung meja panjang terbuat darikayu mahoni pada suatu bar dekatMarket Street seorang tua berambutputih berkumis putih berjanggut putihduduk di atas kursi plastik yangbentuknya seperti bom waktu. “Akutidak dengar Amerika menyanyi lagi”,ujarnya. Pelayan bar memberinyasegelas air.

At the end of the mahogany bar in atavern off Market an old man with whitehair, white moustache and beard sits on aplastic chair that is shaped like a timebomb. “I don’t hear America singanymore,” he mutters. The bartendergives him another glass of beer.

Amerika tidak menyanyi lagi. America doesn’t sing anymoreAmerika mengerang. America moans.

Di atas bar kayu mahoni berlapisformika hampir biru muda, padang-padang Texas dilipat ke tengah, NewYork berhamburan ke dalam GrandCanyon, Niagara mengental, Californiatergulung-gulung. Walt Whitmanmemeras Amerika bagai sehelaikarbon bekas, dan si tua itumenuangkan bir Milwaukee berbusa keatasnya.

On top of the mahogany bar with itslamination of turquoise formica, theTexas plains are folded in, New Yorkdissolves in the Grand Canyon, Niagarafreezes, California is rolled up. WaltWhitmancrumples America like a usedsheet of carbon papaer and the old manpours over it his Milwaukee beer with itshead of foam.

Amerika mengeluarkan bunyi kerupukkentang kering

America sounds like crispy potato chips

yang dikunyah lambat-lambat being chewed slowly


140

Camar-camar teluk San Fransiscomelayang di atas kedai-kedai bungatulipa, menelisik jaringan kawat trem-trem yang berklenengan dan buang airtepat di atas kantor asuransi.

The gulls of San Fransisco bay floatabove the tulip stands, swoop throughthe web of wires of the clattering cablecars to dispose of their droppings righton top of an insurance office.

Selamat jalan c Good-bye cSelamat jalan v Good-bye vSelamat jalan x Good-bye xSelamat jalan y Good-bye ySelamat jalan. Good-bye.

Page 72 Page 73

Pantun Terang Bulan diMidwest

Full Moon in the Midwest

Written by Taufiq Ismail(On Foreign Shores, p. 78)

Translated by John H. McGlynn(On Foreign Shores, p. 79)

Sebuah bulan sempurna A perfect moonBersinar agak merah Sheds rosy lightLingkarannya di sana An aureole around itAwan menggaris bawah An underline clouds

Sungai Mississippi The MississippiLebar dan keruh Wide and muddyBunyi-bunyi sepi Sounds of silenceAmat gemuruh Roll like thunder

Ladang-ladang jagung Fields of cornRawa-rawa dukana Sensual swampsSerangga mendengung Insect buzzingSampaikah suara Do you hear the sound?

Cuaca musim gugur In the autumn airBukit membisu Hills lie muteAsap yang hancur Smoke transformsBiru abu-abu To grayish blue


141

Danau yang di sana On the lake beyondSeribu burung belibis A thousand ducksLereng pohon pina The hillside pinesAngin pun gerimis Even the wind is wet

Page 78 Page 79

Potret Taman untuk AllenGinsberg

Picture of a City Park for AllenGinsberg

Written by Goenawan Mohamad(On Foreign Shores, p. 116 & p. 118)


Ia menebak dari warna kulit saya He guessed the color of my skindan berkata, “Tuan pasti dari dunia ke-3.”

and said, “Mister, you got to be from thethird world.”

Lalu ia, dari dunia pertama,mengunyah makan pagi

Then he, from the first world, chewedhis breakfast

seraya mengutip Mao Tse-tung while quoting Mao Tse-tungdan sebuah sajak gunung – ramahsekali.

and a mountain verse – it was all so veryfriendly.

Bisakah ia tidur Could he sleepsebelum anggur before restlalu mungkin mimpi then possibly dreamdi lindungan malaikat masehi? in the shelter of Christian angels?

Ia telah jalan dalam angin He walked in the winddan mengucup es-krim and slurped ice creamdan membaca berita di halamanpertama

and read the front-page news

tentang sebuah perang about a wardi Asia Tenggara. in Southeast Asia.

Ia kini duduk bersila Now he sits in lotus positiondi bangku taman kotapraja on a bench in the city parkmungkin semadi in meditation, maybemungkin aku tak mengerti maybe I don’t knowkarena ia berkata: because he said:Di Vietnam tak ada orang mati “In Viet Nam there are no dead


142

Tak ada Vietnam dan orang tak mati.” There is no Nam, there are no dead.”

Lalu ia mencari kepak burung He then sought a bird’s wingia mencari merpati he sought a doveia mencari lambang he sought a symbolia mencari makna hari he sought the meaning of lifeIa mencari seakan ia tahu apa yang ia He sought as if he knewIngin temukan dan tiba-tiba iamenuliskan:

what he would discover before hesuddenly wrote:

“Revolusi. Revolusi. Tak Bisa DipesanHari Ini.”

“Revolution. Revolution. No OrdersTaken Today.”

Lalu ia bangkit ia mual ia mencium Then he rose, his stomach churningbau biasa dari kakus umum with the smell of the public toiletia basah oleh tangis dan ia meludah: wet with tears, he spat:“Kencingilah kaum burjuis!” “Piss on the bourgeois!”Adakah ia Nabi? Was it he was a prophet?

Page 116 Page 117

Tuhan. Di taman ini orang jugangelindur

God. In this park people mumbleinsensibly

tentang perempuan-perempuanberpupur

about women thick with face powder

dan sebuah mulut berahi kudengarmemaki:

And I hear curse from a passionatemouth:

“Bangsat, kenapa aku di sini?” “You bastard, why am I here?”Atau mungkin ia ngelindur tentangsebuah dusun yang hancur

Or maybe he was mumbling about avillage, destroyed,

dan sisa-sisa infantri dan mayat danulat dan ruh dan matahari?

the remains of infantry and human limbsand worms and ghost and the sun?

Aku dengar seorang-orang tua, yangkesal dan

I heard an old man, in versation,

Berkata, “Di sekitar hari Natal, pernahterjadi

say: “Round Christmas, somethinghappened

Hal yang tak masuk akal. Misalnyamereka

that didn’t make sense, I mean theybombed Hanoi,

membom Hanoi sebelum (bukansesudah) aku

you see, before (not after) I’d even had

minum kopi.” my coffee.”

Page 118 Page 119


143Melintasi Atlantik Crossing the AtlanticWritten by Darmanto Yatman(On Foreign Shores, p. 128, p. 130, & p.132)

Translated by John H. McGlynn(On Foreign Shores, p. 129, p. 131, & p.133)

Welha. London lho mbokne! What the…! Bloody London, good!-Towikromo -Towikromo (a Javanese farmer)New York! New York! New York! New York!-Liza Minelli -Liza Minelli

Melintasi Atlantik Crossing the AtlanticTidaklah sefantastik Was not as fantasticColumbus As Columbus’ tripBeberapa abad lewat A few centuries ago(Setidak-tidaknya (LeastwaysAku tidak merasa seperti Columbus I didn’t feel like ColumbusSekalipun mungkin sekali Though very likelyAkulah orang pertama I was the firstDari sekian petani penanam gayam Of the many fruit farmersDari negeri yang berincome 150 U.S.Dollar

From a country with an income

Per kapita per annum Of US$ 150 per capita per yearYang menyeberangi samudera!) To have crossed this very ocean!

Aku kehilangansamudera

The oceanwas lost

Dari pandangan mataku From my sightSeperti New Yorkkehilangan hijaudaun

As New Yorklostits green leaves

Kabut terkaing-kaing The fog whimpersDisengat matahari When stung by the sunMeratap pada sayapjumbo 747

And moans on the wingsof a 747 jumbo

- Heh Columbus, sabrangana Atlantik!Babo! Babo!

- Hey. Columbus, cross the Atlantic!Okay! Okay!

- Cross history Towikromo!- Go!

- Cross history, Towikromo!Go!

Peradaban kelelegen Civilization is drunkMakan buah simalakama And damned if you do damned if you don’t


144

Kapal kapal penguasa lautan Ships rule the oceanPendiri pabrik dan industri With builders of factories and industriesDiombang ambingkan gelombang Rocking to and fro on the wavesAntara Scylla dan Charybdis Between Scylla and Charybdis

Page 128 Page 129

- Di sini mesin – di sana manusia - Here are the machines – there are themanagers

Di sini pengangguran – di sanaperbudakan

Here is unemployment – there isslavery

Cobalah terka mana jalan ke luarnya! Make a guess what happened!Pizzaro menghancurkan Cholula Crossing the Atlantic Pizzaro razed

Cholula(Piramid yang berpondasikanmanusia)

(A Pyramid built on the backs ofmen)

Lalu menegakkan gereja di atasnya Then erected a church on top of itLhaillah! Motherofgod!

Mungkinkah jadi CouldPeradaban beribu tahun A thousand-year civilizationDimusnahkan Cuma Be destroyedOleh sejumlah bedil By just a few gunsDan kekejaman melulu?! And unadulterated cruelty?!- Aztec dan Inca saderek saderek - The Aztecs and the Incas enslaved

telah dipendam dalam tanah Were run into the groundSementara Sioux dan Apache While the Sioux and the ApacheDitaburkan di atas padang garam Were sown on the salt plainO, Allah! Oh, God!

Di atas Atlantik Above the AtlanticSekali aku mimpi jadi Daniel Boone I dreamed of being Daniel Boone

Mimpin imigran protestan Eropa Leading protestant immigrants fromEurope

Mengembara ke barat In their journey to the westMelintasi steppe di atas pelana Crossing the plains on saddleDikejar kutuk Paus dan panahOgalagah!

Just ahead of the Pope’s curse andOgalagah arrows!

Di atas Atlantik ini pula And above the Atlantic, tooAku telah jadi kau, Kowero I became you, KoweroBudak negro yang diseret di ataspalka

Negro slave dragged into the galley


145

Dirantai besi Bound in steel chainsSupaya tidak bunuh diri dihajarcemeti!

Preventing suicide’s release from thewhip!

Namun di atas Atlantik ini pula But above the Atlantic I heard aswell

Kudengar biyungku menangis My grandmother cryingDalam megatruh blues In traditional Javanese bluesYang mengusik suarga That could not have but touched

heaven

Tidak! Tidak seperti Columbus aku No! I am not ColumbusNyeberang lautan cari rempah Who crossed the ocean in search of spicesAtas perintah cewek dari Aragon On the order of a chick from Aragon

Sambil nembang bapak pocung As I sing my ancient versesMbokku cukup melenggang ke pasarPundong

All mother must do is go to Pundongmarket

Kalau butuh kacang kangkung If its peanuts or spinach we need

Page 130 Page 131

Ya. Ya. Yeah. Yeah.Aku cuma petani dari Tambran I’m just a farmer from TambranSekalipun akulah paman DMT Even if I am the uncle of DMT,Yang ngarang sajak ini The writer of this poemLahir di Kepulauan Pasifik Born in the Pacific islands

Dalam tetembangan dandanggula As I sing my ancient versesApa yang bisa kukerjakan selama ini What is is that I can doCuma nanem, matun, panen But plant and weed and harvestHanya terkadang saja ada waktu And, sometimes, when there’s timeBuat semadi A little meditationDan baca sajak Li Po dan Tu Fu And reading the poems of Li Po and Tu FuSambil latihan yoga dan Tai Chi While practicing yoga and tai chi

Ah. Ah. Psshaw!Melintasi Atlantik Crossing the AtlanticSejarah mengambang History floatsBagai geteknya Joko Tingkir Like Joko Tingkir’s raftDigoyang goyang pinggul buaya wanita: Rocking on the back of a crocodile woman:--ing ngarso miwah ing pungkur… --on the front and on the back, too…Berangkat dari no when Leaving from no when


146

Impresi Honolulu Honolulu ImpressionsWritten by Darmanto Yatman(On Foreign Shores, p. 134 & p. 136)


daripasifik

fromthepacific

kuintipkau

I peepat you

pelacuryangbergincuteknologi

youwhorewith ahigh-techgloss

akhirnya kita pun bertemu in the end we did finally meetrambutmu yang tergerai your long loose hairah betapa kau tua how old you lookedsesudah berpuluh tahun merindu after years of longing

- -memandang ke luar jendela staring out the windowpagi hari in the morningburung-burung bernyanyi: haleluya! the birds sang: hallelujah!

- -apakah yang angin kerjakan disini

what do you want to do here

membarut punggung bukit climb the mountain’s ridgeatau sekadar mencumbuperahu di pesisir

or flirt with the boats on theshore

- -

Menuju ke no where. Going to no where.

London! London! London! London!

New York! New York! New York! New York!

Wah, anggitku Shiiiiit!Kok kaya bakul neng stasiun Bantul It’s just like the station in Bantul!New York! New York! New York! New York!London! London! London! London!

Page 132 Page 133


147

ah, apakah yang jari lentikmukerjakan

Mmmm, what are your supplefingers doing

sekedar membelai punggungtanganku

my love;

atau asyik memasang-masangbom waktu

stroking my back

kekasihku or setting a time bomb- -

berbaring tengah siang napping in the middle of the dayseekor perkutut menyanyi a turtledove singsnina bobo a lullaby

- -burung-burung bernyanyi birds singdi ranting-ranting pohonan ceri on cherry tree branchesberumah dan beranak di atap pencakar breed and nest on top of skyscrapersdi Honolulu sini here in Honolulu

- -semua tertangkap tangan disini

you can take everything in yourhands here

kabut (yang meng-embun)sijingkat di ujung rumput

the fog (with its dew) toeingfrom tips of grass

pelangi (yang meng-kembang)tumbuh dari semak-semak

rainbows (that bloom) risingfrom thickest

atau daging (yang meng-gadis)bergolak di pasir pantai

or flesh (of the female kind)waving on the sandy beach

namun yet

ada satu hal yang lepas darijangkauan

something remains free outsidethe grasp

rinduku of my longing(yang bagai aspal jalanHonolulu

(which like the asphalt streetsof Honolulu

Page 134 Page 135

menangkap sol sepatuku sticks to the soles of my shoesmemboikot langkahku) arresting my steps)kepadamu. for you- -

menatap bukit-bukit Honolulu staring at the Honolulu hillsaku terkenang padamu: I think of youbunga matahari a sunflowersejenak sebelum senja the moment before dusk

- -angin the windsejenak Cuma bermain di ranting-ranting plays a second only in the branches

Jesus! Jesus! Jesus! Jesus!kenapa persahabatan kita seret why did our friendship slip so


148

benar jadi fastsementara umurku : as I grew older:

pelangi yang kembang semenit lalu the rainbow that bloomed a minute agohabis berguguran semenit berikutnya. perished the minute after.

Page 136 Page 137

Sepasang Turis A Tourist CoupleWritten by Frans Nadjira(On Foreign Shores, p. 138)


Kepada istrinya dia berkata: He said to his wifeDi atas kursi dorong From his wheel chairtelah kubagikan hidupku I have divvied my lifesepotong-sepotong bit by bit

(sebelum bersin (before sneezingtercium bau lumut he caught the smell of mildewmirip bau mesiu so like the smell of gunpowdersewaktu naik pasang) at the shot of the gun)

Kita tak menemukan yang beda,ternyata

We can not tell difference, infact

Bunga-bunga seperti ini jugaada di Vietnam

There are flowers like this inViet Nam, too.

(ketika bersin, jahitan dilambung terasa nyeri)

(sneezing, he winces from thestitches in his side)

Apa? Permainan nyawa? What is this? A fight to thefinish?

Dewa-dewa di pulau ini tidakmembenci sabung ayam.

The gods on this island are notaverse to cockfights.

Lututku. Mereka gemetar lagi. My calves. They’re shakingagain.

Diamkan. Kita berhenti rindumencari.

Give them a rest. We cease ourlonging to search.

(suara suara anjingberebut

(the turtle crawls fromthe dark sea

isi perut seekor penyu dogs yelp in competitionmerangkak dari gelaplaut)

for its trove)

Teruslah mendongeng tentangdewata, Kau.

Go on, You. Go on telling yourstories about gods.

Negeri yang jauh. Hijau Distant land. Green.


149

tak ada ketakutan. Kelainanjiwa

without fear. Insanity

dan bulan yang tak beringatkarena

and a moon without memory

kutembakkan meriam kearahnya.

for the shot I fired in itsdirection.

Berahi yang percuma. Takpercaya.

Futile passion. Disbelief.

Bulan di sini menciut The moon here shrinkssetiap naga melenggang kearahnya.

as serpents swing in itsdirection.

Menjauh lampu lampu kapalterbang

The lights of the plane fade inthe distance

Terdengar suara mencebur There omes the sound of asplash

Roda kursi yang kosong An empty wheel chairTerbenam dalam pasir Buried in the sand

Page 138 Page 138

Kidung Putih White BalladWritten by Abdul Hadi(On Foreign Shores, p. 154)


Sebelum gugur atas daunan itu pusingandebu

Before the fall of the leaves the whirl of thedust

bersilengking pada kayu (musim panasdatang

whistling ‘round branches (the summerarrives,

berduaan dengan angin si gender) bunga-bunga

the gamelan resounds) flowers

menahan bibirnya dari ciuman (gerimis avert their lips from kisses (and on thecheek

di pipi) — berjalan dari taman itu kalaakhir

a drizzle) — leaving the garden

musim semi (kau senandungkan matahari,bayang-

at spring’s end (you sing of the sun andimages

bayang pohon tua tak berdaun) terusir of old and leafless trees) expelled(dan di antara warwer hujan yang tiba-tiba) terbangun

(and with the whoosh of a sudden rain)awake

gelisah.... in anxiousness....Page 154 Page 155


150

Dini Hari Musim Semi Early Spring MorningWritten by Abdul Hadi(On Foreign Shores, p. 160)


Aku ingin bangun dini hari, melihat fajarputih

I want to rise in the early hours, to see thewhit dawn

memecahkan kulit-kulit kerang yangtertutup —

break open theoyster shells —

Menjelang tidur kupahat sinar bulan yangletih itu

As sleep approaches I carve the listlessmoon’s light

yangmenyelinap dalam semak-semak saljuterakhir,

hiding in thebushes of the last snow,

ninabobo yang menentramkan, kupahatkanpadanya

I carve on it a soothing lullaby

sebelum matahari memasang kacaberkilauan

before the sun erects its shimmeringmirror

Ah, tapi antara gelap dan terang, ada dantiada

But between dark and light, being and not

Waktu selalu melimpahi langitsepi dengankabut dulu

Time floods the quiet sky with its pasthaze

lalu angin perlahan-lahan dan ributmemancar lagi

while winds slowly but noisily sweep inthe morning

— burung-burung hari ini, sedang musimdingin yang hanyut

— birds today, so winter fades

masih abadi seperti hari kemarin yangmengiba

yet remains eternal, wistful

harus memakan beratus-ratus masalampauku

devouring the hundreds of my yesterdays

Page 160 Page 161

Lanskap 1971 untuk AngelaDavis

Landscape for Angela Davis,1971

Written by Abdul Hadi(On Foreign Shores, p. 162)


Inilah senja yang kujanjikan padamu danmega

This is the twilight I promised you asclouds

melelehkan darahnya di udaramutlak, kota menanti

drip blood in an empty sky, the cityawaits

burung-burung raksasa kuning takpulang menjuntaikan

the vultures that do not return tospill food from

paruhnya, agar perutnya yang lapartak jadi garang

their breaks causing guts to growl,to heave in anger

dan bisa berteriak lagi and once more roar

dicarinya usus simati setelah kolera they search the bowles of the dead


151

yang panjang after the invasion of choleramenyerang dari laut membentuk

bulan jadi jinggafrom the sea turned the moon orange

dalam gugusan angin laut yangbeku, tiada ubahnya

in a clump of frozen sea winds, nodifferent from the gods

seperti para dewa yang putus asa who without hope celebrate in theheavens and

berpesta di angkasa riuh memukulkendangnya ke rimba-rimba

beat their drums in the forest

Inilah saatnya setelah perang saudara dangempa bumi

This is the moment after civil war andquakes

mengusir mereka yang kini tiadaberumah lagi

have chased away the newlyhomeless, changing them

dan akan menjadi pejalanmenempuh gang-gang gelap

to passersby in darkened ways

menempuh ladang-ladang musimpanas dan menyanyi lalumenjotoskan

who sing while passing throughsummer fields then belt out

kesia-siaannya mencari saudara-saudaranya yang hilang

the futility of searching for their lostkin.

berduaan atau berenam menyanyigarang bagai angsa

in twos, in sixes they squawk likegeese

menatap syorga yang malang dandewa-dewa yang putus asa

stare at the calamitous sky anduseless gods

mabok menari bersama awan hitammemuntahkan serapahnya lagi

in drunken dance withblackenedclouds spewing curses

perempuan-perempuan meratapbagai perajurit-perajurit yangluka

as women wail like woundedsoldiers knowing the nextmoment

belum mati. Sedang sejam lagiudara bakal beku

is death. While in an hour the skywill freeze.

Inilah senja yangkujanjikan padamu danmega

This is the twilight I promised to you withheavy clouds

tebal seakan sukmaku yangmenyeret benua-benua

a mirror of my soul dragging offcontinents

ke jazirah sepi dan perutnya yanglapar

to the silent peninsula and myhungry stomach

jadi garang dan berteriak lagi rises and roars once more:bunuhlah aku! Dan surya hanyamenanti

kill me! While the sun waits onlyfor

malam hari night to fall

Page 162 Page 163


152

Central Park Central ParkWritten by Linus Suryadi(On Foreign Shores, p. 164)


Ada seseorang suster berdansa riang A nun dancers happilyBermain di atas sepatu rodanya on roller skatesDia gengsot di lapangan terbuka chug-a-lugs in the open lotTawanya renyah gadis sweet seventeen and laughs like a girl of sweet seventeen

Dua orang suster berkerudung putih Two nuns in white habitsNgebut dengan mobilnya amat kencang speed past in their carTawanya ngikik bagaikan kuda binal and neigh like wild maresYang kepingin ditumpaki pejantannya in need of stallions on their back

Dan seorang bishop menawarkan ice juice Complete in holy vestmentsLengkap dengan pakaian kebesarannya a bishop plies sno-conesPerutnya gendut kebanyakan keju dananggur

his stomach massive from excess wineand cheese

Kopiahnya bertengger di atas kepala his miter askew on top of his head

Lihat! Anak-anak kecil bersorak kegirangan And all the kids scream in gleeMereka ketemu tontonan ramah dan baikhati

for this free and safe attraction

Mereka dapat bagian. Mereka dapat ciuman They get a share and a kiss as wellSuster dan bishop itu beroleh Firdausnyakembali

The nun and bishop find Paradise lost

Tiba-tiba udara dingin. Kabut pun turun Suddenly the air turns cold. Fog also fallsDan lelampuan mobil menyala waktujalannya

and car lights burn time

Orang-orang tak bisa melihat dari dekat as objects lose their formAlhamdulillah! Yesus ada di antara paraumat

My God! Jesus is among His flock.

Page 164 Page 165

Instrumentalia American InstrumentalWritten by Eka Budianta(On Foreign Shores, p. 174)


Malam-malamku di Cahuenga My nights in CahuengaMengalir dalam darah Flow in my bloodSisa-sisa parfum Hollywood Lingers of Hollywood’s scentLarut ke dalam paru-paru Dissolve in my lungsSetiap kali thermador tua Each time the ancient heaterMenghangati angin pagi Warms the morning air


153

Bukit-bukit Griffith The Griffith hillsMasih ingatkah engkau Can you still remember my shiversTatkala aku menggigil When coming home from work at 5 AMPulang kerja jam 5 pagiTanpa mantel tersuruk di bangku With no overcoat, hunched on the benchMenunggu bis pertama ke downtown? Awaiting the first bus to downtown?

Kuli yang miskin itu The poor old coolieKini bercerita lagi sambil bersila Crosslegged, speaksDiputarnya pita ingatan: Playing memory’s tape:Gunung-gunung karang di Wyoming Limestone mountains in WyomingDanau-danau membeku di Colorado Frozen lakes in ColoradoAnak burung robin terbuang di Nebraska A baby robin thrown from its nest in

Nebraska

Malam-malamku di Cahuenga My nights in CahuengaMenyurutkan sukmaku dalam darah Drag down my spirit in bloodSampai ke Utah, South Dakota Up to Utah, to South DakotaKemudian terbujur di Minnesota Finally to Minnesota, stretching aheadNegeri 10.000 danau Land of 10,000 LakesYang menyuguhkan secangkir air mata Offering a cup of tears

Berhentilah, kuli Stop now, coolieKita memang punya duka Yes, we may have painTapi juga tanah air, tulang But we also have a land and bonesDan semangat untuk mengabdi And the spirit as well to serveYang sering bikin kita bagai menara That often makes us into towersBerdiri memancarkan sinar Standing and throwing off lightDi atas perasaan tak berharga On top of feeling of worthlessness

Page 174 Page 174


PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI - … terms found in On Foreign Shores. Second, there are 5...

Documents

Transcript of PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI - … terms found in On Foreign Shores. Second, there are 5...