Photosynthesis: Calvin Cycle

Advanced Biochemistry for Biotechnology,

• THE COLOR OF LIGHT SEEN IS THE COLOR NOT ABSORBED

• Chloroplasts absorb light energy and convert it to chemical energy

LightReflected

light

Absorbedlight

Transmittedlight

Chloroplast

AN OVERVIEW OF PHOTOSYNTHESIS (Light reactions)

• Photosynthesis is the process by which autotrophic organisms use light energy to make sugar and oxygen gas from carbon dioxide and water

AN OVERVIEW OF PHOTOSYNTHESIS

Carbondioxide

Water Glucose Oxygengas

PHOTOSYNTHESIS

• The Calvin cycle makes sugar from carbon dioxide– ATP generated by the light

reactions provides the energy for sugar synthesis

– The NADPH produced by the light reactions provides the electrons for the reduction of carbon dioxide to glucose

LightChloroplast

Lightreactions

Calvincycle

NADP

ADP+ P

• The light reactions convert solar energy to chemical energy– Produce ATP & NADPH

AN OVERVIEW OF PHOTOSYNTHESIS

Chloroplasts: Sites of Photosynthesis

• Photosynthesis– Occurs in chloroplasts, organelles in certain plants– All green plant parts have chloroplasts and carry out

photosynthesis• The leaves have the most chloroplasts

• The green color comes from chlorophyll in the chloroplasts

• The pigments absorb light energy

• In most plants, photosynthesis occurs primarily in the leaves, in the chloroplasts

• A chloroplast contains: – stroma, a fluid – grana, stacks of thylakoids

• The thylakoids contain chlorophyll– Chlorophyll is the green pigment that captures light

for photosynthesis

Photosynthesis occurs in chloroplasts

• The location and structure of chloroplasts

LEAF CROSS SECTION MESOPHYLL CELL

LEAF

Chloroplast

Mesophyll

CHLOROPLAST Intermembrane space

Outermembrane

Innermembrane

ThylakoidcompartmentThylakoidStroma

Granum

StromaGrana

• Chloroplasts contain several pigments

Chloroplast Pigments

– Chlorophyll a – Chlorophyll b – Carotenoids

Figure 7.7

Chlorophyll a & b•Chl a has a methyl group •Chl b has a carbonyl group

Porphyrin ring delocalized e-

Phytol tail

Different pigments absorb light differently

Excitedstate

e

Heat

Light

Photon

Light(fluorescence)

Chlorophyllmolecule

Groundstate

2

(a) Absorption of a photon

(b) fluorescence of isolated chlorophyll in solution

Excitation of chlorophyll in a chloroplast

Loss of energy due to heat causes the photons of light to be less energetic.

Less energy translates into longer wavelength.

Energy = (Planck’s constant) x (velocity of light)/(wavelength of light)

Transition toward the red end of the visible spectrum.

e

Cyclic Photophosphorylation • Process for ATP generation associated with some

Photosynthetic Bacteria• Reaction Center => 700 nm

Pho

ton

Photon

Water-splittingphotosystem

NADPH-producingphotosystem

ATPmill

• Two types of photosystems cooperate in the light reactions

Primaryelectron acceptor

Primaryelectron acceptor

Electron transport chain

Electron transport

Photons

PHOTOSYSTEM I

PHOTOSYSTEM II

Energy forsynthesis of

by chemiosmosis

Noncyclic Photophosphorylation • Photosystem II regains electrons by splitting water,

leaving O2 gas as a by-product

• The O2 liberated by photosynthesis is made from the oxygen in water (H+ and e-)

Plants produce OPlants produce O22 gas by splitting H gas by splitting H22OO

2 H + 1/2

Water-splittingphotosystem

Reaction-center

chlorophyll

Light

Primaryelectronacceptor

Energyto make

Electron transport chain

Primaryelectronacceptor

Primaryelectronacceptor

NADPH-producingphotosystem

Light

NADP

1

23

How the Light Reactions Generate ATP and NADPH

• Two connected photosystems collect photons of light and transfer the energy to chlorophyll electrons

• The excited electrons are passed from the primary electron acceptor to electron transport chains– Their energy ends up in ATP and NADPH

In the light reactions, electron transport chains In the light reactions, electron transport chains generate ATP, NADPH, & Ogenerate ATP, NADPH, & O22

• The electron transport chains are arranged with the photosystems in the thylakoid membranes and pump H+ through that membrane– The flow of H+ back through the membrane is

harnessed by ATP synthase to make ATP– In the stroma, the H+ ions combine with NADP+ to

form NADPH

Chemiosmosis powers ATP synthesis in the light reactions

• The production of ATP by chemiosmosis in photosynthesis

Thylakoidcompartment(high H+)

Thylakoidmembrane

Stroma(low H+)

Light

Antennamolecules

Light

ELECTRON TRANSPORT CHAIN

PHOTOSYSTEM II PHOTOSYSTEM I ATP SYNTHASE

• A Photosynthesis Road Map

Chloroplast

Light

Stack ofthylakoids ADP

+ P

NADP

Stroma

Lightreactions

Calvincycle

Sugar used for

Cellular respiration

Cellulose

Starch

Other organic compounds

Review: Photosynthesis uses light energy to make food molecules

Light

Chloroplast

Photosystem IIElectron

transport chains Photosystem I

CALVIN CYCLE Stroma

Electrons

LIGHT REACTIONS CALVIN CYCLE

Cellular respiration

Cellulose

Starch

Other organic compounds

• A summary of the chemical processes of photosynthesis

Light reactions: Energy of light is conserved as “high energy” phosphoanhydride bonds of ATP reducing power of NADPH.

Proteins & pigments responsible for the light reactions are in thylakoid (grana disc) membranes.

Light reaction pathways will be not be presented here.

grana disks(thylakoids)

stromacompartment

2 outermembranes

Chloroplast

Photosynthesis takes place in chloroplasts.

It includes light reactions and reactions that are not directly energized by light.

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The free energy of cleavage of ~P bonds of ATP, and reducing power of NADPH, are used to fix and reduce CO2 to form carbohydrate.

Enzymes & intermediates of the Calvin Cycle are located in the chloroplast stroma, a compartment somewhat analogous to the mitochondrial matrix.

grana disks(thylakoids)

stromacompartment

2 outermembranes

Chloroplast

Calvin Cycle, earlier designated the photosynthetic "dark reactions," is now called the carbon reactions pathway:

23

Ribulose Bisphosphate Carboxylase (RuBP Carboxylase), catalyzes CO2 fixation:

ribulose-1,5-bisphosphate + CO2 2 3-phosphoglycerate

Because it can alternatively catalyze an oxygenase reaction, the enzyme is also called RuBP Carboxylase/Oxygenase (RuBisCO). It is the most abundant enzyme on earth.

Ribulose-1,5-bisphosphate(RuBP)

OH

H2C

CH

C

C

OHH

H2C OPO32-

OPO32-

O

3-Phosphoglycerate(3PG)

OH

H2C

CH

COO

OPO 32-

-

24

RuBP Carboxylase - postulated mechanism:

Extraction of H+ from C3 of ribulose-1,5-bisphosphate promotes formation of an enediolate intermediate.

Nucleophilic attack on CO2 leads to formation of a -

keto acid intermediate, that reacts with water and cleaves to form 2 molecules of 3-phosphoglycerate.

O H

H 2 C

CH

C

C

O HH

H 2 C O P O 32

O P O 32

O

O H

H 2 C

CH

C

C

O H

H 2 C O P O 32

O P O 32

O

H +O H

H 2 C

CH

C

C

O

H 2 C O P O 32

O P O 32

H O C O 2

C O 2

O H

H 2 C

CH

C

O P O 32

O O

H 2 O

1

5

4

3

2

r ib u lo se -1 ,5 - e n e d io la te -k e to 3 -p h o sp h o g ly c e ra te b isp h o sp h a te in te rm e d ia te in te rm e d ia te (2 )

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Transition state analogs of the postulated -keto acid intermediate bind tightly to RuBP Carboxylase and inhibit its activity.

Examples: 2-carboxyarabinitol-1,5-bisphosphate (CABP, above right) & carboxyarabinitol-1-phosphate (CA1P).

2-Carboxyarabinitol-1,5-bisphosphate (inhibitor)

OH

H2C

CH

C

C

OHH

H2C OPO 32

OPO 32

HO CO2

Proposed -keto acid intermediate

OH

H2C

CH

C

C

O

H2C OPO 32

OPO 32

HO CO 2

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8 large catalytic subunits (L, 477 residues, blue, cyan) 8 small subunits (S, 123 residues, shown in red).

Some bacteria contain only the large subunit, with the smallest functional unit being a homodimer, L2.

Roles of the small subunits have not been clearly defined. There is some evidence that interactions between large & small subunits may regulate catalysis.

RuBisCO PDB 1RCX

RuBisCO PDB 1RCX

RuBP Carboxylase in plants is a complex (L8S8) of:

27

Large subunits within RuBisCO are arranged as antiparallel dimers, with the N-terminal domain of one monomer adjacent to the C-terminal domain of the other.

Each active site is at an interface between monomers within a dimer, explaining the minimal requirement for a dimeric structure.

The substrate binding site is at the mouth of an -barrel domain of the large subunit.

Most active site residues are polar, including some charged amino acids (e.g., Thr, Asn, Glu, Lys).

ribulose-1,5-bisphosphate

PDB 1RCX

2L & 2S subunits

of RuBisCO

28

"Active" RuBP Carboxylase has a carbamate that binds an essential Mg++ at the active site.

The carbamate forms by reaction of HCO3 with the -

amino group of a lysine residue, in the presence of Mg++.

HCO3 that reacts to form carbamate is distinct from CO2 that

binds to RuBP Carboxylase as substrate.

Mg++ bridges between oxygen atoms of the carbamate & substrate CO2.

Carbamate Formation with RuBP Carboxylase Activation

Enz-Lys NH3+ H

N C

O

O

+ HCO3 + H2O + H+Enz-Lys

29

Binding of either RuBP or a transition state analog to RuBP Carboxylase causes a conformational change to a "closed" conformation in which access of solvent water to the active site is blocked.

RuBP Carboxylase (RuBisCO) can spontaneously deactivate by decarbamylation.

In the absence of the carbamate group, RuBisCO tightly binds ribulose bisphosphate (RuBP) at the active site as a “dead end” complex, with the closed conformation, and is inactive in catalysis.

In order for the carbamate to reform, the enzyme must undergo transition to the open conformation.

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RuBP Carboxylase Activase is an ATP hydrolyzing (ATPase) enzyme that causes a conformational change in RuBP Carboxylase from a closed to an open state.

This allows release of tightly bound RuBP or other sugar phosphate from the active site, and carbamate formation.

Since photosynthetic light reactions produce ATP, the ATP dependence of RuBisCO activation provides a mechanism for light-dependent activation of the enzyme.

The activase is a member of the AAA family of ATPases, many of which have chaperone-like roles.

RuBP Carboxylase Activase is a large multimeric protein complex that may surround RuBisCO while inducing the conformational change to the open state. 31

When O2 reacts with ribulose-1,5-bisphosphate, the products are 3-phosphoglycerate plus the 2-C compound 2-phosphoglycolate.

This reaction is the basis for the name RuBP Carboxylase/Oxygenase (RuBisCO).

OH

H 2 C

CH

COO

OPO 32

H 2 C

C

OPO 32

O O

3 - p h o s p h o - p h o s p h o g l y c o l a t e g l y c e r a t e

Photorespiration:

O2 can compete with CO2 for binding to RuBisCO, especially when [CO2] is low & [O2] is high.

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The complex pathway that partly salvages C from 2-phosphoglycolate, via conversion to 3-phosphoglycerate, involves enzymes of chloroplasts, peroxisomes & mitochondria.

This pathway recovers 3/4 of the C as 3-phosphoglycerate.The rest is released as CO2.

Photorespiration is a wasteful process, substantially reducing efficiency of CO2 fixation, even at normal ambient CO2.

OH

H 2 C

CH

COO

OPO 32

H 2 C

C

OPO 32

O O

3 - p h o s p h o - p h o s p h o g l y c o l a t e g l y c e r a t e

Photorespiration:

Diagram

33

Most plants, designated C3, fix CO2 initially via RuBP Carboxylase, yielding the 3-C 3-phosphoglycerate.

Plants designated C4 have one cell type in which phosphoenolpyruvate (PEP) is carboxylated via the enzyme PEP Carboxylase, to yield the 4-C oxaloacetate.

Oxaloacetate is converted to other 4-C intermediates that are transported to cells active in photosynthesis, where CO2 is released by decarboxylation.

O2C C CH2

OPO32

O2C C CH2

O

CO2+ HCO3

+ Pi

phosphoenolpyruvate oxaloacetate (PEP)

PEP Carboxylase

34

C4 plants maintain a high ratio of CO2/O2 within

photosynthetic cells, thus minimizing photorespiration.

Research has been aimed at increasing expression of and/or inserting genes for C4 pathway enzymes, such as PEP Carboxylase, in C3 plants.

35

Continuing with Calvin Cycle:

The normal RuBP Carboxylase product, 3-phospho-glycerate is converted to glyceraldehyde-3-P.

Phosphoglycerate Kinase catalyzes transfer of Pi from ATP to the carboxyl of 3-phosphoglycerate (RuBP Carboxylase product) to yield 1,3-bisphosphoglycerate.

OH

H 2 C

CH

COO

OPO 32

OH

H 2 C

CH

CO PO 3

2 O

OPO 32

OH

H 2 C

CH

CHO

OPO 32

A T P A D P N A D P H N A D P +

P i

1 , 3 - b i s p h o s p h o - g l y c e r a t e

3 - p h o s p h o - g l y c e r a t e

g l y c e r a l d e h y d e - 3 - p h o s p h a t e

P h o s p h o g l y c e r a t e K i n a s e

G l y c e r a l d e h y d e - 3 - p h o s p h a t e D e h y d r o g e n a s e

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Glyceraldehyde-3-P Dehydrogenase catalyzes reduction of the carboxyl of 1,3-bisphosphoglycerate to an aldehyde, with release of Pi, yielding glyceraldehyde-3-P.

This is like the Glycolysis enzyme running backward, but the chloroplast Glyceraldehyde-3-P Dehydrogenase uses NADPH as e donor, while the cytosolic Glycolysis enzyme uses NAD+ as e acceptor.

OH

H 2 C

CH

COO

OPO 32

OH

H 2 C

CH

CO PO 3

2 O

OPO 32

OH

H 2 C

CH

CHO

OPO 32

A T P A D P N A D P H N A D P +

P i

1 , 3 - b i s p h o s p h o - g l y c e r a t e

3 - p h o s p h o - g l y c e r a t e

g l y c e r a l d e h y d e - 3 - p h o s p h a t e

P h o s p h o g l y c e r a t e K i n a s e

G l y c e r a l d e h y d e - 3 - p h o s p h a t e D e h y d r o g e n a s e

37

Continuing with Calvin Cycle:

A portion of the glyceraldehyde-3-P is converted back to ribulose-1,5-bisP, the substrate for RuBisCO, via reactions catalyzed by:

Triose Phosphate Isomerase, Aldolase, Fructose Bisphosphatase, Sedoheptulose Bisphosphatase, Transketolase, Epimerase, Ribose Phosphate Isomerase, & Phosphoribulokinase.

Many of these are similar to enzymes of Glycolysis, Gluconeogenesis or Pentose Phosphate Pathway, but are separate gene products found in the chloroplast stroma. (Enzymes of the other pathways listed are in the cytosol.)

The process is similar to Pentose Phosphate Pathway run backwards. 38

Summary of Calvin cycle:

3 5-C ribulose-1,5-bisP (total of 15 C) are carboxylated (3 C added), cleaved, phosphorylated, reduced, & dephosphorylated, yielding 6 3-C glyceraldehyde-3-P (total of 18 C). Of these:

1 3-C glyceraldehyde-3-P exits as product.

5 3-C glyceraldehyde-3-P (15 C) are recycled back into 3 5-C ribulose-1,5-bisphosphate.

C3 + C3 C6

C3 + C6 C4 + C5

C3 + C4 C7

C3 + C7 C5 + C5

Overall 5 C3 3 C539

Overall: 5 C3 3 C5

Enzymes:TI, Triosephosphate IsomeraseAL, AldolaseFB, Fructose-1,6- bisphosphataseSB, Sedoheptulose- BisphosphataseTK, TransketolaseEP, EpimeraseIS, Isomerase PK, Phospho- ribulokinase

TK

EP

PK

glyceraldehyde-3-P dihydroxyacetone-P

fructose-6-P

xyulose-5-P + erythrose-4-P

sedoheptulose-7-P

xylulose-5-P + ribose-5-P

(3) ribulose-5-P

(3) ribulose-1,5-bis-P

TI

TK

AL, FB

IS

AL, SB

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3 CO2 + 9 ATP + 6 NADPH

glyceraldehyde-3-P + 9 ADP + 8 Pi + 6 NADP+

Glyceraldehyde-3-P may be converted to other CHO:• metabolites (e.g., fructose-6-P, glucose-1-P)• energy stores (e.g., sucrose, starch)• cell wall constituents (e.g., cellulose).

Glyceraldehyde-3-P can also be utilized by plant cells as carbon source for synthesis of other compounds such as fatty acids & amino acids.

g l y c e r a l d e h y d e - 3 - p h o s p h a t e

OH

H 2 C

CH

CHO

OPO 32 OCO

c a r b o n d i o x i d e

Summary of Calvin Cycle

41

There is evidence for multienzyme complexes of Calvin Cycle enzymes within the chloroplast stroma.

Positioning of many Calvin Cycle enzymes close to the enzymes that produce their substrates or utilize their reaction products may increase efficiency of the pathway.

grana disks(thylakoids)

stromacompartment

2 outermembranes

Chloroplast

42

Regulation of Calvin Cycle

Regulation prevents the Calvin Cycle from being active in the dark, when it might function in a futile cycle with Glycolysis & Pentose Phosphate Pathway, wasting ATP & NADPH.

Light activates, or dark inhibits, the Calvin Cycle (previously called the “dark reaction”) in several ways.

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Light-activated e transfer is linked to pumping of H+ into thylakoid disks. pH in the stroma increases to about 8.

Alkaline pH activates stromal Calvin Cycle enzymes RuBP Carboxylase, Fructose-1,6-Bisphosphatase & Sedoheptulose Bisphosphatase.

The light-activated H+ shift is countered by Mg++ release from thylakoids to stroma. RuBP Carboxylase (in stroma) requires Mg++ binding to carbamate at the active site.

stroma (alkaline)

Chloroplast

H2O OH + H+

h

(acid inside thylakoid disks)

Regulation by Light.

44

Some plants synthesize a transition-state inhibitor, carboxyarabinitol-1-phosphate (CA1P), in the dark.

RuBP Carboxylase Activase facilitates release of CA1P from RuBP Carboxylase, when it is activated under conditions of light by thioredoxin.

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disulfide

Thioredoxin f PDB 1FAA

Thioredoxin is a small protein with a disulfide that is reduced in chloroplasts via light-activated electron transfer.

46

During illumination, the thioredoxin disulfide is reduced to a dithiol by ferredoxin, a constituent of the photosynthetic light reaction pathway, via an enzyme Ferredoxin-Thioredoxin Reductase.

Reduced thioredoxin activates several Calvin Cycle enzymes, including Fructose-1,6-bisphosphatase, Sedoheptulose-1,7-bisphosphatase, and RuBP Carboxylase Activase, by reducing disulfides in those enzymes to thiols. 

thio

redo

xin

S S

thio

redo

xin

SH SH

|

ferredoxinRed ferredoxinOx

Ferredoxin- Thioredoxin Reductase

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