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Personality Study Pericles

1. Historical context

Geography, topography and resources of Athens, Attica and the Athenian empire Geography

• Athens city & countryside of Attica • 16kn from sea • Attica è land around, peninsula • Easiest way to move around mainland Greece è water è coast dictated

lifestyle of Athenians • Phaleron è old harbour • Piraeus è new harbour • Mediterranean climate

Topography • Rocky • Few fertile areas

Resources • Olives • Grapes • Goats • Bees: honey & wax • Fish • Some grain è not enough to feed population • Silver è used to buy triremes

Overview of the development of Athenian democracy • 6th Century BC è Athens transformed from 2nd rate polis into prosperous city-

state Solon 594 BC

• Became eponymous archon è decided to make a more serious attempt to solve problems

• Organised 4 social classes Pentacosiomedimnoi

• Owned certain amount of land • Could become archon or strategos

Hippeis • Horse/cavalry class

Zeugitae • Small farmers • Hoplite

Thetes • Landless laboring class • Could vote • Auxiliary troops • Paid to row boats • Could not become archon or strategos

• He set up a council è met regularly & pose questions for ecclesia • Real power was Areopagus è composed everyone who had been archon • Most important reforms è economic è set Athens as commercial centre

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∼ Cancel all debts ∼ Couldn’t be enslaved for debt ∼ Every father had to teach son a trade ∼ He banned the export grain ∼ Brought in foreign workers with skills (pottery, ships, building)

• Banned enslavement of Athenians at Athens è thought highly improper to enslave other Greeks

Cleisthenes 508 BC • Pericles’ great uncle • Used isonomia (equality) to describe his reforms of govt. • Reforms became basis of Athenian democracy during 5th century BC • Constitution consisted of: • New tribes è replaced original 4 to 10 based on territory

∼ Territory è hill, coast & plain ∼ Tribes called ‘prytanny’

• The Boule è changed Council of 400 to 500 ∼ Divided into groups of 50 men over 30 è each from 10 tribes ∼ Managed day to day running of state ∼ Did not create laws but advised magistrates & submitted proposals to

People’s Assembly ∼ Every citizen had opportunity to select members from top 2 classes

è mixed process elections & lot ∼ Disadvantage è sometimes produced mediocre or incompetent

officials • Archons è chief magistrates

∼ 9 in total ∼ Elected from top 2 wealth classes ∼ Held office for 1 year ∼ Held to account for their actions

• Strategoi è board of 10 generals ∼ Each tribe elected a general assembly & these formed permanent

body ∼ Both civil & military leaders ∼ One emerged as most influential leader è “The Strategos” ∼ Could be chosen for unlimited successive years

• Areopagus è aristocratic body ∼ Made up of ex-archons ∼ Held positions for life

• Ecclesia è People’s Assembly ∼ Open to all citizens over 18 è including thetes ∼ Voted on laws, elected magistrates & decided issues of war & peace ∼ Meetings held regularly on a hill in Athens (pnyx) ∼ Anybody could be speak on any subject by taking the podium ∼ Essence of democracy

• Heliaea è Law Courts ∼ Comprised of those who sat in Assembly è acted as a court ∼ All citizens could appeal against a magistrate’s decision & try

magistrate for mismanagement ∼ Could have been 5000 in a system with no judges or lawyers ∼ Jurors became important & trials very public

• Ostracism è banishment of political opponent

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∼ Used by politicians to rid opponents ∼ 6000 people votes needed to banish individual ∼ Politician’s name written on ostrakon è name written was of a

politician though to be dangerous to democracy ∼ Majority of votes the same name è person ostracised from Athens for

10 years ∼ Property or citizenship was not lost ∼ Pretty fair & democratic system è citizens decided on banishment

Overview of Athenian social, religious and economic structures Social Structures

• Democracy • Cleruchs è the thetes sent out to places that Athens took over & were given

land • Panhellenism è all Greeks working, fighting & living together as one

Citizens • Male of child of Athenian parents • Women not included

Thetes • Lowest class • Became rowers • Cleruchs

Women • Status determined by her class • Priestesses held in highest respect • Hetairai (female companions) had greatest social freedom e.g. Aspasia • Expected to keep silent • Expected to be good household manager • Women participated in religious festivals • Had own festivals • No political rights • Legally under the control of men

Metics • Foreigners who chose to live permanently in Athens • Craftsmen, traders, farmers, bakers, merchants, fullers • Served in armed forces • Could not attend ecclesia • Could not own land • Could not obtain citizenship • Paid a special tax • Brought new religion (Eastern goddesses; Bendis & Cybele)

Slaves • Privately owned or owned by state • Believed that privately owned were better treated than state owned • State owned worked on roads, in dockyards, in mint & on public buildings • Lowest class of slaves worked in silver mine at Laurium • Prisoners of war • Unwanted children • Children or men sold into slavery for debt • Children born into slavery

Religious structures • Worshipped Pantheon of Gods & Goddesses

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• Zeus, Hera, Athena • Athena could be the demus unmarried girl to which Parthenon was devoted or

she could be Athena Nike, Goddess of victory and war

• The all Athens Games è involved everybody in the city started with a huge procession outside the city going up the main thoroughfare & ending on the acropolis

• Mysteries of Eleusis è women went into Attica for a week & let loose their basic instincts

• Lenaea è drama festival • Festival of Dionysus

Economic structures • Athens during 5th Century BC è most important economic power in Greece • Transformation of Delian League to Athenian Empire gave Athens greater

power with access to tribute • Pottery was the Black Attic War found & was found where ever their ships did

trade • Very serious economic problem; didn’t have enough grain to feed population • Main source of carbs è imported from Black Sea area • Industrial & commercial life of Athens was carried out by Metics 2. Background and rise to prominence

Family background and education • Member of Pentacosiomedimnoi • Born into wealthy family (Alcmaenoids) • Alcmaenoids è owned cast tracts of land in Attica è reputed to be extremely

wealthy however, they were generally excluded from inner circle of nobility because of their curse (agos)

• Father è Xanthippus è rising politician & general during Persian Wars è ostracised 484 BC

• Mother è Agariste è born into Alcmaenoids • Plutarch è “…he was descended on both sides from the noblest lineage in

Athens.” • Plutarch è “…Agariste once had a dream that she had given birth to a lion,

and a few days later she was delivered of Pericles” • Great-uncle Cleisthenes è 507 BC had reformed Athenian government • Believed Pericles was born around 494 BC • Would have been old enough to understand Athenian anger & humiliation

when Persians burnt & occupied city • Plutarch è “The fact that he was rich and that he came from a distinguished

family and possessed exceedingly powerful friends made the fear of ostracism very real to him”

• Like Cleisthenes è Pericles turned his back on his aristocratic lineage & committed himself to power of the people è partly because of his family’s alienation from rest of the nobility

• Probably inherited from mother’s side a certain anti-Spartan attitude ∼ Cleisthenes had been banished from Athens on urging the Spartans

who suggested that the Alcmaenoids were unfit for Athenian society because they were polluted by a curse

Education • Traditional education in Pericles’ time for boys involved gymnastics, recital of

epic poems of Homer & music

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• Pericles’ family’s nobility & wealth allowed him to follow his natural inclination towards education

• Kagan infers that physical training prepared the boys for athletic contests that were a regular part of religious festivals & of PanHellenic competitions, & kept them in condition to serve as soldiers

• Kagan infers that musical education taught the boys to sing and play instruments & to learn the traditional body of poetry (the poems of Homer)

• é prepared boys for competitions which would involve choruses at religious festivals

Teachers • Plutarch gives us information about Pericles’ teachers in Life of Pericles

Damon • Athenian • Plato è “A most accomplished man in every way, as well as a musician and

a companion of inestimable value for young men” • Instructed Pericles while he was young è comic poet speaks of him “The

Cheiron who raised Pericles.” (Plutarch) è In Iliad Cheiron is the centaur who educated young Achilles

• Earned a reputation as “a most accomplished man in every way, as well as a musician, and a companion of inestimable value for young men”

• Plato è “in his time the wisest of all the citizens” • Damon was interested in politics & philosophy è it was probably because of

him that Pericles entered politics as a radical • Plutarch è “…as a masseur or trainer prepares an athlete” • Pericles’ enemies claimed that it was Damon who advised him to use public

funds to pay citizens for jury service • Pericles’ music teacher è also taught theory of music and its relationship to

ethics and politics • Most would agree that Damon was his music teacher (included poetry) &

would also train him for political contests • Taught different kinds of music express different elements of human

character • Plato è “when modes of music change, the fundamental mores of the state

always change with them” • Probably talked about practical political questions & larger issues of theory • Pericles enemies claimed Damon advised him to use public funds to pay

citizens for jury service & in their view, corrupting the state • Damon was ostracised for being intriguer & supporter of tyranny

Pythocleides • Aristotle è thoroughly trained Pericles in music

Zeno • Pre-Socratic Greek philosopher of Southern Italy • Zeno taught Pericles a technique of cross examination è allowed Pericles to

corner his opponent by a method of question and answer • Taught natural philosophy • Inventor of dialectic & several famous paradoxes

Anaxagoras • Pre-Socratic Greek philosopher • Member of Ionian School of philosophy • Metic • “Anaxagoras of Clazomenae”

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• Ionian è Clazomenae on the coast of Ionia in Asia Minor • It is said his studies were in natural science • He appears to have been Pericles’ most influential teacher • Imparted to Pericles the majesty & gravity he had in all his sayings and

doings è superior to all arts of popularity • Nicknamed “intelligence personified” • Asked questions & proposed ideas that challenged religious & traditional

beliefs è shocking & disturbing most Athenians but exciting Pericles • Used reason in place of traditional myths of Greek religion to explain

perceptible physical world • Scientific ideas freed Pericles’ from superstitions held by the people he

guided • Taught that they were not divine beings but that the sun was a molten mass

of red-hot stone many time larger than Peloponnesus è moon was of stuff like earth having similar plains & ravines, its only light reflecting off sun

• é ran counter to supernatural religious beliefs • Caused scandal & one day brought trouble to their proponent & Pericles • Chief result è liberate Pericles from superstitions to his day • Plutarch gave Anaxagoras credit for shaping Pericles’’ manner and style of

speaking • Pericles speaking style described as “presumptuous and arrogant” (Chian

poet Ion) • Anaxagoras influenced Pericles’ political thought and practice & his teaching

helped make Pericles a unique leader è Thucydides – “what was called a democracy was becoming, in fact, the rule of the foremost man”

• Pericles è inspired by the idea to become, as Thucydides portrays him, the guiding element in his free and democratic city

Early political career to 460BC • Grew up among leading political group in Athenian state • Pericles admired Themistocles è speculates whether this caused problems

with his father • Started political career at an early age • First took up people’s campaign in his twenties • At first he restrained ambitions è fearful he would be considered a tyrant or

danger for Greece • To get around this problem è he promoted the interest of the demos • Early influences led him to oppose aristocrats by supporting the poor and the

many rather than wealthy & few • Entered politics è further expand Athenian power & dominance in Aegean to

ensure his political career & greatness of Athens • 480 BC è Persians invaded Greece for 2nd time & Athens evacuated è

Pericles devoted himself to being a soldier è showed initiative & joined the people’s party

• Pericles greatly drawn to idea of a fuller democracy & entered politics as a radical è first speech to Ecclesia 469 BC as a democrat

• Thought that he used the revolt & subjugation of Naxos by Cimon & Delian League forces in 469 BC to make his 1st speech

• Choregus in 472 BC è play gave him popularity among the citizens & therefore he gained some influence

∼ Chief archon chose 3 poets to perform plays by chorus & chief actor in competition at forthcoming festival

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∼ Annual festival of Dionysus 472 è Aeschylus chosen & presented 3 related tragedies & associated satyr play è custom

∼ Choregus assigned to Aeschylus was Pericles è plays won 1st prize è one, Persians, survives today

∼ Pericles having resources to play for chorus unmistakable evidence that his father died & come into his inheritance

∼ Pay for choruses at festivals è city imposed public duty è “liturgy” è on richest citizen è during 5th century, seen as opportunities for gaining public favor, wealthy men volunteered

∼ Public service imposed upon Pericles è probably seized first available opportunity to bring himself to public attention

∼ Pericles must have been glad to provide chorus for play & may have taken initiative

∼ Pericles sponsored Aeschylus’ play as act of piety to state & toward memory of father

∼ Kagan è not a bad way to introduce himself to people of Athens • 1st elected strategos è 465-464 BC • He associated with Ephialtes from 463 BC onwards • 461 BC è advanced rise by introducing decrees for award of financial

reimbursement for jurors sitting in on Heliaea • Some believe that Pericles was the leading prosecutor against Cimon è

Cimon was acquitted, this confrontation proved that Pericles’ major opponent was vulnerable

• Around 461 BC è leader of democratic party & mentor of Pericles, Ephialtes è proposed a sharp reduction of Areopagus’ powers

• Democratic party gradually became dominant in Athenian politic • They called for ostracism of Cimon & he was ostracised • Went to a great deal of effort to win over Athenians, particularly lower-class

è funded them so they could attend public events – celebration, festivals, pageants etc. – allowed Pericles to gain a lot of support for his reforms

• 460 BC è leader of democratic party of Athens • Plutarch è “…Pericles was now the most important man in Athens & that he

wielded far more power than any other citizen” • Able to dominate Athenian politics è 459 BC è became leader of radical

democrats & elected strategos 16 times between 445 & 429 BC è able to control domestic & foreign affairs of polis

3. Career Democratic reforms and policies

• Ephialtes murdered 461 BC è Pericles introduces “a sweeping policy allowing Athenians to participate in all aspects of their government at state expense”

• C.M. Bowra è argues that Pericles completed the work started by Themistocles because he was intensely patriotic & believed in Athens

• If Athens was to be a great city è every citizen had to play his part to the full extent of his ability

Payment of Jurors 461 BC • Proposed a bill for the payment of jurors in Heliaea • Could be seen as attack on Areopagus • Encouraged citizens to undertake jury service • Paid 2 obols a day to sit on juries • Resulted in democratisation of law courts

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• Pericles became wildly popular as jurors composed of commoners who were never before paid for service

• Aristocrats outraged & blamed Pericles’ for lowering the standard of Athenian court

• Jury was selected by lot, a set number from each tribe • Therefore one faction could not control the court

Admission of the Zeugitae to the Archonship • Occurred at about 458 BC • Pericles proposed a bill that allowed the zeugitae to hold archonship • Archons now selected by lot • Also introduced a payment for service as an archon • Paid 4 obols a day è meant that there was no need to restrict it to the 2

richest classes • Continued to weaken the power of aristocracy

Payment of Boule • One drachma was paid to the members of Council of 500 • Also paid to other officials except generals

Citizenship Law • Introduced between 451 - 450 BC • Passed by ecclesia • Revised citizenship roles • Restricted admission of new citizens depending upon parentage • To become Athenian citizen è both parents had to already be Athenian

citizens & they had to be legally married • Limited the number of people who could benefit from the wealth of the city &

its empire • Limited number of people who could wed

Establishment of Cleruchies • 450 BC è Cleruchies established on territory of allies who were rebelling

against Athenian control • Expanded empire è able to increase trade links è ensuring survival &

implementing imperialistic policies • Crucial in controlling growing population of Athens • 448 BC è Pericles lead 1000 Athenian settlers to Chersonese • Creating these let them maintain Athenian citizenship but have own land

away Athens • Plutarch è Cleruchies ensured a “healthy fear of rebellion” • Establishment continued Athenian control over League members è

maintained Pericles’ power & influence as a military leader Building program

• See below Military career Battle of Tanagra 457 BC

• Pericles fought as citizen • Plutarch è “brave and fond of danger” • Athenians lost

Egyptian expedition 455 BC • Egypt è main sources of grain • Egypt part of Persian Empire è Persians did not want to trade grain to

enemy • Pericles wanted to take over trade

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• Sent out fleet of 200 ships up the Nile • All ships lost • Could not contain 2nd source of grain

The Peloponnese 454 BC • Pericles was strategos • Given command of a fleet of 100 triremes • Defeated army from Sicyon at Nemea • Attacked Acernania è ravaged & looted land • Unsuccessfully besieged city of Oeniadae • Sailed back to Athens

Southern Italy & Sicily 450s BC • Rich source of grain supply è 100s of years the area had been settled by

other Greek cities especially Corinth • Corinth resented Athenians for trying to take grain trade from them • Pericles made a serious attempt to get trade towards the end of the 450s • At one stage è he took control of whole of central Greece & even making

alliance with Argos • Came to an end when Corinth, encouraged by Sparta, to fight back in so

called 1st Peloponnesian War • Ended 445 BC with collapse of Athens’ control of central Greece è Pericles

making a precarious peace with Sparta The Chersonese 447 BC

• Pericles took 100 Athenian colonists to Chersonese to help build up number of Greeks living there

• Greek colonies under constant attacks/raids from Thracian tribes who lived nearby

• He built a fortified wall across Isthmus • é stopped raids & allowed Greek colonies to grow

Euboea 446 BC • Part of Delian League • Inhabitant decided to revolt • Pericles sent to restore order • Megarians also revolted & Spartans sent army to invade Attica • Pericles crossed back è avoided battle with Spartans & supposedly

managed to bribe one advisers of the Spartan king • Pericles returned to Euboea with 5000 hoplites & 50 triremes • Captured the city of Chalcis è banished its leading citizens & captured city of

Hestiaea • Moved entire population out & replaced with Cleruchs

Thirty years Peace 445 BC • Agreement between Sparta & Athens • Pericles knew if Athens needed to devote more energy maintaining naval

empire è had to secure lasting peace with Sparta Samos 440 BC

• People of Samos refused to end a war with Miletus • Many Athenians believed Pericles undertook this campaign to please

mistress Aspasia who came from Miletus • Pericles too 50 of their most influential men & 50 children as hostages è

sent them to island of Lemnos • Established a democracy & returned to Athens • They revolted against new govt.

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• Persian satrap freed hostages & prepared for war • Pericles returned with army of triremes & fought naval battle against Samians • Victorious & besieged Samos • More Athenian ships came è Pericles decided to sail back out to sea è

leaving small number of ships still at Samos • Samians attacked remaining forces & destroyed ships • Pericles returned & defeated a 2nd Samian fleet & began siege again • 9 months to capture it • He demolished their walls, confiscated fleet of war ships, took more hostages

& made then pay a large fine • Pericles became very popular in Athens after this victory

Black Sea 436 BC • An attempt to show how strong Athens was to tribes who lived there • Pericles sailed into Black Sea & stopped at various Greek colonies &

negotiated with them over grain supplies for Athens • Protection of trading routes was of crucial importance to Athenians • Pericles left military force & some triremes to help some citizens of Sinope

dispose tyrant of city, Timesilaus • 600 Athenians then settled into Sinope to help locals keep control of city

Alliance with Corcyra 433 BC • Island had been founded by Corinth • Became very powerful è ships heading to Italy needed to stop there • Pericles was keen on developing a relationship with it • 432 BC è Corinth & Corcyra fought a sea battle at Sybota • Corcyra won • Corinthians must have been annoyed that Athenian ships stood by è clearly

ready to assist Corcyrean ships if needed • Seen as one of the causes of Peloponnesian War

Potidaea 432 BC • Corinthian colony • Important trading centre in Athenian empire • Welcomed Corinthian officials into city every year • Showed support for Corinth • Athenians besieged city & took over it

Megara 432 BC • Pericles proposed a decree that banned Megarians from trading with any

Athenian controlled markets in Aegean & Black Sea • Caused considerable hardship & forced Megarians to request assistance

from the Spartans & other members of Peloponnesian League Building Program

• Occurred during peak of Pericles’ power • Athens held unused tribute from annual payment made to DL • Pericles proposed that money should be used to find building program which

would make Athens beautiful

• Did not consult allies • Pericles argued that Athenians were not obliged to provide account of how

money was spent, since Athens was fulfilling responsibilities in maintaining peace

• Thucydides denounced Pericles’ actions as barefaced tyranny

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• Pericles offered to pay for buildings himself è provided he be given full credit for them for prosperity

• Aims were to glorify Athens & ensure unskilled masses è who had no military training è should not be barred from benefitting from national income & yet should not be paid for sitting about & doing nothing

• Wanted to increase Athens’ prosperity & share wealth with people of all classes by creating demand for all kinds of enterprises è providing inspiration for art & transforming people into wage earners

• Three priorities which were worked towards ∼ Wanted Athens to be political & cultural leader of Greek world è he

was patriotic Athenian & thought it was reasonable that resources of DL be used to build city of great importance è argued Athens had been destroyed twice so Greeks owed it to Athens to help rebuild city

∼ Wanted to thank & praise Athena & gods for saving whole of Greek world for ravages of Persians

∼ Wanted to provide employment to unskilled workers è artists/craftsmen & tradesmen/laborers

Parthenon • Symbol of creative & artistic power distinguished in 5th century Athens • Built between 447-432 BC • Made of white marble • Largest Doric temple built in antiquity • Ictinus & Callicrates were architects • Phidias built sculptures è 12m high Athena Parthenos è gold & ivory statue

of Athena • Great martial pan-Hellenistic myths represented through carvings (92

metopes) è Battle of Giants, Lapiths battling with centaurs, Amazons & Trojan War

• Frieze depicting Panathenaic procession & gods awaiting its arrival • Two large rooms è one housed statue, functioning as temple è other

treasury • Foundation of a previous temple was used as its basis • Columns lean slightly inwards to make it appear more graceful

Athena Parthenon • 11.5 metres high • Stood in cellar of Parthenon • Central core was wood è attached to plates of ivory for goddess’ face, neck,

arms & feet • Gorgon’s head stood on her shield was ivory • Gold used for her garment & snake bracelets • Other parts supposed to have been gilded bronze • Rested on shield with spear against left shoulder • Wore a helmet with a sphinx, winged horses & griffins • Depicted accepting a status of Nike (victory) as thanksgiving for her people • Had to be large è testament to Athens è patron of goddess of Athens • Pausanias è “…The statue itself is made of marble, silver and gold. On the

middle of her helmet is placed a likeness of the Sphinx…and on either side of the helmet are griffins in relief…the statue of Athena is upright, with a tunic reaching to the feet, and on her breast the head of Medusa is worked in ivory. She holds a statue of victory about four cubits high, and in the other hand a spear; at her feet lies a shield and near the spear is a serpent. The

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serpent would be Erichthonius. On the pedestal is the birth of Pandora in relief.”

Temple of Athena Nike • 427 & 424 BC • Commemorate the victory of Persians • Ionic style • Earliest fully ionic temple on acropolis • Frieze recall historical battle of Plataea • Smaller temple situated on acropolis • Nike = victory in Greek è Athena worshipped in this form è goddess of

victory in war & wisdom Temple of Hephaestus

• Dedicated to god of artisans è god of metal working & craftsmanship • Numerous potters’ workshops & metal-working shops in vicinity of temple è

benefits temple’s honoree • Construction started during tyranny in 6th century BC • Construction restarted at time of Pericles

Propylaea • 437-432 BC • Situated left side of acropolis • Gateway • Row of Doric columns while 2 rows of Ionic divided central corridor into 3

parts • Walls of north wing è decorated with painted panels or wall paintings è

why its called “Pinakotheke” • Ceiling è coffers with painted decoration & performed sima around roof • Central building & 2 lateral wings • Made of Pentelic marble • Designed by Minesikles

Odeon • 446-442 BC • 1st roofed theatre-building in history devoted to performance è believed • Theatre • Built from timbers & masts of captured Persian ships

Piraeus • New harbour • Although not a building è was built during Pericles’ time • Constructed by Hippodamus of Miletus • Storehouses, corn exchange & dry docks were built • Emporion è showplace where merchants displayed products was rebuilt • Built another wall Long Wall from Athens to Phalerum è refortification of

harbour è walls ensured trade routes from harbour would be protected (especially during Peloponnesian Wars)

Erychteum • Temple • Dedicated to Athena & Poseidon Erechthetus • Built on north side of Acropolis

People involved in building program • Provided employment for people living in Athens • Artists & craftsmen è architects, sculptors, modellers, painters,

coppersmiths, workers in gold & ivory, stone masons & engravers

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• Tradesmen & laborers è dyers, rope makers, weavers, leatherworkers, miners, road builders, wagon makers, trained of draught animals, drivers, sailors & merchants

Quotes • Plutarch è “Building which men thought would hardly be finished in several

succeeding generations were all completed within the political prime of one man” è then goes on to say they were a great achievement, quickly built & they lasted so long

• Plutarch è “…There was one measure above all which at once gave the greatest pleasure to the Athenians, adorned their city and created amazement among the rest of mankind, and which is today the sole testimony that the tales of the ancient power and glory of Greece are no mere fables”

• Plutarch è “…all kinds of enterprises and demands will be created which will provide inspiration for every art, find employment for every hand, and transform the whole people into wage-earners, so that the city will decorate and maintain herself at the same from her own resources”

• Plutarch è “…The most wonderful thing about them was the speed with which they were completed, the entire project was carried through in the high summer of one man’s administration”

• MODERN è David Malcolm Lewis è “there was domestic criticism, however Thucydides, son of Melesias…and relative of Cimon, who had inherited some of is political support, denounced both the extravagance of the project and the immorality of using allied funds to finance it. Pericles argued that the allies were paying for their defense, and, if that was assured, Athens did not have to account for how the money was actually spent”

Lasting effect of Building Program - LEGACY • Purpose è beautify city • Important to display Athens’ power to other allied cities • Essential in maintenance & consolidation of his power • Pleased demos & majority of city è giving sense of nationalism & skilled

employment • Is a testament to Athens and Pericles è everything still there – remains

mean Athens’ power in 5th century still remembered • Was also warning to enemy states & allied states è Athenians’ had power &

able to exercise any time • Testament to Athenian imperialism

Roles as general (strategos) and politician • 459 BC è he became leader of the radical democratic faction • Pericles held position of strategos continuously for 16 years until his death in

429 BC è except the year 430 BC • Pericles was removed from office & fined in 430 BC è Athenians were

unhappy about Pericles’ political policies & hardships suffered during the early years of Peloponnesian War

• Convened the assembly & presided over it • Voice & opinion was the one most citizens wanted to hear first • Controlled domestic & foreign affairs of polis • Commanded Athenian forces on land & sea • Influenced Athenian foreign policy • Responsible for calling up citizens for naval & military service & maintaining

fleet • Could conduct preliminary negotiations with foreign affairs

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Methods of maintaining leadership and influence According to Plutarch & Thucydides, Pericles had many admirable personal qualities:

• Reserve & dignity • Great integrity • Intense patriotism & idealism • Moderation & sense of justice • Persuasive oratory e.g. funeral oration • Intelligence & rational thought • Incorruptibility • Determination

• He continuously broke down powers of aristocracy • He returned some power to the people • His introduction of payment of jurors made him popular with people • His constant encouragement of people e.g. funeral oration • Building program brought employment to Athens leading economic growth &

development • Athens became wealthy cultural centre • Sent out Cleruchs

Promotion of Athenian imperialism • Cleruchs è Pericles sent out thetes to cities & islands they took over to give

them new land • Athenian formalized imperial view of themselves by removing League funds

to Athenian treasury 454 BC on pretext of failure of Egyptian campaign • Athenians took over surrounding cities & turned them into democracy • Spartans disliked Athenians as they feared they would spread democracy into

their society Role and influence in the development of Athens, the ‘Golden Age’

• Pericles contributed to cultural greatness of Athens by his vision for & pride in the city he loved

• Responsible for providing the incentive and support for marvelous buildings in & around the city, especially those on acropolis

• Associated with philosophers & sophists, dramatists, writers, town planners, artists & architects è many of whom were apart of his circle e.g. Anaxagoras, Protagoras, Damon, Sophocles, Herodotus, Hippodamus, Pheidias, Callicrates & Ictinus

• Succeeded in enabling Athens to rise to height of its prosperity by expanding economy

• Opened up Athenian government to people & completed its democratic development

• Athens became the cultural centre of Greece Relationships with prominent individuals: Aspasia, Ephialtes, Pheidias Aspasia

• It is said between 445-440 BC è Pericles met a young women named Aspasia

• She was a hetairai (prostitute) from Miletus è considered by many to be the most beautiful & intelligent of the city’s hetairai

• Plutarch è “…she was Milesian by birth and that her father was Axiochus” • Plutarch è “…Pericles, according to some writers, was attracted to Aspasia

mainly because of her rare political wisdom.”

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• Traditional view states that she was very intelligent & mixed with leading Athenian philosophers

• Taught rhetoric • Was legally forbidden to marry an Athenian citizen because she was a

hetairai & foreigner • Lived with Pericles as if they were married è Pericles loved her è Plutarch &

Athenaeus both commented that he was so smitten that he kissed her when he left in the morning and again when he returned at night è unusual practice

• Had son with Pericles è denied citizenship under Pericles’ own law • After Pericles died from plague è son was legitimized & became citizen • Son changed name to Pericles & was later elected strategos è one of the

strategoi who was executed after Battle of Arginusae

• Many leading comic playwrights made fun of Aspasia’s influence over Pericles

• She was charged with immorality & accused of impiety • Accused of corrupting women of Athens in order to satisfy Pericles’

perversions • Charged with having influence of Pericles to attack Samos to help Miletus

(birthplace) • Pericles has her acquitted • Aristophanes goes so far to blame her for the start of Peloponnesian War • Pericles’ relationship was unusual è involved her regularly in conversation

with other men & discussed important matters with her & treated her opinions with respect

• Plutarch è “Pericles took Aspasia, and loved her exceedingly” • Ponticus è “dismissed his wife from his house and preferred a life of

pleasure; and so he lived with Aspasia, the courtesan from Megara, and squandered the greater part of his property on her”

Ephialtes • Associated with Pericles • He & Pericles called for the ostracism of Cimon • He became leader of People’s Party in 468-467 BC • He set out to attack power of Areopagus • Accused & impeached members of Areopagus for corruption & fraud • While Cimon absent è he introduced laws that stripped Areopagus of major

powers • Transferred powers to Boule. Ecclesia & Heliaea • Reforms gave more control of state to lower classes & earned him hatred of

aristocrats & others • Assassinated in 462/1 BC • Known for justice • Incorruptible honesty

Pheidias • Architect/sculptor • A part of Pericles’ building program • While making statue of Athena for Parthenon è he was attacked for

embezzlement of funds è proved innocent

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• Also accused of impiety • Carved his own & Pericles’ faces on figures on Athena’s shield è then

charged with impiety • Convicted & exiled • Died in prison

Others Aristides

• Leading politician & general during Persian invasions • Supposedly introduced decree to Ecclesia stating “every citizen would have to

share in the government and the archons would in future be elected from the whole voters” è resulted in Boule 500

• Proclaimed that 2nd class would be eligible for archonship • Attributed to have changed census è decided citizenship based on all

property owned (previously just land) è increased citizens eligible to hold archonship è weakened hold on aristocratic families

• After Persian Wars è military matters took priority over democratic changed to system of govt. è Areopagus would be ‘controlled’ by people friendly to democracy

Thucydides • Greek historian • In spite of great admiration for Pericles è no in favour of democracy • Article on him written by Anita Warford è “democracy had been successful

for as long as it was, not because the Assembly was the best form of government, but rather because Pericles was so capable at guiding the Athenians towards the wisest policies.” è she says this in relation to Thucydides comment of “During the whole period of peace-time when Pericles was at the head of affairs, the state was wisely led and firmly guarded, and it was under him that Athens was her greatest”

• Thucydides argues that under Pericles, Athens was a democracy in name only è he was the one leading then not they who led him

Cimon • 478-461 BC è leader of Delian League • Gained support when Pausanias was disgraced • Came from aristocratic family • Very pro-Spartan • Believer in dual-hegemony è Sparta & Athens as equal leaders of Greek

world • Against Ephialtes’ view that Sparta should fend of themselves • 461 BC è at request of Pericles & Ephialtes è he was ostracised

Thucydides the Opponent • Plutarch è tells of Pericles’ rivalry with opponent Thucydides è ultimately

led disintegration of aristocratic party è two widened gap between democratic & oligarchic parties as result of rival ambition è eventually led to his ostracism

Role in the Peloponnesian War (431 BC): causes, strategies and leadership Before outbreak of war in 431 BC

1. Pericles stood firm against Peloponnesian demands that Athenians should: ∼ Give their allies their freedom ∼ Revoke Megarian Decree ∼ Drive him out because of curse of Alcmaenoids

2. He urged people not to make any concessions under threat of force, because once they giveaway on any issue, other demands would follow

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3. He outlined a policy that he believed would bring no danger to the city

∼ Those who lived in Attica were to bring their property into Athens ∼ They were not to go out & offer battle to guard the city ∼ Their navy was to be brought up to the highest efficiency ∼ Allies were to be handed firmly since Athens’ strength came from

tribute 4. He instilled confidence into the people by reassuring them about their

financial and military resources

5. He supervised the evacuation of countryside Causes

• Athens’ alliance with Corcyra angered Corinthians • Thucydides è “war could be avoided if Athens would revoke the Megarian

decree which excluded the Megarians from all ports in the Athenian Empire and from the market in Attica itself”

• Megarian Decree • Plutarch believes Pericles caused the war as he was the strongest oppose to

Spartans demand to revoke the Megarian Decree è he believes that if this had been achieved war could have been avoided è “it was he alone who was held responsible for the war”

• Corinthians believed Athens had violated 30 Years Peace with Sparta • Plutarch believes Pericles encouraged war in order for the people to overlook

his trial & dispel charges against him • Thucydides è “What made the war inevitable was the growth of Athenian

power and the fear which this caused Sparta” è Pericles largely responsible for expansion

• Other incidents è see military career Strategies

• Thucydides tells us Pericles was certain that Sparta did not want peace & that Athenians were stronger especially when it came to naval forces è Pericles thought endurance constituted key for victory

• Thucydides è “Pericles encouraged confidence, pointing out that, apart from all other sources of revenue, the average yearly contribution from the allies to Athens amounted to 600 talents, then there still remained in the Acropolis a sum of 6000 talents of coined silver”

• Thucydides è “they had 13000 hoplites in an addition the 1600 others were in various garrisons and those engaged in the actual defense of the city. The four miles of the wall of Phalerum from the sea to the city and the five miles of wall surrounding the city were guarded. The outer of the long walls to Piraeus was garrisoned. The half the distance of the fortifications surrounding Piraeus and Munychia was guarded. There were also 1200 cavalry, including mounted bowmen; 1600 unmounted bowmen and 300 triremes ready for active service.”

• Thucydides è Pericles advised people to “prepare for war and bring into the city their property in the country.” And to “not go out and offer battle” but guard the city from the inside. The navy was to be brought to the highest state of efficiency & the allies were to be handled firmly

• Thucydides è “Pericles had said that Athens would be victorious if she besided her time and took care of her navy if she avoided trying to add to the empire during the course of war, and if she did nothing to risk the safety of the city itself.”

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• Pericles unwilling to engage Spartan army in battle • Pericles preferred to lead himself a naval force of 100 ships è plundered

coasts of the Peloponnese • He opposed demands to give allies their freedom & revoke Megarian Decree • Relied on fleet to assure Athenian food supplies & secure empire whose

resources the naval policy depended • Relied on walls to protect Athens • Middle class army suffered in morale & city became overcrowded • Plague broke out

Leadership • Funeral oration gave Athenians hope & boosted morale • “It may have been wrong to take it (empire) but not to defend it now would

end in ruin for Athens” • Did not summon assembly fearing that any general discussion would end in

ruin for decisions made under influence of anger rather than reason • He was fined & removed from office for 1 year by citizens è result of

hardships of first 2 years of Peloponnesian War • People soon discovered that there was no one else with his qualities of

leadership & he was re-elected strategos • Plutarch è “Pericles manned 150 warships, embarked a large number of the

best hoplites and horsemen, and was all ready to put to sea… he besieged the sacred town of Epidaurus and raised hopes of capturing it, but he was frustrated by the plague which attacked and destroyed not only his own men but all who came into contact with them.”

• Pericles as recorded by Thucydides è “it was evident before that Sparta was plotting against us, and now it is even more evident. It is laid down in the treaty that differences between us should be settled by arbitration…the Spartans have never once asked for arbitration, nor have they accepted our offers to submit to it. They prefer to settle their complaints by war rather than by peaceful negotiations, and now they come here not even making protests but trying to give us orders…if we do not go to war, let there be no kind of suspicion in your hearts that the war was over a small matter…if you given in, you will immediately be confronted with some greater demand”

Manner and impact of his death Manner

• Pericles died from the plague during 1st years of the Great Peloponnesian War

• “It was not a violent or acute attack such as others had suffered, but a kind of dull lingering fever, which persisted through a number of different symptoms, and gradually wasted his bodily strength and undermined his noble spirit”

• Pericles’ two legitimate sons also died from plague • Pericles died in about 429 BC • After his death è the course of events soon brought home to Pericles’ worth

to the Athenians and made them sharply conscious of his loss • On deathbed, friends were sitting around him speaking of greatness of his

deeds & life believing he was unconscious. Pericles heard everything è Plutarch “that they should praise and remember him for exploits which owed at least as much to good fortune as to his won efforts, and which many other generals had performed quite as well as himself”

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Impact • A new type of politician emerged to lead the people and the people were

easily swayed by their clever & emotive speeches, and their policies appealed more to the sailors, craftsmen and traders for who the Peloponnesian War meant pay and profit

• Politicians (demagogues) reversed Pericles’ war policy • Athenians aware of loss • People who resented his power, turned to other orators & popular leaders è

had to admit that ‘no man for all his majesty was ever more moderate or, when clemency was called for, better able to maintain his dignity’

• Corruption & wrongdoing steadily increased in Athens • Athenians lost Peloponnesian War & taken over by Sparta • Aristotle è “As Pericles was leader of the people, things went tolerable well

with the state; but when he was dead, there was a great change for the worse”

4. Evaluation Impact and influence on his time

• Made Athens cultural centre of Greece • Associated with philosophers bringing about new ways of thinking • Building program still remains today • Democracy truly spread through his time • Athens expanded her empire • Pericles brought creative and intellectual forces together in Athens & gave

then direction • Brought great changes to govt. of Greece • Brought changes to nature of art & progress of time • See assessment of his life & career

Assessment of his life and career • Able to persuade & guide demos by his eloquence, moderation & logic • Passionate about making city he loved the leader of Hellenic world even if it

was at the expense of Aegean allies & other Greek states • Never veered from his vision or policies he considered best for Athens • Had enemies who thought he had too much power & yet he was subject to

same scrutiny by demos as other officials • His democracy was dependent on existence of slavery and tribute from

empire to function • Admitted himself that empire he strove so hard to maintain was a ‘tyranny’ • Guided Athens to the height of prosperity by expanding economy • Created a milieu for artists and writers • His career from 460 BC had been pushing Peloponnesians closer to war &

when he knew it was unavoidable he decided it would be better if it happened while he was still influential with people

• Some say his dislike of the Spartans ultimately led to Great Peloponnesian War

Achievements • Development of democracy è stripped aristocracy of power, opened senior

offices to citizens, paid them & extended election by lot • Building programs è still a wonder today & sense of art & aesthetic beauty

portrayal is unsurpassed • Economic growth è Athens became wealthy & prosperous under guidance

of Pericles è provided employment, defense & facilities for trade

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• Growth of Athenian Empire è Athens became cultural centre • Delian league è criticism • Personal qualities è admired for ability to think rationally in crisis,

respected by citizens, able to persuade with gift of public speaking, carried out his vision for Athens è sometimes seen as aloof, cold & reserved

• Without Pericles è Athens would have not achieved such greatness • Brought creative & intellectual forces together in Athens & gave them

direction Political Leadership

• Contemporary scholars call him a populist, a demagogue & hawk (Sarah Ruden)

• Plutarch è “he was no longer the same man as before, nor alike submissive to the people and ready to yield and give in to the desires of the multitude as a steersman to the breezes”

• “He kept himself untainted by corruption, although he was not altogether indifferent to money-making”

• Thucydides è “in name a democracy but, in fact, governed by its first citizens”

∼ Illustrates what he perceives as Pericles’ charisma to lead, convince & sometimes manipulate

∼ Does not mention accusations against Pericles è focuses on Pericles’ integrity

• Plato rejects glorification è “As far as I know, Pericles made the Athenians slothful, garrulous and avaricious, by starting the system of public fees”

• Plutarch criticism è “many others say that the people were first led on by him into allotments of public lands, festival-grants, and distributions of fees for public services, thereby falling into bad habits, and becoming luxurious and wanton under the influence of his public measures, instead of frugal and self-sufficing.”

• Thucydides argues è “was not carried away by the people, but he was the one guiding the people”

∼ Judgement not questioned • 20th century critics è e.g. Malcolm F. McGregor & John S. Morrison è

proposed he may have been a charismatic public face acting as an advocate on proposals of advisors or people themselves.

• King è by increasing power of people, Athenians left themselves with no authoritative leader

Military achievements • Based military policy on Themistocles’ principle è Athens predominance

depends on superior naval power & believed that Peloponnesians were near-invincible on land

• He tried to minimize advantages of Sparta by rebuilding walls of Athens ∼ Josiah Ober è strategy of rebuilding walls radically altered the use of

force in Greek international relations • Peloponnesian War è Pericles initiated defensive “grand strategy” è aim =

exhaustion of enemy & preservation of status quo ∼ Platias & Koliopoulos è Athens as strongest party did not have to

beat Sparta in military term & “chose to foil the Spartan plan for victory”

• Periclean Grand Strategy è rejection of appeasement & avoidance of overextension

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∼ Kagan è no diversionary expeditions may well have resulted from bitter memory of Egyptian campaign.

∼ Strategy said to have been “inherently unpopular” è persuaded Athenian public to follow it

∼ é Delbrück called him one of the greatest statesmen & military leaders in history

• Platias & Koliopoulos argue that Athenians remained true to larger Periclean strategy of seeking to preserve, not expand the empire.

• Ben X. è strategy would have succeeded had he lived longer • Critics been as numerous as supporters • Common criticism è always a better politician & orator than strategist • Kagan called Periclean strategy “a form of wishful thinking that failed” • Barry S. Strauss & Josiah Ober stated “as strategist he was a failure &

deserves a share of the blame for Athens’ great defeat” • Victor David Hanson believes that Pericles had not worked out a clear

strategy for an effective offensive action • Kagan criticizes on 4 counts:

1. Rejecting minor concessions it brought about war 2. Unforeseen by enemy & hence lacked creditability 3. Too feeble to exploit any opportunities 4. Depended on Pericles for execution & thus bound to be abandoned after

death • Donald W. Knight è strategy too defensive & would not succeed

Oratorical Skill • Never wrote down or distributed orations • Thucydides recreated 3 or 4 from memory & it cannot be established if own

accounts were added • Historians noticed passionate and idealistic literary style of speeches

Thucydides attributes to Pericles è completely at odds with Thucydides’ own cold & analytical writing style

∼ é could result the incorporation of genre of rhetoric into genre of historiography

∼ Thucydides could simply have 2 different writing styles for 2 different purposes

• Kagan è “an elevated mode of speech, free from vulgar and knavish tricks of mob-orators”

• Diodorus Siculus è “excelled all his fellow citizens in skill of oratory” • Plutarch reckons he avoided using gimmicks in speeches unlike passionate

Demosthenes, & always spoke in calm & tranquil manner • Poet Ion reports “a presumptuous & somewhat arrogant manner of address,

and that into his haughtiness there entered a good deal of disdain and contempt for others”

Strengths & Weaknesses Strengths

• Plutarch è “remained immovable & calmly endured all the ignominy and the hatred which were heaped upon him without making an reply”

• Lost eldest legitimate son & close friends to plague è “he was not seen to weep even at the funeral rites or at the grave of any of his nearest kin, until at last he lost Paralus, his only remaining legitimate son” è can be seen as strength & weakness è interpreted as selfish as he only wept when he had no heir to carry on name

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• Plutarch è “despite the immense power he wielded, he had never given way to feelings of envy or hatred and had treated no man as so irreconcilable an enemy that he could never become his friend”

• Man followed him around all day, insulting him, when he got home it was dark, Pericles ordered a servant to light a torch & see the man home safely è Kagan believes this was a “striking display of the restrain and good manners of a nobleman and the detachment of a philosopher”

Weaknesses • Unable to control & successfully raise sons

∼ Eldest legitimate son, Xanthippus “resented his father’s passion for economy and the meager allowance he was given, and still more the fact ta he only received it in small amounts”

∼ “Xanthippus…began to openly abuse his father, telling stories to raise a laugh against him about his management of affairs at home and his conversations with sophists”

∼ Quarrel never made up before Xanthippus died during plague • Kagan è “Pericles’ failure to make his sons men of outstanding virtue and

achievement…great educator and instructor of the Athenian people…he had not succeeded with his own sons.”

• Sexual desires (Kagan) è “Contemporaries accused him of using all sorts of dishonorable means to satisfy these appetites”

• Can be interpreted as evidence of loft nobility & presumptuous, arrogant * haughty è Kagan è “His aloofness was seen as an expression of contempt for the ordinary people, and his austerity was called conceit and an attempt to gain a ground reputation”

Legacy • Magnificent buildings constructed on his initiative è especially those on

acropolis • Full participatory democracy • City with cultural & intellectual reputation • Could be said that he left his people with a war that Thucydides described as

“the greatest disturbance in the history of the Hellenes” • Today we benefit from ideas & concepts that were developed under his

guidance & the thinkers of his time • Laid foundation for modern democracy è a legacy to men and women

seeking to govern themselves in a free society • Seen as one of the great personalities • Great Athenian patriot & determined that Athens be supreme in Greek world • Some saw him as ambitious & intellectually vain è trying to build Athens’

glory to highlight his own glory • Critics of his time saw it as immoral for 1 city-state to impose itself & political

system on others • Today Pericles would be seen as an imperialist of the worst kind • Thucydides è “to lead them instead of being lead them…what was nominally

a democracy became in his hands government by the first citizen” • Elected strategos for 15 years

The Pros • Completed steps to democracy

∼ Areopagus stripped of powers ∼ Payments of jurors introduced ∼ State pay was also introduced for other officials è archons, councilors ∼ Chief archonships were opened to smallholders, later the thetes

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∼ Citizenship restricted there should be as few citizens as possible to enjoy the new privileges and profits of citizenships

∼ Choice by lot and payment fro services enabled the poorer classes to take a larger part in public affairs

• Promoted Athenian empire ∼ Concentrating the control into Athenian hands, he made Athens truly

imperial ∼ Regarded the empire not only dispensable, for the growth and

maintenance of Athens, but as noble achievement for its people ∼ Took steps to make league more manageable è democratic govt. set

up, garrisons established, court cases involving allies heard in Athens and treaties were signed with individual members

∼ Fostered few wave of colonization in form of Cleruchies ∼ Treaties and alliance signed with the cities of Sicily extended

Athenian influence to those areas not within the borders of empire ∼ Pericles’ later policy was to consolidate empire, rather than expand

• Carried out building program • Promoted economic growth

∼ Piraeus improved as a port è he built another long wall from Athens to Phalerum, dry docks constructed, built storehouses around wharves, rebuilt emporium, laid out the town on a rectangular street pattern

∼ With decline of cities of Ionia & Phoenicia è Athens became centre of trade in Aegean è strong line of communication secured between Athens and the Black Sea

∼ Entered trade with Mediterranean The Cons

• There weren’t any critics, but were mostly oligarchs in centuries after Pericles è main issue was concern that masses would be acting without knowledge in issues (Herodotus)

• Thucydides supported democracy under Pericles è but after his death, he describes it as incompetent, easily deceiving & fickle

• Athenian Imperialism was said to be one major cause of Peloponnesian War è building Athens up to levels achieved during his time è Pericles invited jealously from opposing city states

• Relationship with Aspasia was seen to be his undoing due to her apparent influence over him in regards to battle strategies & decision making in relation to Peloponnesian War

What do we owe to Pericles? • Greek Theatre flourished under him è many famous playwrights, theatres &

plays owe their existence & work to the freedom & encouragement that Pericles gave these artists

• Architecture è style of Parthenon has been recreated many time in modern society è e.g. Hall of Congress in Washington D.C. & other town halls

• Payment of Jurors è allowing all classes be involved in day to day running of their city

• Recognising that all workers who serve the govt. should be paid for their services

• Establishment of 1st suburbs è “Cleruchs” • Plutarch è “After his death the course of events soon brought home Pericles

worth to the Athenians, and made them sharply conscious of his loss”

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• Plutarch è “Then it was the power of his, which had aroused such envy and had been denounced as a monarchy and a tyranny, stood revealed in its true character as saving bulwark of the state”

Ancient and modern images and interpretations of Pericles Modern Sources Kagan

• Pericles of Athens & Birth of Democracy Friends:

• Had a “wide circle of friends & acquaintances. He was intimate to the point of easy jocularity with some, he derived the deepest intellectual pleasure from others, and he made use of the talents and friendship of all.”

• Unusual for men to meet during leisure hours è Pericles met friends during business hours in connection with political, architectural and artistic projects

• Other he engaged in philosophical conversation • Kagan described Pericles’ relationship with Aspasia was “shocking and

offensive to many” Leadership:

• “Opponents rose to challenge his leadership. So great was his influence and popular support that they could not immediately attack him and his policies”

• “Pericles worked consistently to resist the desires of ambitious expansionists and avoid the undue risks. He plainly believed that intelligence and reason could restrain unruly passions, maintain the empire at its current size, and use its revenues for a different, safer, possibly even greater glory than the Greeks had yet known”

• “…He was one of those individuals who not merely accept the condition of the world they mind but try to shape it to an image on their own words”

• “Each year he had to stand for re-election and was constantly subject to public scrutiny and political change”

• Aimed at goals “that went far beyond the immediate concerns that fully occupy most politicians and statesmen.”

• Kagan describes Athens as an “economic & cultural centre. The New York of the day”

Personality: • Pericles was indifferent to money, led a modest social life without great

expenditures Victor Ehrenberg

• Solon to Socrates • “The people in general trusted him” • “Wise and strong-minded statesmen”

R.K. Sinclair • Democracy & Participation in Athens • Leadership è “Pericles deliberately sought the favour of the people and a

firmer, more aristocratic or monarchial style” Chester Starr

• “Pericles was incorruptible…a masterful speaker and a clear thinker” • Pericles popularity gave little room for other politicians”

John Thorley • “Pericles was by any standards a great leader”

Others • Paparrigopoulos’ point of view is that Pericles sought for the expansion and

stabilization of all democratic institutions

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• Fornara & Samons è “A man detached from society, indifferent to conventional opinions and devoted, at all costs, to what be conceived to be the role and destiny of his city”

Ancient Sources Thucydides

• Wrote 5th century BC • Regarded as reliable & thorough è 1st of all scientific historians • “Pericles, because of his position, is intelligence, and his known integrity,

could respect the liberty of the people, and at the same time, hold them in check. It was he who led them, rather they who led him, and since he never sought power from any wrong motive, he was under no necessity of flattering them, in fact he was so highly respected that he was able to speak angrily to them and to contradict them”

• Admired him è “[Athens] was at its greatest under him” • After speech to Ecclesia advising war against Sparta è “The Athenians

concluded that Pericles’ advice was best and passed a decree as he had recommended, and on his motion answered the Spartans”

• Thucydides considered Pericles the greatest of all leading figures of the Peloponnesian War

• Thucydides è “And, so far as the general needs of the state as a whole were concerned, they regarded Pericles as the best man they had. Indeed, during the whole period of peace time when Pericles was at the held of affairs the state was wisely led and firmly guarded, and it was under him that Athens was at her greatest”

Plutarch • 1st & 2nd C. AD • Wrote biographies with moral purposes • Used all sources available

Political opponents • “Thucydides and his supporters were constantly condemning Pericles for

wasting public money and destroying the national revenue” Political strategies

• “Pericles…took care not to make himself too familiar a figure…but reserved himself…for great occasions, and allowed friends & other public speakers to deal with less important matters”

• “At the beginning of his career he took no part in politics, but devoted himself to soldiering, in which showed great daring and enterprise”

Personality Strengths • Believed Pericles had “a dignity of spirit and nobility of utterance…also

composure of countenance…which deeply impressed his audience.” Plato

• Plato è “Pericles leadership was achieved by manipulating the demos (common people)”

Eupolis • 5th C BC • One of the greatest poets of Old Attic Comedy • “In eloquence no man could equal him”