PE Live It Up

8/10/2019 PE Live It Up

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C H A P TE

R 1

Assessmen t t asksAssessmen t t asks Topics Page

Written reports Classication of skills (activity 1)Teaching a physical skill (activity 3)

1013

Test Review questions 43

Oral presentation Physical maturity and learning (activity 7) 17Laboratory reports Stages of learning (activity 5)

Reaction time (activity 13)Types of practice (activity 16)

153341

Data analyses Selective attention (activity 11)Chunking and memory (activity 12)

2830

Case study analyses Factors affecting learning (activity 6)Learning a physical skill (activity 8)Using the senses to detect cues (activity 9)

162021

Multimedia presentations Elements of skill learning (activity 4)Swinger (activity 15)

1438

Reports on participationin physical activity

Classication of skills (activity 2)Signal detection (activity 10)Feedback (activity 14)

112236

Aft er comple t ing t his chap t er , s tu den t s sho u ld b e a b le t o :

identify sub-routines that make up a motorprogram for a specic sporting skill

identify perceptual motor abilities and physicalprociency abilities present in elite athletes.

describe the factors that affect skill learningand performance

describe the effects of the single channelhypothesis on processing time

explain the differences between the bodysinformation storage areas (SSTS, STMand LTM) and outline how informationis transferred from the environmentto the long term memory

explain the role of feedback for the learnerand how a coach can use different typesof feedback effectively

analyse the stages of learningand how to best instruct performersin each of the stages

analyse the factors that affect

reaction time and how the psychologicalrefractory period can be used to a performersadvantage

analyse the different methodsof practice and when to use themin the learning situation

outline the classications of skills,using sporting examples to demonstrateapplication of these classications

outline the mechanisms that are responsiblefor processing and performance of a physicalskill.


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LI V E IT U P 1

Introduction

Skill, skill acquisition and skilled performance play a signicant role in theability of an individual to successfully cope with and adapt to daily life.People use skills to reach desired outcomes in all aspects of life. Humansare conditioned to learn and extend their skill level and range of competen-cies. A young baby is encouraged to learn to crawl and speak as quickly as

possible; an adolescent is encouraged to develop reading and writing skills;young adults learn to drive and further their work skills. People constantlylearn and apply skills that are essential to surviving in modern society.

The skills used and learned in sporting activities are as numerous as thosein daily life. You need an endless variety of skills to participate successfullyin your chosen sport or physical activity. The skill may be as simple as thenger release of an archers bow, or as complex as a whole body move-ment when swimming butter y. Your activity level during the performancemay involve nothing but the execution of a specic movement such asthe delivery of a lawn bowl, or you may have to deal with an opponent,weather conditions and space restrictions such as an attempt to make apenalty save in the soccer goal.

How do we dene skill ? Is it possible to classify skills into groups ? What

methods do we use to teach skills ? How do we decide whether someonecan successfully complete a skill ? This chapter discusses these questionsand more. It is designed to help you understand the following ma jor skillacquisition concepts :1. denitions of skill and motor ability2. classication of skills3. stages in learning a skill and the ability to distinguish between a basic

skill and a mastered skill4. man as an information processor5. transfer of learning through memory6. mental and physical practice7. the use of feedback in the development of physical skills.

You will have opportunities during this chapter to use the theoreticalinformation provided to help your practical teaching and learning skills.

Classication of a skill

D e ni t ion o f skill and mo t or skill What is meant by skill? It has already been noted that skill varies betweenactivities, and that skill in one sport does not guarantee skilled performancein all sports. However, some common characteristics of a skilled perfor-mance are dened in the Macquarie Study Dictionary : skill [is] the abilitythat comes from knowledge, practice, aptitude, etc., to do something well.

The logical progression from that denition is to discuss individual skillsin a performance, or motor skills. A motor skill is either part of a move-ment or a group of movements that produces a desired outcome whenperformed in a sequence. It is any activity involved in moving the body, orat least some body parts, to achieve a specic pre-determined goal. (B. Aber-nathy, chapter 6, Better coachin g advanced coaches manual, 1991).

Skill can therefore be used to describe a particular sporting action such asa smash in badminton, or equally, skill can be used to describe how well theaction was performed, such as describing Alicia Molik as a skilled tennisplayer. Either way, there are common features to both denitions; they bothconsistently achieve their desired aims, are coordinated in their movements,seem to use the minimum of effort and have time to produce an action andare a product of hours of practice.


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CHAPTER 1 LEARNING PHYSICAL SKILLS

It is important to determine the difference between a basic motor skilland a skilled performance : hitting a tennis ball against a wall using yourhand is a basic motor skill but hitting a forehand across court from the

baseline in a rally is a skilled performance. The difference is that a basicmotor skill does not necessarily involve the coordination of muscle groupsas a permanent part of the performers repertoire, whereas a skilled perfor-mance is achieved by practised, efcient changes in the coordination of the

muscle groups.

M otor p ro g ra m sA series of motor skills can be put together to make up a motor program .A motor program is an organised set of individual motor skills (or sub-routines ) that result in the correct production of a specic skill. S uccess of amotor program is dependent on the individual motor skills being placed inthe correct order or sequence and with the correct timing between each sub-

routine. The more sub-routines that make up a motor program, the moredifcult or complex the skill will be to learn.

M o t or a b ilit yYou will have noticed that some people seem to pick up new skills morequickly than others. It seems these people have been born with some sort ofnatural ability that allows them to learn and develop new skills more suc-cessfully than others. Golf is a perfect example of this. A group of learnerswill have a large variation in their ability ranging from missing the golf

ball completely, to being able to hit the ball into the air in a straight line.It seems that some people are born with greater natural ability in somesports than others. According to Magill (2 004 ) motor ability is an ability

F ig u re 1 . 1:The skills and movements needed

in a sprint start are much morecomplicated and technical than theactions of a person starting to run

for the bus.

Hockey push

Grip Stance Lunge Sticksweep

1. Motor program

2. Motor skills or sub-routine

Contactwith ball

Followthrough

Stickcheck

F ig u re 1 .2 A motor program indicating the

individual sub-routines for theexecution of a push in hockey


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LIVE IT U P 1

that is specically related to the performance of a motor skill. If two peoplehave the same type and amount of training in a particular sport, but differin their motor abilities needed to play tennis, for example, the player withthe higher ability will have the potential to be the better player and playmore advanced tennis.

R esearchers have not been able to agree upon whether motor ability isgeneral in nature, whereby the athlete has a number of different motor

abilities that are highly related, or that the many different motor abilitiespossessed by an athlete are independent of each other.Human performance psychologist, E dwin F leishman, identied a tax-

onomy of motor abilities that could be applied to a variety of motor skills.These abilities can be divided into two categories : perceptual motor abilitiesand physical prociency abilities. Table 1.1 outlines both the perceptual andphysical prociency abilities thought to exist in all athletes.

Ta b le 1 . 1 P erceptual and physicalabilities

1. Physical pro ciency a b ili t ies

Static strength The maximum force that a person can exertagainst an external ob ject

Dynamic strength The muscular endurance used in exerting a forcerepeatedly

Explosive strength The ability to mobilise energy effectively for burstsof muscular effort

Trunk strength The strength of the trunk muscles

Extent exibility The ability to ex or stretch the trunk and backmuscles

Dynamic exibility

The ability to make repeated, rapid trunk- exingmovements

G ross bodycoordination

The ability to coordinate the action of several partsof the body while the body is in motion

G ross bodyequilibrium

The ability to maintain balance without visualcues

Stamina The capacity to sustain maximum effort requiringcardiovascular effort

2. Percep tu al mo t or a b ili t ies

Multilimbcoordination

Ability to coordinate movements of a number oflimbs simultaneously

Control precision Ability to make rapid and precise movementad justments of control involving arm-hand

or leg movementsResponseorientation

Ability to make a rapid selection of controls to bemoved or the direction to move them in

Reaction time Ability to respond rapidly to a signalwhen it appears

Speed of armmovement

Ability to rapidly make a gross, discrete armmovement where accuracy is minimised


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Rate control Ability to time continuous anticipatory movementsor ad justments in response to speed and / ordirection changes of a moving target

Manual dexterity Ability to make skilful arm movements tomanipulate fairly large ob jects under speedconditions

Finger dexterity Ability to make skilful, controlled manipulations oftiny ob jects primarily involving the ngers

A rm-handsteadiness

Ability to make precise arm-hand positioningmovements where strength and speed areminimised

Wrist, ngerspeed

Ability to make rapid and repetitive movementswith the hand and ngers, and / or rotatory wristmovements when accuracy is not critical

A iming Ability to rapidly and accurately move the hand toa small target.

Source:

Magill, R. A . 2004, M otor learning and control. C oncepts and applications ,Mc G raw H ill, 2004 pp. 43 4.

Classication of m otor skills

The individual skills making up a skilled performance come in all forms.Are the skills involved in bowling off-spin the same as those for fast bowlingin cricket ? D oes shooting from the free throw line in basketball involve thesame skills as performing a fade-away jump shot under heavy pressurefrom an opponent ? H ow do the skills of fencing compare to the skills usedin a gymnastics routine ? To assist in the understanding of these compari-sons, researchers of skills acquisition categorise types of skills.

G rouping motor skills is difcult because sports involve a huge range ofskills; groupings are based on shared characteristics, while also consideringthe environment in which the skill is performed and the nature of the rela-tionship between the movements, the performer and the environment. Theenvironment in which the activity is performed can have a huge impact onthe way in which the skill is to be performed. The presence of opponents isan environmental factor in all team sports, as is the movement of the ballthrough the air in baseball or the roll of the wave in surng. These factorscan cause the performer to modify his or her motor program to suit thesituation.

Motor skills can be classied to help determine how specic skills can belearned, as well as providing coaches with information about how to teachthat particular skill. Classication is based on : the environment in which the skill is to be performed the amount of physical effort required to perform the skill successfully the type of movement required to execute the skill.

Closed and open mo t or skillsClosed motor skills are performed in a predictable environment wherethere are no interruptions or changes in the surroundings, for examplein ten-pin bowling. The skill being performed is often a static one wherethere is little movement observed such as a stationary softball on aT-stand in T ball, and is internally paced. The athlete often tries to replicate

F ig u re 1 . 3 :Elite ten-pin bo w lers can

practise their delivery action in acontrolled , stable environment.


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LIVE IT U P 1

the exact movement each time in a closed skill, for example, a gymnast triesto perform the exact same vault with perfect form, or a golfer with his orher swing when teeing off.

Open motor skills are performed in an environment that is constantlychanging and is externally paced, for example, the changing proximity of anopponent, the changing speed and height of a wave in surng or the varyingspeed of a ball in hockey. These changes force the performer to adapt his or

her basic motor skills.

Closed / open skill con t in uu mN ot all sports skills, whether classied as closed or open, are identical in theirease or difculty of execution. S ome skills can be classed as more closed than

others. F or example, ten-pin bowling is more closed than archery as it doesnot have external wind conditions to contend with. E qually, netball seemsmuch more on the open scale than windsurng. The netballer must contendwith the unpredictability of both opponents and teammates, whereas thewindsurfer has no one else to consider, but must respond to the differentwind conditions. It is clear that most sports and skills lie somewhere along acontinuum, with closed and open skills being at each end of the continuum.Indeed, the same skill can vary in its position along the continuum dependingon circumstances. F or example, practising batting using a T-stand is a moreclosed skill than facing a pitched ball from a ball machine which, in turn, ismore closed than facing a pitcher on the mound.

F ig u re 1 . 4 :

A spectacular manoeuvre on top of a w ave gives M ick F anning maximumcompetition points a re w ard for adapting his sur ng skills to thevariable w ave conditions.


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Closed skills are simpler to learn as they are predictable and lackthe external pacing of open skills. This means that the learner can con-centrate on the skill components or sub-routines themselves, withouthaving to worry about where their teammates or opponents are.In addition to this, the learner can perform the skill in their own time,learning the correct sequence and timing of the motor program. Open skillsshould be closed down as much as possible for beginners so that theyhave more control over the skill they are practising and focus only on theproduction of the skill itself.

As skill development progresses, the learner should practise the skillin situations that more closely resemble the game situation. This is called opening up the skill and is essential if the athlete is to correctly and effec-tively apply the skills in the real game. F or example, the beginner tennisplayer should rst drop the ball and hit it over the net. Once mastered thenthe coach could hit the ball to the learner while they practise their forehand.The next stage would be to hit forehands from a tennis ball machine. Thenal stage of learning would have the athlete hitting forehands randomlyto a variety of positions from all corners of the court. In this way they aremimicking the demands of the real game.

closed open

F ig u re 1 .5 :O pen /closed continuum

F ig u re 1 . 6 :P erformers exhibitingopen and closed skills


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F ine and gross mo t or skillsSkills can also be classied according to the number of muscles or musclegroups involved in the activity. The two ma jor groups are ne and grossmotor skills. Fine motor skills involve the cooperative use of smallmuscle groups and the senses of sight and touch (visual motor tracking ).The performer must also balance the use of force and ne touch control.Examples include writing by hand and typing on a keyboard, or shootingin archery.

G ross motor skills involve a combination of large muscle actions that

results in a coordinated movement. Examples include skipping, folk dancing,throwing, hitting, kicking, catching and tumbling in gymnastics.Many sporting activities combine ne and gross motor skills, so ne

motor skills may indirectly improve. Spin bowling, for example, involveslarge gross movements but also requires the precise manipulation of the

ball by the spinning ngers.

D iscre t e , con t in u o u s and serial skillsAnother method of classifying skills is to determine whether the phases ofmovements are discrete and / or serial, or continuous.

Discrete skills involve movements of brief duration, and they are easilydened by a distinct beginning and end, for example, a throw, kick orcatch.

Serial skills are a series or group of discrete skills strung together tocreate a more complicated, skilled action. The duration of the activitiesis prolonged but each individual movement in the series has a denite

beginning and end. Examples include performing a gymnastics routine ordodging your opponent, leading to the ball, jumping to catch the ball andthrowing the ball to a team-mate in netball.

A continuous skill has no distinct beginning or end. These movementsmay continue for several minutes, often involving tracking movements.Examples include swimming, running, pedalling a bicycle or steering a car(a tracking movement ).

Key kno w ledge Skill learning principles

such as stages of learning,factors affecting skill learning(for example, types of skills,stages of learning, transferand mental practice),information processingsystems and the provisionand use of feedback inenhancing performance

Key skill Describe skill learning

principles using thecorrect terminology.

Ac t ivi t y 1 W ri tt en repor t

Classi ca t ion o f physical skillsExamine the photographs in gure 1.6.1. Which images are examples of open and closed skills ?2. F or each activity, what characteristics of the movements involved

justify your classication ?3. A continuum is a line with two open ends, like a number line.

The two extreme descriptors indicate the most open or the mostclosed examples used :

CLOSED OPE N

D elivering a lawn bowl would be at the closed end of thecontinuum, for example, and making a save in water polowould be towards the open end of the continuum.Copy the above continuum into your workbook,then make a list of open and closed skills along the line.
http://../technology/activities/chap01/01-01.doc


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F ig u re 1 . 7 :S w imming is an example of a

continuous skill.

Motor skills

Constantenvironment

Replicatonof skill

Small musclegroups

Control oftouch

Combinedactions

Coordinatedmovement

Briefmovement

Beginningand end

Flowingmovements

No beginningand end

Complicatedaction

Combinationof discreteskills

Externallypaced

Changingenvironment

Adaptationof skillrequired

Closed Fine Gross Discrete Continuous SerialOpen

F ig u re 1 . 8 :S ummary of skill classi cations





Ac t ivi t y 2 Repor t on par t icipa t ion inphysical ac t ivit y

Classi ca t ion o f skills1. P articipate in a sports tabloid comprising eight different sports

skills from different sports. Afterwards, brainstorm for a few

minutes about the physical skills you used during the tabloid.2. D raw up a table allocating a column to each of the skillclassications, then list the tabloid skills in the relevant columns.D o any skills fall in two categories ? If yes, explain why this occurs.

3. N ame some different activities you participate in duringyour recreation time. W hat are some of the different activities inwhich you are a novice, beginner, competent performer or expert ? W hat are two or three skills that are important for each activity ? Classify these skills.



S ta g e s of l e arnin gA coach or teacher needs to consider various aspects of a skill whenteaching it. A novice performer needs to be guided through the many stepsof learning a skill to become a skilled performer. The progression, step bystep from beginner to advanced performer is continuous. The progressionindicates that skills have been acquired and that learning has indeed taken

place. When a permanent change in the way our muscles coordinate toproduce skilled movement takes place, we can condently say that motorskill learning has taken place.

There are three recognised stages of learning that each beginner mustpass through to achieve mastery of a motor skill. E ach stage has distinctcharacteristics. However, all stages require practice. The learner mustphysically and mentally practise the motor skill in order to learn it.

Cogni t ive (w ha t t o do ) s t ageThe cognitive stage involves the novice performer, who generally makesmany errors that produce highly variable results. The athlete or per-former needs to know what equipment is needed and forms a roughmental picture of the movement patterns required. They should be shownthe correct technique for the motor skill so that they can recognise thesub-routines required to complete the skill. This should be done byway of repeated demonstration by the coach, an experienced player oreven by showing a video. Correct sequencing and timing of the sub-routines will not happen immediately. Many errors will be made throughoutthis stage as learners become aware that they are making errors butcannot isolate the specic problems; feedback and simple instructionare required to help them make appropriate changes. However, the coach orteacher should provide only a limited amount of information and encourageclear thinking, preventing information overload and frustration.

The learner will spend a relatively short period of time in this stage oflearning. Improvement is usually rapid as all the learner is really trying toachieve is an understanding of the basic skill itself. Hours of practice willfollow this understanding to rene the skill so that it can be effectivelyused within the competitive situation.

Associa t ive (prac t ice ) s t ageOnce a performer grasps the mechanics of the skill and can executethat skill with few frequent errors, he or she has entered the associativestage of learning. Characteristics of this stage include minor errorsand an emphasis on rening the skill rather than establishingnew movement sequences. The athlete or performer has a feelfor the desirable actions and can make minor ad

justments to their

movement from their own feedback. The coach should continue to usedemonstrations to help modify the skill and can use increasingly morespecic feedback to achieve improvement. They should open the skillup during this stage of learning so that the skills are practised in amore game like setting. In this way the player can learn to modifythe basic skill to t differing match requirements. Improvement duringthis stage is gradual, but practising of the correct movement patterns isessential for performers at this stage in order to advance to the third andnal stage.


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such as stages of learning,factors affecting skill learning(for example, types of skills,stages of learning, transfer andmental practice), informationprocessing systems and theprovision and use of feedbackin enhancing performance

W ays in w hich skill levelsvary from beginner throughto the skilled elite athlete

Key skill Describe skill learning principles

using the correct terminology.

Ac t ivi t y 3 W ri tt en repor t

Teaching a physical skillD ivide the class into pairs. Each pair selects an activity(such as juggling, throwing with the opposite hand, skipping ), thendecides who is going to be the coach and who is going to be the learner.1. Complete a plan for teaching the selected activity.

The plan should include : important phases or components of the skill teaching points and feedback for both open and closed

environments (using table 1.2) activities and practice requirements that the learner must complete a series of skill competency pre- and post-tests.

2. Over a two-week period, the coach must teach the learner the skilland observe the effectiveness of the plan.

3. Prepare a written report, including the activity, the plan, yourobservations and conclusions about the effectiveness of your coaching.

Aut onomo u s s t ageAn athlete or performer at the autonomous stage consistently achieves thedesired result without consciously thinking about the separate sub-routinesof skill production. Their movement responses are automatic and they paymore attention to improving specic components of the actions, as well aspaying attention to when to use a particular skill within the game situation.Skill improvement is still important, but the focus is also on factors suchas shot selection, tactics and responses to competitive situations. It is prac-tice in the competitive situation that is crucial in this stage of learning. Theindividual performer is able to identify problems and ad just appropriately,whether during practice or in a competitive situation. Athletes who reachthis stage, usually remain in it, although they never stop learning. As newtactics and styles of play are devised the autonomic performer must continu-

ously rene his or her motor program to match the new conditions of play. The coach or teacher must know when the athlete or performer movesfrom one stage of learning to the next, and that the transition between stagesis not simply a one-way street. Coaches must know also how to train indi-viduals in different stages (see table 1.2 ).

It is important to realise that athletes may return to the associative stageof learning to relearn a particular skill in their technique. F or example, PeterL onard, the Australian golfer, returned to the associative stage of learningwhen he changed his putting style to use the new broomstick putter.

An athlete or performer at the autonomous stage : performs in a smooth and unhurried manner makes appropriate decisions both rapidly and accurately acts with maximum efciency and apparently with little attention

and effort copes with the demands of both speed and accuracy in decision making is consistent and adaptable in producing movement pays more attention to higher order skills such as reading

the game and identifying the position of team mates and opponents.It is true that great players make it look easy, but that ease is generally

the result of hours of quality practice, coaching and experience. A skilledperformer can make performance seem easy because his or her skill level : maximises the chance of success minimises the energy expenditure during the performance minimises the time taken to complete the task.



Ta b le 1 .2 M ethods ofteaching skills

Per f ormers t andard

S t ageo f learning Tips t o enhance learning

Beginner Cognitivestage

Break skill into basic components.Introduce each component separately.Stress correct techniques and repetitiveskill development drills.Encourage proper use of equipmentand individual styles (if in line with

basic components ).Ensure demonstrations are accurate.

Beginner /intermediate

Associativestage

Create a safe practice environment.L ink individual movements or skills.Structure practice sessions to encourage skilldevelopment and en joyment.Stress techniques but gradually introduce rules,strategies and competition-like situations.Consistently positively reinforce learners.Use video analysis to help learners visualisetheir good and poor techniques.

Advanced Autonomousstage

Provide practice in match orcompetition conditions.Improve performers mental approachto tasks by training them in concentrationand strategy development.Allow learners to monitor their ownperformances and give feedback.F ine tune techniques by using advanced drills.Use video analysis.

Source: A bernathy, B . 2001, B etter coaching advanced coaches manual ,

A ustralian Sports Commission, p. 164.


such as stages of learning,factors affecting skilllearning (for example, typesof skills, stages of learning,transfer and mental practice),information processingsystems and the provision

and use of feedback inenhancing performance




Ac t ivi t y 4 M u lt imedia presen t a t ion

Elemen t s o f skill learningAnalyse an elite performance using a video analysis softwarepackage such as Swinger, D artsh video analysis, L ogger Pro,or any video of an elite sports performer in action.1. Present to the class the elements that make it a skilled

performance. Important considerations are body position,footwork, anticipation and control of movements.

2. Watch students in the class perform a particular skill involvedin the same type of performance. Outline their various stagesof learning and differences or similarities compared with thevideo performance.


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Ac t ivi t y 5 La b ora t ory repor t

S t ages o f learningThe aim of this laboratory is to investigate if learninghas taken place as a result of practising a rebound throwfrom a target using your non-preferred hand.

5 m

2 m3 m

Throwingtask

F ig u re 1 . 9 :R ebounding a tennis ball to a target using the non-dominant hand

P lease note, no practice is permitted before the actual laboratory as itmay result in learning prior to the collection of data.Equipment required tennis balls square paper or cardboard target of approximately 5 0 cm x 5 0 cm.MethodT ria l 1

P lace the target on a wall at a height of approximately 2 metres. P lace a line on the ground 2 metres from the wall. P lace a second line on the ground 5 metres from the wall. As demonstrated in gure 1 .9 , stand behind the 5 -metre line and

bounce the tennis ball between yourself and the 2 -metre line sothat it hits the target on the wall.

Bounce the ball 1 0 times and record how many times yousuccessfully hit the target. You score one point for each successfulhit. Average your result over the 1 0 trials.

Collect data from the other members of the class. G raph the averages for each of your classmates.

F ollowing this trial, have 2 0 practice trials, but do not record any of

the results.T ria l 2R epeat the 1 0 trials set out in Trial 1 .R ecord your classmates results and graph the averages.Discussion1. Compare and contrast the class results for trials 1 and 2 .2. H ypothesise reasons for any perceived differences in the results

across the two trials.3. D iscuss the stages in learning evident in this activity.4. D id learning occur between trials 1 and 2? D iscuss.



F actors aff e ctin g skill l e arnin gThe stages of learning discussed earlier are theoretical stages basedon the results of studies and tests over many decades of research intoskill acquisition. Ideally, all people who learn skills develop accordingto these stages : a novice pianist, a netballer or a lacrosse player wouldgradually progress through the stages and attain a high skill level. However,

not all people are able to perform all skills at an elite level. Some people, fora variety of reasons, cannot progress to the autonomous stage of learning.E ach individual has his or her own capacity to learn. Many factors affect

how people learn, their capacity to learn and, ultimately, their potentialfor performance. The rate at which you learn depends on factors such asthe complexity of the skill being learned, your past experience with thator a similar skill, and your motivation at the time of learning. E ven yourown physical abilities such as coordination, balance, speed and agility in uence your capacity to learn.

L earning can be affected by the following factors, all of which contributeto making the learning experience very personal and individual : physical maturation physical tness capability attention or motivation while learning feedback memory amount and type of practice perceptual ability.

Physical ma tu ra t ionAs children grow physically and develop, their bodies are capable of morecoordinated and rened movements. Therefore, performance will improvewith the appropriate level of physical maturity.


such as stages of learning,factors affecting skill learning(for example, types of skills,

stages of learning, transferand mental practice),information processingsystems and the provisionand use of feedback inenhancing performance



principles using the

correct terminology.

Ac t ivi t y 6 Case s tu dy analysis

F ac t ors a ff ec t ing learning

Choose a learning situation from a sport of your choice,for example, the rst time you tried to jump the high jump

or complete a freestyle tumble turn.1. L ist the physical steps you followed to learn the skill.

Exa m pl eTo throw a softball : hold the ball in your ngers, touching the top of the palm stand side on to the target put the opposite foot forward keep your feet shoulder width apart extend your throwing arm behind you bring your throwing arm forward, bending it as it comes past

the body keep throwing hand above shoulder height step forward with the same leg after you release the ball.

2. What types of practice did you complete to learn the skill ?3. D id you learn the skill quickly ? Why or why not ?


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Physical t ness capa b ilit yD evelopment of tness increases the learners ability to perform and there-fore to learn. Increased muscular power in the shoulder region, for example,will enable the learner to practise and perform a jump shot in basketballmore effectively. Greater tness and endurance will also enable the learnerto practise for longer, leading to more effective practice and skill learning.

Att en t ion and mo t iva t ion w hile learningThe more attentive and motivated the learner is, the greater his or her abilityto learn skills will be. Younger children have a shorter attention span thanolder children, resulting in a reduced ability to concentrate. This obviouslyaffects what and how much the beginner can learn.

F ig u re 1 . 10 :P hysical maturation can account for one player being more highly

skilled than another of thesame age.

Key kno w ledge Skill learning principles such

as stages of learning, factorsaffecting skill learning (forexample, types of skills, stagesof learning, transfer andmental practice), informationprocessing systems and theprovision and use of feedback

in enhancing performance W ays in w hich skill levels vary

from beginner through to theskilled elite athlete.



Ac t ivi t y 7 O ral presen t a t ion

Physical ma tu ra t ion and learningD etermine the differences in physical maturityin your class.1. L ist the body si z e ( both weight and height )

of each student in your class.2. Beside each student, list favourite sports or activities.3. Beside each student, list the position played within each sport.4. Is there a relationship between student si z e and the type of sport

in which they participate ?5. Is there a relationship between student si z e and the position

played within a sport ?6. Prepare a report to present orally to the class.



F eed b ackInformation concerning performance, especially while learning, is vital forimprovement. Two types of feedback are essential for learners in order toimprove their performances : information about the outcome of the per-formance (knowledge of results) , for example, the ball went through thegoal posts and information about the characteristics of the movement itself(knowledge of performance) , for example, your arm was wide of your

body when delivering the ball so the ball was bowled at an angle ratherthan straight. F eedback gives specic information about wrong judgementor incorrect technique. It also offers solutions and new approaches, rein-forcing learning and providing motivation for the performer.

M emoryThe ability to remember past experiences and techniques is vital to learningnew, more complex skills. Using past experiences in sport, such as pasttechniques, can assist the learner to modify a technique or to create a newskill. In this way completely new motor programs need not be learned,simply modied. F or example, when learning to throw a javelin for the rsttime, students are sometimes told to complete a standing tennis ball throw.This action can be modied to throw a javelin. Beginners can transfer theirknowledge of how to throw a tennis ball to how to throw a javelin. Obvi-ously modications are necessary, but the learner already possesses the

basics of the new skill.

Amo u n t and t ype o f prac t iceA learner must physically and mentally practise skills. Practice provides animproved understanding of skill, as well as improving performance. Prac-tice and feedback go hand in hand during practice sessions. According topsychologist, K . Anders Ericsson (Erlbaum 1996), a minimum of 10 yearsof practice is required to reach an elite level of performance. R ecent studiesconducted by the AI S found that world-class team-sport athletes who hadearly exposure to a wide range of sports prior to specialising in their chosensport, required less hours of practice to achieve national selection in theirchosen sport.

Percep tu al a b ilit yInformation from your senses allows your body to construct a programto enable performance of a skill. The ability to interpret or perceive thesensory information is vital to learning and successfully performing thatskill; for example, a tennis player must observe the speed and directionof a tennis ball to move appropriately to return the ball. More recentresearch has identied the importance of being able to perceive or recognisemovement patterns during a game situation. The players ability to antici-

pate opposition or team mates movements during a game is heightenedas a consequence of being able to perceive specic movement patternsduring play.

M e c h anis m s in vol v e d in l e arnin g a p hy sical skill

In order for the athlete to perform a skilled movement, she or he mustaccept information from the environment and attempt to analyse it.F ollowing that analysis, the brain can decide what the correct course ofaction is. In tennis, for example, when L leyton Hewitt is forced wide on


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Feedback

Output

The muscles areresponsible for the

execution of theselected motor

program

Feedback delivers informationabout the performance. It can

be internal or external in nature.

Internal feedbackevaluates information from

muscles and joints.

External feedbackcomes from visual, auditory

or verbal cues.

Information receivedfrom the environment using:

visionhearing

proprioceptionequilibrium

touchsmell

Input via the senses

Information processing

Effectormechanism

Organises,initiates andcontrols the

chosen motorprogram

Perceptualmechanism

Organisesand interprets

sensoryinformation

Decision-makingmechanism

Based on informationfrom the perceptualmechanism, a motor

program is constructedto facilitate an

appropriateand effective

physical response.

Memoryis used to help

formulate the bestmotor program

the forehand side, he must analyse the ight and spin on the incoming ball, as well as his opponents court position prior to formulating amotor program that will allow him to hit a cross court forehand back to hisopponent.

R egardless of which stage of learning an athlete is in, there are fourrecognised mechanisms involved in processing and learning a physicalskill. E ach mechanism analyses and interprets information in an effort to

produce a skilled performance. The mechanisms are:

1 . input received via the senses 2 . information processing 3 . output produced by the muscles 4 . feedback.

F ig u re 1 . 11: M echanisms involved in learning

a physical skill


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In p ut t h e s e ns e s

Your senses are responsible for detecting pieces of information about theenvironment and conveying them to the brain. A piece of information iscalled a cue . The senses of taste and smell are rarely involved in the learningand performing of skills, but hearing, vision, touch, equilibrium (informa-tion detected by the inner ear about the position of the body and whether itis balanced ) and proprioception (the ability to feel a movement, as conveyedthrough muscles, tendons, ligaments and skin ) are vital contributors.

H itting a cricket ball requires the use of vision (to determine speed, spinand direction of the ball ) and proprioception (to feel the contact of bat on

ball ). You can tell from the f ee l of the hit whether you hit the ball cleanly andpowerfully. This ability to detect or identify cues is imperative to learningand performing skills.



W ays in w hich skill levelsvary from beginner throughto the skilled elite athlete.




Learning a physical skillWatch a junior physical education class learning a newphysical skill.1. What skill were they learning ?2. What comments from their teacher or coach helped them

learn the skill ?3. D id their teacher or coach explain how to perform the skill,

or only point out their mistakes ?4. Was some feedback more useful than other ?5. Were the students able to use past experiences to help them learn

this skill ? If yes, what past experience did they use ?6. Can you remember using your knowledge from past experience

to learn a skill ?7. What types of practice did the junior students use to learn

the new skill ? F or example, did they use practice drills,practice drills against an opponent, or a mini game ?

F ig u re 1 . 12 : A gymnast depends on a sense of

eq uilibrium and proprioceptionduring a routine.


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Infor m ation p roc e ssin gOnce your senses detect cues from the environment, you need to processthe information for it to be useful. You are a little like a computer : you cantype in relevant information, but the computer cannot respond withoutcomputer programs to discriminate, interpret, organise and code the infor-mation. Humans go through the same processes to construct an appropriatephysical response. Three very important devices carry out these processes : the perceptual, decision-making and effector mechanisms.

Percep tu al mechanismThe perceptual mechanism is primarily responsible for the interpretationof sensory information. It obviously depends on the efcient functioning ofour sense organs. Sometimes it is not easy to identify cues from the environ-ment. Often many cues occur at once, and not all of them are useful to theperformer. The ability to detect cues or information is called signal detec-tion , and it is vital for successful performance.

F ive factors affect your ability to detect signals from the environment :1. the ability of sense organs2. the strength of the cue3. noise4. the speed of the cue5. the level of arousal.

Ab ilit y o f t he sense organsThe ability of sense organs, or sensory acuity , affects your ability to initiallydetect the many cues that occur in a sporting situation. Your vision is prob-ably the most important sense required in sport; you must be able to seethe oncoming ball, judge its speed and direction, and note the positions ofyour team mates and the opposition. Poor eyesight would hinder an athlete.Imagine if Maria Sharapova had limited eyesight and was unable to detectthe backspin on a tennis backhand hit by L indsay D avenport. She could ndherself in the wrong position on the court to return the ball successfully.

S t reng t h o f t he c u eModifying a cue to make it stronger and more intense means the playershould be able to detect it more easily. Sporting bodies such as the Aus-

Key kno w ledge Skill learning principles such

as stages of learning, factorsaffecting skill learning (forexample, types of skills, stagesof learning, transfer andmental practice), informationprocessing systems and theprovision and use of feedbackin enhancing performance

W ays in w hich skill levelsvary from beginner throughto the skilled elite athlete.




U sing t he senses t o de t ec t cl u es

Select two photographs of the same sport from a maga z ine,newspaper or the Internet.1. Select two specic skills exhibited in the photographs.2. L ist the senses and the corresponding sensory cues needed

to perform each skill.3. How could you modify equipment to enhance the ability

of the senses to detect cues from the environment ?


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NoiseImagine being at R od L aver Arena, playing netball for Australia againstN ew Z ealand. W ith only seconds left in the match, the wing attack calls forthe centre to lob the ball to her at the top of the goal circle. The crowd isgoing wild, and the centre does not hear the call above the cheering. Suchoccurrences are common in sport. N oise is an enormous distraction. It can

be described as irrelevant cues that are present in the environment, dis-

tracting players from more important cues such as player movement. N oiseis not only audible distractions; the sun in your eyes while trying to serve atennis ball, or the smell of hamburgers at the nearby parents stall could alsoaffect your concentration. If a signal is not as strong as the noise, it is mostlikely that a player will miss the cue. The presence and strength of noisetherefore affects signal detection. The ability to detect only the relevant cuesand disregard the irrelevant ones (noise ) will in uence the success of theperformer.

Speed o f t he c u eThe longer a cue is present in the environment, the more likely it is that yoursense organs will detect it. F or the beginner, a coach can slow down the cue,for example, T-stands in softball effectively make the pitch stationary so the

batter can successfully hit the ball. H owever, this is not possible in a realgame situation, and a softball player must practise batting a pitched balland learning how to react to it.

Level o f aro u salTo perform successfully, an athlete needs to have an optimal level of arousal so she or he is ready to detect relevant cues from the environment. If your

brain is overanxious or aroused, it can pick up signals that are not reallypresent, it will not process cues efciently or correctly, and your body willproduce inappropriate responses. L ikewise, if your brain is underaroused itmay also miss vital cues from the environment. P erformers who are under-aroused often look distracted or disinterested, giving a poor performance orno performance of all.

The inverted U theory is based on a psychological model of levels ofarousal and efciency of performance. F igure 1 .14 outlines the generalmodel and adaptations for simple and complex tasks. These models arewell known and accepted in psychological and sporting elds. But everyindividual is different, and coaches have to establish the exact arousal levelsthat bring out the best in athletes when combined with optimal preparation,skills and training. The combination of physical and mental preparation has

been extensively researched, and many elite athletes now consult sportspsychologists.

P e r f o r m a n c e e

f f i c i e n c y High

High

Low

Low Aro us a l

(a ) In ver te d U th eory

Pan ic

Dis organ isat ion

Overar oused,em o tionalimbalance

Opt imalcomb inat ion

Sleep P

e r f o r m a n c e e


High

Low

Low Aro us a l

(b) Aro us a l for s im pl e ta sk

P e r f o r m a n c e e


High

Low

Low Aro us a l

(c ) Aro us a l for com pl e x ta sk

F ig u re 1 . 14 (a c ): M echanisms involved in learning

a physical skill


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LI V E IT U P 1

Thezoneby Rod NicholsonG reg N orman, munching a meatpie, had been there and done that,according to a journalist at the recentA ustralian Open.

You were in the z one until thehalfway mark when the rain came, the journalist suggested after the worldsN o. 1 golfer shot a remarkable 31 on theoutward nine before nishing with 66 on the third day of last months Open.

N orman was perplexed. Whatexactly is the z one ?

The z one, the new bu zz word insport, refers to a sportsperson focusedin a virtual surreal manner to achievethe ultimate result.

Such as when a sportsperson seem-ingly can do no wrong. When everything(even mis-hits ) somehow hit the target,and when the challenge of an almost

impossible shot is conquered with con-summate ease.

The state of mind can be pinned tomany elite athletes. Cathy F reeman wasin the z one when she won the 400 metreworld cham pionship in Athens; Greg Williams regularlyvisited it with his uncanny handball in a hectic passage ofplay; Pat R after was awless when he won the U S Opentennis championship; and R obert Allenby z oned in whenhe stormed from amateur to Australian Open winner in1994.

N orman may not have accepted the word z one, buthe has been there often enough. He is a golfer who visu-

alises a shot, plays it, and accepts almost as a matter ofcourse that the ball lands where he planned.The z one is nothing new, but this stage is gaining con-

crete physiological credence.According to experts in the eld, it is all to do with

waves emanating from a small cauli ower-shaped sectionof the back of the brain.

D r Paul Holmes, sports psychologist for the Britishpistol squad, has been measuring the number of alphawaves the brains electrical signals emitted duringthe six seconds before a shot.

The results are clear. Good shots have a higher wavepower throughout that period compared with bad shots,when waves tail off before the shot.

R esearch suggests this could be linked with potentialeffort, Holmes said. There is more effort put into a badshot. In a good shot, they are in a ow state.

Hence, professionals make it look easy.The secret lies in having the cauli ower section the

cerebellum, which coordinates movement and functionsas the brains auto-pilot work without other thoughtsgetting in the way. This ability often sorts out the bestfrom the also-rans.

D r N oel Blundell, of the V ictorian Institute of Sport,has worked with athletes in 44 different sports during thepast ve years. He believes the z one is a vital ingredientfor elite athletes.

It is something which denitely has an impact on eliteathletes. It is something which can be taught, cultured,encouraged. And every elite sportsperson is aware of thez one, Blundell said.


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In footballers, certain players can read the play excep-tionally well, take the appropriate options and seeminglydo things with the minimum of fuss and with the mostproductive outcome.

These players have the ability to do it regularly. Thosewho do not make it to the z one never really do thingseasily or, you could say, by second nature.

Blundell says recently retired Carlton champion andBrownlow Medallist, G reg Williams, was a player whohad frequent visits to the z one with his peripheral handball vision and uncanny ability to nd a teammate in thehelter-skelter of battle.

In fast-ball sports, such as cricket and tennis, playersin the z one seem to have all the time in the world to playa shot. They never seem rushed, regardless of the speed ofthe ball approaching them. And they have tunnel vision,condence and stroke selection to play the right shot at theright time.

It is different in swimming. There is a terric feel forthe water.

In gymnastics, there is a sense of balance : An exactknowledge of where you are in space.

E verything, in whatever sport, should seem effortless,rhythmical and natural when you are in the z one.

In golf, the power comes with ease when playing longshots. There is no inappropriate muscle tension just avision of where you want the ball to nish. The distance,the curve with the bree z e, the backspin or whatever. It is inthe minds eye before you play the shot, and you then playit exactly, with all the condence in the world.

Teaching people to be in the z one is part of modernsports psychology.

It is about a high quality of concentration, emotionalcalmness, alertness and positiveness, Blundell says.

It can be practised. You can assist people to read theiremotions successfully. There is a blue-print of the perfectsports act, and you can help athletes relate to their bestefforts.

One of the obvious ways is to provide athletes editedvideos of their best performances. They will re-live theexperience, reinforce their condence to repeat such a per-formance, and understand that on that particular occasionthey were relaxed, condent, focused.

If the athlete feels nervous or anxious before an event,the video and counselling enable the athlete to learn to copewith such emotions. They may do that by deep breathing,meditation or inspiration.

But this is an individual thing. Team sports, such as football, can be a problem. A video of a premiership-winningeffort in football may be fantastic to lift six players over thetop because they were already primed for a brilliant effort.

E lite athletes are putting themselves on the line andthey look to the z one to produce their best.

The bottom line is to eliminate the huge uctuations intheir emotions and concentration levels.

When G reg Turner recently won the N ew Z ealand Opengolf title, he led into the nal round and nobody was sur-prised when he won.

The fact that he has led into the nal round seventimes for seven victories is more astonishing. According toBlundell, it is an example of a sportsman who puts himselfinto the z one.

He spoke about his ability to focus on victory, to readhis emotions, to get the job done, Blundell said. He knewexactly what he had to do and he had total condencedoing it.

R odger D avis has that knack, too. He has a great recordof winning play-offs.

And another golfer I have worked with is R obert Allenby.F ully t and at his peak in his youth, he could put himselfin the z one and absolutely nothing would distract him.

Thez

one is an elusive domain. But, according toBlundell, it is not exclusive to the elite. So, the next timeyou settle down to a chip shot to the green, imaging exactlywhere you want to land the ball, think positively, and, asN ike puts, so succinctly : JUST D O IT.

F ig u re 1 . 15 :The z one refers to the optimal arousal level re q uired for peak performance.Source:

S unday H erald S un , 26 December 1997, pp. 12 13.


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Single channel hypo t hesisThe perceptual mechanism must translate and interpret many cues. Howmany cues can it deal with at once ? The human information processor canonly deal with one piece of information (or cue ) at a time. It is like road-works on the freeway : when two or more lanes are closed and redirectedinto one, the trafc must wait its turn to join the single moving lane.

The same happens with multiple cues within the perceptual mechanism.Only a single channel can feed cues into the processing mechanism; theothers must wait in line. This is called the single channel hypothesis and itexplains why only one cue can be processed at one time.

It follows, therefore, that if you can reduce the amount of informationthe brain must process, you will reduce the processing time required and

be able to initiate a motor response more quickly. You will be able to reducethe effect of the single channel hypothesis. This can be a denite advantageto the athlete.

Selec t ive a tt en t ionYour perceptual mechanism has a limited capacity; it cannot process

every cue present in the environment because then the response timewould be extremely slow and not always appropriate. Given that both rel-evant cues and noise are present on the sporting eld at the same time,how does the perceptual mechanism know which information to process ? How does it know which information is relevant and which is simply adistraction ?The experienced athlete has an ability called selective attention ,which is responsible for ltering out irrelevant information. The brain doesnot attend to this irrelevant information and therefore does not require timeto process it. Thus, selective attention reduces the amount of information to

be processed by the brain before you perform a skill. It also allows experi-enced performers to attend to the most relevant of cues in other words,to select and process the most vital cues as the priority.

A batter facing a leg spinner, for example, must concentrate on the fol-lowing cues : 1. Which side of the bowlers hand is visible during delivery of the ball ? 2. What is the speed of the bowling arm ? 3. F rom which side of the wicket is the bowler bowling ? 4. Is the seam of the cricket ball visible through the air ?

The rst cue is most relevant or vital; the batter needs to process thiscue rst to determine an appropriate shot at the ball. To help the beginnerlearn how to concentrate selectively, the teacher or coach must identify therelevant cues and continually reinforce them as the learner practises. The

beginner learns to attend to only the meaningful cues and to ignore dis-tractions; with time and experience, the beginner will initiate this processwithout help. The performers level of arousal, their experience and thequality of their initial instruction in a skill will also affect their ability to

selectively attend.An t icipa t ionAnticipation allows the performer to predict what will happen next on thesporting eld and is a product of experience. It occurs after you detect someof the relevant cues, but it does not depend on the brain processing all cues

before you devise a plan of action. R elying on accurate selective attention,anticipation is about reducing the amount of information to be processedand thus allowing for a quicker response. It is a professional judgement,

based on previous experiences in the sport.

F ig u re 1 . 16 :S

ingle channel hypothesis.C ues presented successivelycannot be processed at the same

time. There is a delay in processingthese cues until previous cues have

been cleared from the system.

Input Input

Centralprocessing

Output (response)


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A professional tennis player could estimate the direction of an opponents backhand by observing the position of the opponents body, racquet andfeet, all before the tennis ball hits the opponents racquet ! S imilarly, playerson the same team play better when they anticipate each others movements.Experience enables the performer to compare cues from earlier experiences(from long-term memory ). Based on this comparison, the athlete can recog-nise early signals and anticipate the movement of his or her opponent or

team mate.Q u ali t y o f ins t ru c t ionUsually beginners do not know what exactly to concentrate on whenlearning and practising a new skill. The coach must instruct the beginner totake note of certain cues. The instructions must be clear and appropriate tothe performer. Verbal cues are often given, but visual cues are very effective,as is the physical guidance from the coach through the actual skill itself. Byusing these techniques the beginner can learn not only what the skill mustlook like, but also what it should feel like.

Coaches can assist the beginners to selectively attend by doing some ofthe following things : making the equipment more visible such as using a uoro-coloured

hockey ball directing the learners attention to one aspect or component of the skillat a time

using language that is appropriate to the beginner and by not beingtoo technical in the beginning

making the learning environment fun and stimulating, encouragingthe beginner to practise and learn

using past experiences to base new skills upon. In this way the learnerdoes not need to learn completely a new skill, simply to adapt theold one.

F ig u re 1 . 17 : Anticipation allo w s the tennis player to move into the cross-

court position before theopponent hits the ball.


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such as stages of learning,factors affecting skill learning(for example, types of skills,stages of learning, transferand mental practice),information processingsystems and the provisionand use of feedbackin enhancing performance


principles using the correctterminology.

Ac t ivi t y 11 D a t a analysis

Selec t ive a tt en t ionEquipment requiredTennis balls (ve balls of different colours, ve balls of thesame colour )

Procedure1. The catcher stands approximately three metres away from theline of ve throwers.

2. F acing the catcher, the throwers hold the ball in their hand so itcannot be seen.

3. On the command throw, the throwers simultaneously throw the balls softly towards the catcher. The catcher attempts to catch thecoloured ball that is nominated before the throw.

4. Conduct ve trials of each test condition. R otate the coloured balls randomly among the throwers.

Test conditionsR un the test using a designated ball that is different from the fourother same-coloured balls. Then run the test using a designated ball

that is pink while the four other balls are different colours.ResultsR ecord the class results and draw a bar graph to illustrate your ownperformance in each task.Discussion1. W hat is selective attention ?2. W hat factors affect it ?3. W hich of the three test conditions was more difcult to

selectively attend to ? W hy ?4. W hich cues were easier to detect ?5. W ere the class results similar to yours ?6. D id anticipation help you to detect the cues ?

7. H

ow can signal detection help to improve your performance?

Role o f memoryOnce the brain has gathered relevant sensory information, the abilityto remember cues becomes important for processing that information.P erformers can remember cues from the environment, but the informationis lost within one second and replaced by new information. This short-termsensory store links perception and memory. Selective attention allows youto remember relevant information beyond the one-second limit; it helpstransfer information from your short-term sensory store to your short-termmemory , which is a less temporary storage facility.

F ig u re 1 . 18 :

The path w ay of information from the environment to the

long-term memory

1 second duration unlimited capacity

60 seconds duration limited capacity

Unlimited duration Unlimited capacity

Retrieval of relevant and previous experience

Viaselectiveattention

Informationfrom theenvironmentvia thesenses

Short-termsensory store

Short-termmemory

Movement

Long-termmemoryVia

rehearsal chunking encoding meaningfulness


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Short-term memory has a limited capacity to store information : it canhandle approximately seven (plus or minus two ) items. This information can

be retained for around 6 0 seconds, but without further consideration it canalso be lost. Short-term memory is important for the learner because it allowscoaching information to be remembered and compared to the performanceof a skill. The learner can make corrections and modications, improvingtheir performance. The following factors affect short-term memory :

chunking or coding distractions (noise ) meaningfulness rehearsal.

Ch u nkingChunking or coding is a way of increasing the amount of information thatthe brain can retain. You can group (or recode ) information into mean-ingful categories (or chunks ) to increase the capacity of short-term memory.Memorising a telephone number is an example : instead of remembering5243 8 652 , you could chunk the information into 52 43 8 652 and thus reduceeight individual numbers to three groups of numbers.

A performer may group or chunk motor information in a similar way.

Instead of remembering all the individual sub-routines for a tennis fore-hand, they may chunk the information into groups called stance, swingpreparation and follow-through.

Coded or ch u nked ro ut ine Individ u al s ub - ro ut ines

Stance Body side on to netL eft foot in frontK nees bentW eight balanced between feet

Swing preparation R acquet held with correct gripR acquet extended back behind bodyArm straight at elbowS wing racquet from shoulderK eep wrist straightS wing racquet forwardBall should be diagonally in front of body

Follow-through R acquet should accelerate through the ballR acquet follows through from a low position to a high position,nishing at shoulder height.S tep through with right foot to begin recovery movement backto the centre of the court.

It is vital for a coach or teacher to help the learner chunk teaching points

into meaningful groups of information.D is t rac t ions (noise ) Just as noise distracts you when you attempt to attend selectively to rel-evant cues from the environment, noise can also interfere with your abilityto concentrate on sensory information and transfer it to your short-termmemory.M eaning fu lnessYou can more easily transfer information to your short-term memory if theinformation has meaning for you and if you believe it is relevant to your


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task. Your level of interest is also associated with your ability to rememberinformation. It is easier to understand and learn from instructions that areappropriate to your age and level of development; you may not followhighly technical explanations, whereas you will probably understand lan-guage and concepts that are more appropriately geared to you as a learner.F or example, when learning to swim backstroke the coach may demon-strate the technique and then explain it by telling the beginner that it is like

reaching up for an apple and then putting it in your hip pocket. This is farmore relevant and easier to understand than trying to explain the move-ment using technical or biomechanical terminology.

RehearsalYou must rehearse information for it to be transferred into short-termmemory. It is vital that the rehearsal occurs as soon as possible followingthe presentation of the cue. Practising a physical skill not only allows youto better process and remember motor information, but it also allows you tocorrect and rene your performance of that skill.


such as stages of learning,factors affecting skill learning(for example, types of skills,stages of learning, transferand mental practice),information processingsystems and the provisionand use of feedbackin enhancing performance


principles using the correct

terminology.

Ac t ivi t y 12 D a t a analysis

Ch u nking and memoryComplete the following activities.1. Write down nine numbers from z ero to nine. (You may repeat

the same number, but do not arrange them in a sequence. ) Write down nine letters. (D o not arrange them

in any sequence. ) Write down ve numbers expressed in hundreds

(e.g. 176, 438 ). Write down ve three-letter words (e.g. cat, eat, t ).

2. Swap your numbers or letters with your partner.You each have 20 seconds to memorise your partners numbersand letters before writing them down.

3. R epeat one of the above test conditions while playing loud musicas you memorise the numbers and letters.

4. R ate the activities from easiest (1) to most difcult (4).5. D iscuss your ranking, noting whether the music affected

your ability to memorise the numbers and letters. If so,how did it affect your ability to transfer information intoyour short-term memory ?

Long - t erm memoryThe short-term memory is like selective attention in that it lters out theirrelevant cues and only processes and transfers the most appropriate andrelevant cues. A third memory storage facility with an unlimited capacity

permanently stores this information for future use. This facility is called thelong-term memory . Again, rehearsal is needed for information transfer totake place. Once in the long term memory, the brain can retrieve the infor-mation when necessary.

When you learn a new skill, you can retrieve motor programs from previ-ously learned similar skills from the long-term memory and rene them toassist in current learning. Thus, the learner can compare the old and newskills and reduce the amount of information for processing. Being able torecognise and compare similar information is paramount : the performer canstore a complete motor program, retrieve it when necessary and make minorad justments to match the perceived environmental cues.


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D ecision - making mechanismOnce the brain has gathered and interpreted information from theenvironment, it undertakes the nal stage of processing information. Thedecision-making mechanism constructs a plan of action (a detailed setof instructions called a motor program ) that will result in an appropriatephysical response. The brain can recall the motor program from the long-term memory once the decision making mechanism decides to use thatprogram to complete the desired physical response.

The brain compares information in the decision-making mechanism(located in the short-term memory ) to stored information previously gatheredfrom similar situations. Thus the use of long-term memory to compare andcontrast cues allows the performer to produce the most effective response.

O ut p ut

E ff ec t or mechanismW e have discussed how the learner gathers information from the environ-ment via the sense organs, how the brain interprets and organises thisinformation and how the memory helps the brain formulate a motorprogram. The nal mechanism involved in information processing is theeffector mechanism : it is responsible for organising, initiating and control-ling the motor program. It sends the appropriate instructions to the nervesand muscles to allow the designated movement to take place.

Reac t ion t imeThe time it takes for the perceptual, decision-making and effector mecha-nisms to complete their tasks is called your reaction time . It is a measure ofprocessing time the time from presentation of a signal to the initiation ofa response movement.

You can only produce movement after detecting, interpreting and pro-cessing all information. The muscles carry out the motor program selected

by the decision-making mechanism in accordance with instructions fromthe effector mechanism. The total time to complete the movement is calledmovement time .

Together, reaction time (the measurement of mental processing time ) andmovement time are the athletes total response time the time from whenthe athlete detects cues to when he or she completes the appropriate motorprogram.

Responseinitiation

Stimulus Responsecompletion

Reaction time Movement time

Response time

Gun sounds atbeginning of race

Athlete completes the100 m sprint race

Reaction time + Movement time = Response time

Athlete has processed cues decided torun and is ready to leave the blocks

F ig u re 1 .2 0 :The relationship bet w een reaction ,

movement and response time

F ig u re 1 . 19 :The central nervous system sendsthe selected motor program to theappropriate muscles to carry out

the movement.


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Types o f reac t ion t imeThere are two types of reaction time : simple reaction time and choice

reaction time . S imple reaction time is where there is only one appropriateresponse to the stimulus provided. As a result of requiring only one spe-cic response, simple reaction time is quicker. F or example, when the gunsounds at the beginning of a 1 00 m sprint, the athlete must start to run.

Choice reaction time is slower as there are several stimuli, with severalappropriate responses. W ith more information to be processed beforeselecting the appropriate motor program, the processing or reaction timewill be slower. The single channel hypothesis is again a contributing factorin the speed of processing information.

Consider the following : is your reaction time the same with differenttypes of signals ? Is your response quicker to a visual signal or an auditorysignal ? Tests have shown that kinaesthetic senses are processed the fastest.This means that your reaction time is quicker when the brain has to dealwith signals concerning touch and feel. Your more common sport-relatedsenses of sight and sound are processed at different speeds, with sound

being processed more quickly than sight. H owever, when travelling overdistances, sight signals travel faster than sound signals and can be detectedsooner. Athletes with the ability to react faster to stimuli have the potentialto be more successful. They will have additional time to study their oppo-nent or the movement of the ball before executing their motor program.R eaction time is important for athletes such as sprinters, baseball batters,slip elders in cricket, cricket batters, boxers and racing car drivers.

In uences on your reaction time include : age gender

intensity of the stimulus or cue number of choices

warning signals probability of the signal occurring

successive presentation of cues(psychological refractory period ) stimulus response compatibility.

AgeYour reaction time is at its fastest when you are aged 1 93 0 years, then itincreases (i.e. it slows down ).

GenderMales generally have faster reactions than women, although reaction timesvary between people of the same age and gender. Also, male reaction timetends to slow with age at a quicker rate than the female reaction time.

F ig u re 1 .2 1: F ast reaction time is vital for

many sports. B eing able toq uickly process information and

select and carry out a motor program is necessary for a

successful performance.


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In t ensi t y o f t he s t im u lu s or c u eAs discussed earlier, signals that are larger and brighter are easier to detect.L ikewise, cues that are more intense are processed faster, reducing reactiontime.

Nu m b er o f choicesR eaction time is fastest if there is one stimulus and just one response to

it(simple reaction time

), for example, the reaction of the sprinter to thestarting gun (the sound of the gun is the stimulus and pushing off from the

blocks is the response ).However, there are usually several cues present and more than one

response available for each stimulus, especially in team sports. The per-former is faced with a number of choices (choice reaction time ), and,according to H icks L aw, reaction time increases as the number of responsechoices increases; that is, the more choices you have, the more informationand time it takes to process. Sports that require the performer to process alarge amount of information, with an array of possible motor responses, areusually more difcult to learn and master.

Key know

ledge Skill learning principlessuch as stages of learning,factors affecting skill learning(for example, types of skills,stages of learning, transfer andmental practice), informationprocessing systems and theprovision and use of feedbackin enhancing performance

W ays in w hich skill levels varyfrom beginner through to theskilled elite athlete


principles using the correctterminology.

Activi

ty 1

3La

bora

tory repor

t

Reac t ion t imeEquipmentR eaction timer computer packageProcedureUndertake the following tests (13) in two phases : at xed timeintervals and at random time intervals.Test conditions1. Test your simple reaction time by responding to

a single visual stimulus.2. Test your choice reaction time by responding to :

(a) two stimuli( b) three stimuli.

3. Test the effects of stimulus response compatibility by responding to :(a) two visual stimuli reversed( b) three visual stimuli jumbled.

ResultsUsing your own results, create a graph with the average times forthe xed time interval tests 1, 2 (a) and 2 ( b). Then create a graphwith the times for the random time interval tests 1, 2 (a) and 2 ( b).Using average results, compare tests 2 ( b) and 3 ( b).Discussion1. Using your own results, which experimental condition

produced the fastest reaction time ?2. Explain why your reaction times were different when using

xed and random time intervals.3. Why did your reaction time increase when the stimuli

changed position ?4. What effect would the level of motivation and arousal

have on your reaction time ?5. What effect would the presence of an audience

have on performance ?6. D iscuss two other factors that may affect reaction time.

F ig u re 1 .22 :C hoice reaction time.

H ick s L a w states that there isa linear relationship bet w een

reaction time and the amount ofinformation to be processed.

C h o i c e r e a c t

i o n

t i m e

( s e c o n

d s )

1

0.1

0.2

0.3

0.4

0.5

0.6

0.7

2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

Number ofstimulusresponse

alternatives


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W arning signalsIf a signal precedes the actual sensory cue, reaction time will be reduced.The yellow caution trafc light precedes the red stop light, for example,to let you know that the red light is about to shine and that you have tostop the car. Being prepared for the red light, the driver can stop safely.The starting sequence for sprinters works on the same principle : the setcommand is a warning signal.

Pro b a b ilit y o f t he signal occ u rringIf you know that a cue is about to occur, you can be ready to respond. Youcan anticipate the arrival of the cue and therefore reduce your reaction time.P retend you are playing badminton. You force your opponent deep intothe backhand corner, and you know from experience that your opponentalways plays a cross-court drop shot from that position. You anticipate thisshot by reacting to the back-court cue, so you move to the net to play thedrop shot early. P ractice in drill situations will produce predictable stimuli,

but it will not entirely prepare the athlete for the real situation. E xposureto the game situation helps the performer to learn when specic shots orplays are likely to occur.

The psychological re f rac t ory periodThe single channel hypothesis explains how the human informationprocessing mechanisms can deal with only one piece of information fromthe environment or the physical senses at any one time. But what happenswhen two cues are presented in quick succession ? D o they also have towait to be processed ?

This situation happens on the sporting eld all the time. A footballplayer often fakes a movement one way to trick an opponent, then movesin a second direction instead. Commonly called selling the dummy, this isan example of two cues being given in quick succession. W hy does the fakeusually send the opponent in the wrong direction ? W hy is the opponentunable to instantly stop the rst movement and begin the second ?

The reason for the brains delay in processing the second cue is thepsychological refractory period . The rst cue must be pro cessed and theresponse initiated before the second cue can be processed, thus slowingreaction time. Many performers use the psychological refractory period totheir advantage by presenting successive cues such as fakes and baulks toslow down the responses of their opponents.

S t im u lu s response compa t ib ilit yS timulus response compatibility is the degree of cohesion or relevance

between the stimulus presented and the response performed. If the compatibility is high, the response will seem to match or be appropriate to thestimulus or cue. H owever, if the compatibility is not high, the response will

be slower.Consider the following example of stimulus response incompatibility.

To begin play in netball, you must stand in the centre circle and wait for theumpire to blow the whistle. But if the umpire decides to call play instead,experienced players will not respond to this signal initially because it is notthe expected one. The command play is incompatible with the response of

beginning play.Many competitive swimmers train and race with a starting gun. S tate,

national and international competitions replace the gun with an electronic beep, and some swimmers will react more slowly to the beep because theyare more used to responding to a gun. The beep does not provide the usualcompatibility between the stimulus and the response.

S1

S2

R1

R2

Psychologicalrefractoryperiod

Badminton

S1 = B ac kha n d s m ash from oppo ne n t

R1 = M ove to n et to play shotS2 = S m ash hits n et

a n d deflects u pwardsR2 = M ove to b lock, bu t mu st

stop b efore playi ng a noverhead reco very shot

0. 2 seco n ds

0.3 seco n ds

F ig u re 1 .2 3 :

The psychologicalrefractory period


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L earners nd it difcult to select the most appropriate or compatibleresponse to every stimulus. P ractice and feedback from the coach will helpthe learner determine the correct response to each situation that may arisein a real game or competition.

F ee d b ackFeedback is information about your performance. It is available to an

athlete before, during and after the performance, and it can come from theperformer or the coach. F eedback is vital for learning or improving a skill.You can store feedback information in the long-term memory and use it toreinforce or rene your performance when necessary. It is the nal mecha-nism involved in processing a physical skill : without feedback, you cannotcompare your performance with the ideal performance.

F eedback serves the following functions : to motivate the performer to reinforce what has been learned to change the performance.

It is important that feedback reinforces the correct elements of the per-formance, highlights incorrect elements and contains instructions for howto improve the overall performance. F eedback should be constructive anduseful, and it should motivate the performer to continue to learn.

Types o f f eed b ackI nterna l f eed bac k is about the feel of the performance.Your proprioceptors and kinaesthetic senses provide thisinformation, for example, the vibrations of the bat whenyou hit the baseball off centre.

Externa l f eed bac k is provided by your external senseorgans such as sight or sound, for example, seeing that

your bowl dislodged the batters middle stump. A u gmented f eed bac k is external feedback from a source

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