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Transcript of PDF College 1 Cor Wagenaar Urbanism Health
Origins of the healthy city
How architecture and urbanism can contribute to public health
A collection of strategies, theories and philosophies, 1750-2000
Architecture, Urbanism & Health
Architecture, Urbanism & Health
Statistics (18th
century):
Mortality in rural
areas: 1 / 40
Mortality in cities:
1 / 25
Architecture, Urbanism & Health
Hundreds of
country estates...
Architecture, Urbanism & Health
Architecture, Urbanism & Health
Hygienic revolution: sewage, water
supply: a fundamental reversal
Note: tremendous growth of the urban
administration
Note: contradicts the dominant
political philosophy of Laissez-Faire
liberalism
Note: results in healthier cities
Architecture, Urbanism & Health
W.N. Rose
Waterproject Rotterdam 1843 -
September 17: Enlightenment & Hygienic Revolution
Architecture, Urbanism & Health
Architecture, Urbanism & Health
Crowning the hygienic
revolution in the Netherlands:
*the Public Housing Law of
1901
-assessment of existing housing
conditions
-specifications for new public
housing nieuwe volkshuisvesting
-financial regulations
-Very close link between Public
Housing and Urbanism
*the Public Health Law of 1901
-introduction of municipal health
committees made up of medical
doctors and architects
Architecture, Urbanism & Health
H.P. Berlage
Amsterdam
Southern
Expansion Plan,
1917:
Public Housing as
the Heart and
Soul of the City
Architecture, Urbanism & Health
Architects and Urbanists as
Medical Doctors...
Best Cases
Architecture, Urbanism & Health
1918-1924
Symptoms: diseases related to
living and working conditions;
alcohol, overburdening
Diagnosis: housing shortage,
lack of leisure time, lack of
recreation facilities, chaotic
conditions thanks to the lack
of zoning
Architecture, Urbanism & Health
Therapy
1918-1924
Two models
-the Garden City
-the Compact City made
up of Large-scale Urban
blocks
Architecture, Urbanism & Health
Architecture, Urbanism & Health
Therapy 1
1918-1924
-the Garden City
-Advantages:
-inexpensive housing
-green environment
Architecture, Urbanism & Health
Architecture, Urbanism & Health
Therapy 2
1918-1924
-Tenement Blocks
-Advantages:
-relatively inexpensive
sewage and water supply
systems
-collective facilities
Architecture, Urbanism & Health
1918-1924
In the meantime:
'Administrative revolution'
-Office jobs in England:
0,8 %; in 1851, 7,2 % in 1921
Shift from physical to
administrative jobs
Less hours of work
More time for leisure
and recreation
Architecture, Urbanism & Health
1924-1944
Symptoms: diseases related to
living and working conditions;
alcohol, overburdening
Diagnosis housing shortage,
lack of leisure time, lack of
recreation facilities, chaotic
conditions thanks to the lack
of zoning, lack of scientific
knowledge
Architecture, Urbanism & Health
Architecture, Urbanism & Health
1924-1944
Therapy 1: Modernism: light,
sun, fresh air; sports, leisure;
elimination of everything that
can be seen as superfluous
Architecture, Urbanism & Health
Architecture, Urbanism & Health
Sports, ‘Body Culture’, Health...
Architecture, Urbanism & Health
Architecture, Urbanism & Health
Architecture, Urbanism & Health
Public Housing
Architecture, Urbanism & Health
A sharp break with the past...
Architecture, Urbanism & Health
Modern mythology:
-Modernism’s claim of being the first movement to promote
health is untenable
-Although the twentieth-century city can be classified as modern,
this does not imply that it is necessarily healthy
An attempt at reconstructing the links between architecture,
urbanism and health
Architecture, Urbanism & Health
Architecture, Urbanism & Health
Advantages:
-Based on Surveys
-Harmonious interplay of
Cities and Landscapes
-Merger of Garden City
Movement and Urban Reform
Movement
-Zoning: Cities with Offices,
Administrative and Cultural
Facilities; Industries near
Infrastructure; Working Class
Housing near Industries
-Green Wedges
-Typical for Holland:
Landscape Conservation
Therapy 2
1924-1944
-The Regional City
Architecture, Urbanism & Health
W.G. Witteveen: General
Expansion Plan for
Rotterdam (1927)
Architecture, Urbanism & Health
C. van Eesteren, General
Expansion Plan for
Amsterdam (1934)
Architecture, Urbanism & Health
J.M. de Casserres: General
Expansion Plan for
Eindhoven
Architecture, Urbanism & Health
Architecture, Urbanism & Health
September 24: Public
Housing, the Garden
City, Tenement Blocks,
Modernism, the
Regional City
1924-1944
In the meantime:
Founding in 1928 of the
Congrès Internationaux
d'Architecture Moderne
(CIAM)
Propaganda for the
functional (healthy) city
Chartres d'Athenes:
separation of living, working,
recreation and traffic
Architecture, Urbanism & Health
1924-1944
In the meantime:
Depression
Mass Unemployment
(and mass recreation)
Segregation &
desintegration
Processes of
improving hygiene and
providing public housing
virtually stop
Architecture, Urbanism & Health
1924-1944
(In the meantime:)
Emergence of totalitarianism
End of European
modernism
Architecture, Urbanism & Health
In the meantime:
World War II
-Casualties:
.Sovjet Union: 23.954.000
.China: 15.000.000
.Germany 7.728.000
.Poland 5.720.000
.Engeand 449.800
.United States 418.500
.Netherlands 301.000
Architecture, Urbanism & Health
In the meantime:
World War II
-Destruction
Architecture, Urbanism & Health
1944-1960
Symptomen: diseases related to
living and working conditions;
alcohol, overburdening, mental
disruption, existential crisis
Diagnosis: housing shortage, lack
of leisure time, lack of recreation
facilities, chaotic conditions
thanks to the lack of zoning, lack
of scientific knowledge, social
isolation, living an incomplete life
Architecture, Urbanism & Health
Architecture, Urbanism & Health
Therapy
1944-1960
Reconstruction
-The Structured City (Housing
as a catalyst for New Ways of
Living)
Advantages:
-hierarchical composition
-living in a green environment
-more safety during air raids
Architecture, Urbanism & Health
Therapy
1944-1960
Advantages:
-the wholeness of life
-functionalism vs. waste
-living as an educational device
-each level marked by a center
-Radical break with the
previous concept:
-end of landscape conversation
-end of compact city ideals
-Suburbia
Architecture, Urbanism & Health
Population: facts & forecasts C
BS
1946:
1970:
10.6
38.8
80
Rij
ksd
ienst
vo
or
het
Nat
ional
Pla
n c
a.
1950:
1970:
12.0
00.0
00, 2000:
15.0
00.0
00
CB
S c
a. 1
965
, 2000:
20.0
00.0
00
9,4
23.0
00
10.1
14.0
00
12.3
77.0
00
1.0
00.0
00 /
25
(40.0
00)
5.0
00.0
00 /
50
(100.0
00)
7.5
00..
000 /
35
(215.0
00)
Persons per family
1950: 3,93
1965: 3,30
2000: 2,30
1946 forecasts: 10.178
housing units / year
1950 forecasts: 25.445
housing units / year
1965 forecasts: 65.151
housing units / year
(actual numbers of newly
built housing unites >60.000
/ year since 1953: effects of
shortages, slum clearance,
replacement, etc.)
(2011: 16 654 455)
(forecast 2040: 17 840 780)
(1.000.000 / 30: 34.483)
(15.674)
Architecture, Urbanism & Health
1944-1960
Therapy:
Structured city / living
Suburbia / commuting
Note: Radical cesure:
-end of the compact city
-end of landscape preservation
Architecture, Urbanism & Health
Urbanization < 1950 Urbanization > 1950
Architecture, Urbanism & Health
In the meantime:
Explosion of private car ownership
1924: USA 142 / 1000 NL: 2,8 / 1000
1 car for every 7 citiziens 1 / 350
End 1920s: Wassenaar 53,5 / 1000 Zegwaard 36 / 1000 Moerkapelle 28 / 1000 Zoetermeer 28 / 1000
Den Haag 18,6 / 1000 Rotterdam 9,4 / 1000
Architecture, Urbanism & Health
In the meantime:
Explosion of private car ownership…
A nightmare of urban planners
*The car ruins the way cities are seen and experienced
H.P. Berlage 1931: ‘‘The city, that used to be the apix of culture with a soul of its own, has rapidly
turned into a moster that nobody can deal with. Because traffic, which is impossible to contain, ra es
through it with an ever greater fury.
Elbert Peets, 1937: ‘The automobile has taken the city unto itself, destroying the possibilty of any
full human experiencing the city as an esthetic whole’ (‘the dragon traffic’)
*Planning
-The car has no fixed tracks, follows no fixed timetables cannot be planned, defies
rational settlement and zoning patterns
Exception: Martin Wagner, 1929: 'Only the car can give the individual easy access to the
countryside, to nature, and to physical recuperation.’ The car liberates the inhabitants of the American
metropolis ‘from place and time’
Architecture, Urbanism & Health
The Car!!!
Architecture, Urbanism & Health
Consequences
Old urban centers are force to compete with
surburban shopping facilities:
-they are adopted for car use
-increasing scale
-tabula rasa urban renewal
Architecture, Urbanism & Health
In the meantime:
Most jobs are now office jobs (january 1981:
>50% of all jobs in the US)
Quickborner Team (Wolfgang & Eberhard
Schnelle): invention of the ‘office landscape
Architecture, Urbanism & Health
In the meantime: Development of conditioned spaces
(closed boxes): music, light, color
Interior decoration of shops aims at
manipulatint people’s feelings
Architecture, Urbanism & Health
There is nothing to do in suburbia
1960-1985
Symptoms: boredom & stress
Architecture, Urbanism & Health
Diagnosis
1960-1985
Conferences prove that in
Suburbia
-the number of ulcers increases
by 40%
-days lost by illness increase by
100%
-30-50% of all complaints are
of a pychosomatic nature and
are caused by the environment
-noise
-housing shortage
-collective housing typologies
Architecture, Urbanism & Health
1960-1985
How bad is it? Living in
Suburbia causes more mental
diseases than experiencing an
air raid in a historical city
(1957)
Architecture, Urbanism & Health
In the meantime:
The (myth) of living naturally (not bound
by conventions and bourgeois ways of
life)
Counter culture: rebellion against an
allegedly coercive society
Architecture, Urbanism & Health
In the meantime:
Dennendal: mentally retarded people live a
more natural life than ‘healthy’people
clash counter culture / authorities
Architecture, Urbanism & Health
In the meantime:
Merger counter culture and youth
movements (conflict of generations)
Architecture, Urbanism & Health
Architecture, Urbanism & Health
Therapy
1960-1985
Therapy: the cozy city
Architecture, Urbanism & Health
F. van Klingeren, Karregat
Architecture, Urbanism & Health
Inner cities: end of ‘city formation’processes
Architecture, Urbanism & Health
Old neighborhoods: end of tabula rasa urban
renewal kaalslagsanering
Architecture, Urbanism & Health
Cauliflower housing estates: the car under control
Architecture, Urbanism & Health
October 1: Reconstruction, the structured city, the
cosy city
Architecture, Urbanism & Health
In the meantime:
Economic crisis and the death of industry
Context: Economic Crisis, dying industries
-Uneumployment 1984: 17 % (822.400 people, as opposed to 210.000 in 1979)
-End of babyboom: 170.000 newborns in 1984, as opposed to 239.000 in 1970
-Public sector: 70 % in 1984, as opposed to 45 % in 1965
-Shipbuilding and textile industries largely lost…
The big change…
-Welfare State: redistribution of
money to those in need of support
-Global Capitalism: investment in
economic sectors that are
potentially strong; budget cuts in
social security
Architecture, Urbanism & Health
1985-2010 Symptoms: overburdening, existential
crisis, social insecurity, dissatisfaction,
concern about worldwide terrorism
Diagnosis: lack of individual means of
expressions, lack of urbanity, lack of
sustainability, lack of economic
opportunities; unlimited connectivity,
need to face the entire world
Architecture, Urbanism & Health
Architecture, Urbanism & Health
1985-2010
Therapie:
The (re-)creative city
Advantages
-The city as catalyst of economic
activities
-Culture as economic booster (<2005)
-Identity as a distinguishing device in a
global competition
Architecture, Urbanism & Health
Inner cities: rewinding the processes of ‘city
formation’
Architecture, Urbanism & Health
Inner cities / new urbanity: strengtening
perceived qualities
Architecture, Urbanism & Health
Abandoned areas near inner cities:
densification
Architecture, Urbanism & Health
New housing estates: Vinex
Architecture, Urbanism & Health
In the meantime:
Sustainability: human interventions should
not have lasting effects on the ecology
-sustainable building technologies
-renewable energy
(Note: catastrophic effects for the landscape
and for architecture
Architecture, Urbanism & Health
In the meantime:
Sick Buildings: return of health problems
that are associated with physical, material
causes
Computer: pollution, rsi
Architecture, Urbanism & Health
In the meantime:
Disadvantages of former innovations in
offices:
-’flat’ hierarchy: less opportunities to get
promoted
-computer: software coerces employees
-emergence of new office concepts
Cycle of movement: 7 years
Creative cells, fractals, guerilla workers
Architecture, Urbanism & Health
In the meantime:
Evidence Based Design: manipulation of
the built environment in order to achieve
specific results (especially in hospitals)
-medical outcomes (length of stay, use of
medicine
-patient satisfaction ('litigation')
-in urbanism: making people independenf of
the car
Architecture, Urbanism & Health
In the meantime:
Global dimension of environmental
problems
-concept of 'footprints'
Compensatory mechanisms: CO2 pollution
compensated by forestation
Architecture, Urbanism & Health
In the meantime:
Healthy Ageing
Most health problems > 40
Aim: extension of healthy
Architecture, Urbanism & Health
Time where ageing starts:
about 40...
Ideal curve
Present curve
Architecture, Urbanism & Health
Trends A. Ageing starts earlier
B. Life expectancy increases
Architecture, Urbanism & Health
Gezondheid en de ‘moderne stad’
Trends
Ageing starts at a a younger age
Life expectancy is still increasing
Strategies A. Keep them out of the
system
B. Analyze the causes of
ageing
Architecture, Urbanism & Health
B. Analyze the causes of ageing
Eriba: European Research Institute on the
Biology of Ageing
*genetic factors
*Lifestyles
-Environmental factors (back to
the origins of modern healthcare
Architecture, Urbanism & Health
In the meantime:
Lifelines: data of 165.000 people who are monitored for at least 30 years
Aim: analysis of the relations between lifestyles and ageing
interest for the effects of architecture and urbanism
Architecture, Urbanism & Health
B. Analyze the causes of ageing
Architecture, Urbanism & Health
October 8: the recreative city, the creative city, healthy cities,
healthy ageing
Architecture, Urbanism & Health
Summary
Symptoms... Complaints related to the living en working
environment, overburdening, boredom, stress, existential crises,
dissatisfaction, lack of social security, etc.
Architecture, Urbanism & Health
Summary
Therapy...
Garden cities/urban blocks; regional city, structured city, cosy city,
recreative city, creative city, etc.
Architecture, Urbanism & Health
Architecture, Urbanism & Health
A long and continuous tradition
Architecture, Urbanism & Health