Parts of Speech Nouns Nouns are naming words. They may name persons, animals, plants, places,...

Parts of Speech

Nouns Nouns are naming words. They may name persons, animals, plants, places, things, substances, qualities, or ideas Bart, armadillo, Mayberry, tree, rock, cloud, love, ghost, music, virtue

Noun Indicators The, A, and An signal that a noun is ahead.

Pronoun A word used in place of a noun

Some pronouns may represent specific persons or things: Ishethey you meherthem yourself myself herself themselves yourselves ithewewho itselfhimuswhom thathimselfourselves

Indefinite Pronouns Refer to nouns (persons, places, things) in a general way: each everyone nobody somebody

Pronouns that Point Out Particular Things SINGULAR this that PLURAL these those

Pronouns that Introduce Questions Who Which What

Verbs Show action or express being in relation to the subject of a sentence.

Types of Verbs Action verbs: ate, washed Being verbs: is, as, were, are, am Helping verbs are used with main verbs to form other tenses to form verb phrases: had sung, will be singing Main helping verbs: has, have, had, is, was, were, are, am Helpers: will, shall, should, could

Adjectives Modify nouns and pronouns and answer the questions What kind? Which one? How many?

Adjectives What kind are descriptive words red, dirty, noisy, gentle, tired Which one narrows or restricts meaning my, our, other, this, these How many are numbering words some, three, each, one, few Articles are noun indicators a, an, the

Adverbs Modify verbs, adjectives, and other adverbs Answer the questions How? Where? When? To what degree?

Adverbs that answer HOW? show manner or way WHERE? show location WHEN? indicate time TO WHAT DEGREE? express extent Hungrily, noisily Downtown, behind, upstairs Yesterday, soon Entirely, somewhat

Adverbs Most words ending in ly are adverbs. Skillfully Courteously Exceptions are adjectives like lovely and ugly

Prepositions Are words or groups of words that function as a connective The preposition connects its object(s) to some other word(s) in the sentence. A preposition and its objectusually a noun and a pronounwith modifiers make up a prepositional phrase, which will function as an adjective or an adverb.

Common Prepositions about beforebutinto past above behindby liketoacrossbelow afterdespiteneartoward afterbeneathdownof under againstbesidefor offuntilamongbetween fromonuponaround beyondinoverwith

Prepositions Composed of More Than One Word According to As far as Because of In spite of Ahead of As well as In back of Instead of Along with Aside from In front of Together with

Conjunctions A conjunction shows a relationship between words, phrases, or clauses

Coordinating Conjunctions For And Nor But Or Yet So

Subordinating Conjunctions Afterbecauseprovidedwhenever Althoughbeforesincewhere Asbut thatso thatwhereas As ififtillwherever As long asin order thatuntil As soon asnotwithstandingwhen

Interjection Conveys strong emotion or surprise Punctuated with an exclamation mark Awesome! Curses! Cowabunga! Yaba dabba doo! When appearing as part of a sentence, interjections are usually followed by a comma Oh, I did not consider that problem. Seldom appropriate for college writing.

Subjects and Verbs

The subject is who or what causes the action or expresses a state of being. The verb indicates what the subject is doing or is being.

Simple Subject Usually a single noun or pronoun The restaurants soup of the day is clam chowder. simple subject

Complete Subject The simple subject with all its modifiers The restaurants soup of the day is clam chowder. complete subject

Nouns Nouns are naming words. They may name persons, animals, plants, places, things, substances, qualities, or ideas Bart, armadillo, Mayberry, tree, rock, cloud, love, ghost, music, virtue

Pronoun A word used in place of a noun

Personal Pronouns Ishethey you meherthem yourself myself herself themselves yourselves ithewewho itselfhimuswhom thathimselfourselves

Indefinite Pronouns Refer to nouns (persons, places, things) in a general way: each everyone nobody somebody

Pronouns that Point Out Particular Things SINGULAR this that PLURAL these those

Pronouns that Introduce Questions Who Which What

The simple subject can be single or compound: My friend and I have much in common. [compound subject] My friend brought a present. [single subject]

Implied Subjects The command, or imperative, sentence has a you as the implied subject and no stated subject. (You) Read the notes.

The object of a preposition cannot be a subject. The chairperson [subject] of the department [object of the preposition] directs the discussion.

Verbs Show action or express being in relation to the subject of a sentence.

Action Verbs Suggest movement or accomplishment of an idea or a deed He dropped the book. [movement] He read the book. [accomplishment]

Being Verbs Indicate existence They were concerned.

Verbs may occur as single words or phrases. He led the charge. [single word] She is leading the charge. [phrase]

Compound verbs are joined by a word such as and or or. She worked for twenty-five years and retired.

Verbals are not verbs; verbals are verblike words that function as other parts of speech. Singing [gerund acting as a noun] is fun. I want to sing. [infinitive acting as a noun object] Singing [participle acting as a modifier], he walked in the rain.

Words such as never, not, and hardly are not verbs; they modify verbs.

Locations of Subjects and Verbs Although the subject usually appears before the verb, it may follow the verb. There was justice in the verdict.

A verb phrase may be separated into a question. Where had the defendant gone on that fateful night?

Kinds of Sentences

Types of Sentences On the basis of number and kinds of clauses, sentences may be classified as Simple Compound Complex Compound-Complex

Clauses Clause: a group of words with a subject and a verb that functions as a part or all of a complete sentence. There are two kinds of clauses: independent (main) and dependent (subordinate).

Independent Clauses An independent (main) clause is a group of words with a subject and a very that can stand alone and make sense. An independent clause expresses a complete thought by itself and can be written as a separate sentence. I have the money.

Dependent Clauses A dependent clause is a group of words with a subject and verb that depends on a main clause to give it meaning. Functions in a sentence as a noun, an adjective, or an adverb. When you are ready.

Relative Clauses A type of dependent clause Begins with a relative pronoun, such as that, which, or who The player who answers the most questions correctly wins the game.

Phrases Groups of words that go together Do not have a subject and verb Types: prepositional phrases and verbal phrases (infinitive phrases, participial phrases, gerund phrases)

Types of Sentences SIMPLE: One independent clause Susan was having trouble with her spelling. COMPOUND: Two or more independent clauses Susan was having trouble with her spelling, and she purchased a computer with a spell checker.

Types of Sentences COMPLEX: One independent clause and one or more dependent clauses. Because Susan was having trouble with her spelling, she purchased a computer with a spell checker. COMPOUND-COMPLEX: Two or more independent clauses and one or more dependent clauses. Because Susan was having trouble with her spelling, she purchased a computer with a spell checker, and the results made her expenditure worthwhile.

Punctuation Use a comma before a coordinating conjunction (FANBOYS) between two independent clauses. The movie was good, but the tickets were expensive.

Punctuation Use a comma after a dependent clause that appears before the main clause. When the bus arrived, we quickly boarded.

Punctuation Use a semicolon between two independent clauses in one sentence if there is no coordinating conjunction. The bus arrived; we quickly boarded.

Punctuation Use a semicolon before and usually a comma after a conjunctive adverb (such as however, otherwise, therefore, on the other hand, and in fact), and between two independent clauses (no comma after then, also, now, thus, and soon). The Dodgers have not played well this year; however, the Giants have won ten games in a row. Spring training went well; then the regular baseball season began.

Combining Sentences

Coordination If you want to communicate two equally important and closely related ideas, place them close together, probably in a compound sentence (two or more independent clauses).

FANBOYS Coordinating Conjunctions For shows a reason And shows equal ideas Nor indicates a negative choice or alternative But shows contrast Or indicates a choice or an alternative Yet indicates contrast So points to a result

Combining Sentences by Using a Coordinating Conjunction When you combine two sentences by using a coordinating conjunction (FANBOYS), drop the first period, change the capital letter of the second sentence to a small letter, and insert a commabefore the coordinating conjunction. I like your home. I can visit for only three months. I like your home, but I can visit for only three months.

Combining Sentences by Using a Semicolon When you combine two sentences by using a semicolon, replace the first period with a semicolon and change the capital letter that begins the second sentence to a small letter. If you wish to use a conjunctive adverb, insert it after the semicolon and usually follow it witha comma. I like your home. I can visit for only three months. I like your home; I can visit for only three months. I like your home; however, I can visit for only three months.

Subordination If you have two ideas that are closely related, but one is secondary or dependent on the other, you may want to use a complex sentence. My neighbors are considerate. They never play loud music. Because my neighbors are considerate, they never play loud music.

Punctuating Complex Sentences If the dependent clause comes first, set it off with a comma. Because the dog has no hands or words, he licks me to show affection.

Punctuating Complex Sentences If the dependent clause comes after the main clause, set it off with a comma only if you use some form of the word though or if the words are not necessary to convey the basic meaning of the sentence. Edmund Hillary was knighted by Queen Elizabeth II because he was one of the first two men to climb Mt. Everest. Other mountain climbers soon duplicated his feat, though they received less recognition.

Punctuation of Relative Clauses A relative clause should be set off with commas when it is not necessary to the sentence. Do no set the clause off if it is necessary for the meaning of the sentence. Necessary: No one who failed the eye test will get a drivers license. Unnecessary: Mr. McGoo, who failed his eye test, did not get a drivers license.

Coordination and Subordination At times you may want to show the relationship of three or more ideas within one sentence. If that relationship involves two or more main ideas and one or more supporting ideas, the combination can be stated in a compound-complex sentence (two or more independent clauses and one or more dependent clauses.)

Punctuating Compound and Complex Sentences Use punctuation consistent with that of the compound and complex sentences. Kafka produced illegible handwritten papers. At that time he had not learned how to operate a word processor. Now he hands in clean, attractive pages. Before Kafka learned how to operate a word processor, he produced illegible handwritten papers, but now he hands in clean, attractive pages.

Other Methods of Combining Ideas Use an appositive phrase, a group of words that immediately follows a noun or pronoun and renames it. Garth Brooks claims Yukon, Oklahoma, as his hometown. He is a famous singer. Garth Brooks, a famous singer, claims Yukon, Oklahoma as his hometown. Use a prepositional phrase, a preposition followed by a noun or pronoun object. John Elway lead the Denver Broncos to two Super Bowl victories. Both triumphs occurred in the 1990s. John Elway lead the Denver Broncos to two Super Bowl victories in the 1990s.

Drop the subject in the sentence that follows and combine the sentences. Emily Dickinsons poetry went mostly unpublished during her lifetime. It was finally discovered and celebrated more than half a century later. Emily Dickinsons poetry went mostly unpublished during her lifetime but was finally discovered and celebrated more than half a century later. Use a participial phrase, a group of words that includes a participle, which is a verbal that usually ends in ing or ed. The turtle plodded without rest stops. It won the race against the rabbit. Plodding without rest stops, the turtle one the race against the rabbit.

Common Omissions Subjects Verbs That as a conjunction Prepositions

Techniques for Achieving Variety in Sentences Types Order Length Beginnings

Correcting Fragments, Comma Splices, and Run-Ons

Complete Sentences Each complete sentence musthave an independent clause, a group of words that contains a subject and a verb, and can stand alone. He enrolled for the fall semester.

Fragments Fragment: a word or group of words without a subject, without a verb, or without both A correct sentence signals completeness; a fragment signals incompleteness You expect the speaker or writer of a fragment to go on and finish the idea. Common unacceptable fragments: Dependent clause only: When she came. Phrase(s) only: Waiting there for some help. No subject in main clause: Went to the library. No verb in main clause: She being the only person there.

Dependent Clause Fragments A dependent clause cannot stand by itself because it begins with a subordinating word. Because he left. When she worked. Although they slept.

Relative Clauses as Fragments A relative clause is a type of dependent clause. If it is punctuated as a sentence by itself, it is incorrect. Who dont clean up after themselves.

Phrase Fragments A verbal phrase, a prepositional phrase, and an appositive phrase may carry ideas, but each is incomplete because it lacks a subject and verb. Verbal Phrase: having completed his initial research Having completed his initial research, he refined his outline. Prepositional Phrase: in the store She worked in the store. Appositive Phrase: a successful business Marks Brothers, a successful business, sells clothing.

Fragments as Word Groups Without Subjects or Without Verbs Each conventional sentence must have an independent clause, meaning a word or a group of words that contains a subject and a verb and that can stand alone.

Acceptable Fragments Interjections: Great! Hooray! Whoa! Exclamations: What a day! How terrible! What a bother! Greetings: Hello. Good morning. Good night. Good evening. Questions: What for? Why not? Where to? Informal conversation: (What time is it?) Eight oclock. Really.

Comma Splices A comma splice consists of two independent clauses with only a comma between them. Maria exceeded her sales quota, she received a bonus. [A comma by itself cannot join two independent clauses.]

Run-ons The run-on differs from the comma splice in only one respect: It has no comma between the independent clauses. Maria exceeded her sales quota she received a bonus. [Independent clauses must be properly connected.]

Correcting Comma Splices and Run-ons Use a comma and a coordinating conjunction (for, and, nor, but, or, yet, so) to correct the comma splice or run-on. Maria exceeded her sales quota, and she received a bonus.

Correcting Comma Splices and Run-ons Use a subordinating conjunction(such as because, after, that, when, although, since, how, till, unless, before) to make one clause dependent and correct the comma splice or run-on. Because Maria exceeded her sales quota, she received a bonus.

Correcting Comma Splices and Run-ons Use a semicolon(with or without a conjunctive adverb such as however, otherwise, therefore, similarly, hence, on the other hand, then, consequently, also, thus) to correct the comma splice or run-on. Maria exceeded her sales quota; therefore, she received a bonus. Maria exceeded her sales quota; she received a bonus.

Correcting Comma Splices and Run-ons Use a period to replace a comma and add a capital letter (to correct a comma splice), or use a period between two independent clauses and add a capital letter(to correct a run-on). Maria exceeded her sales quota. She received a bonus.

Balancing Sentence Parts

Parallelism Parallelism is a balance of one structure with another of the same kindnouns with nouns, verbs with verbs, adjectives with adjectives, phrases with phrases, and clauses with clauses. Goats, chickens, and cows [nouns] roamed the yard and caused [verbs] considerable confusion. Tanya walked into the room and out of the room with grace. [prepositional phrases] Tanya walked into the room, and she walked out of the room with grace. [independent clauses]

Faulty Parallel Structure Faulty parallel structure is awkward and draws unfavorable attention to what is being said. Hitting home runs and to catch balls in the outfield were his main concerns. should be Hittingand catching or To hitand to catch.

Words that Signal Parallel Structure All coordinating conjunctions (FANBOYS: for, and, nor, but, or, yet, so) can give such signals. My car is inexpensive and plain. My dog is ugly, but it is a good companion.

Combination Words that Signal Parallelism The most common ones are either/or, neither/nor, not only/but also, both/and, and whether/or. Patsy decided that propagating plants could be either a hobby or a business but not both. [A noun follows each of the combination words.]

Standard Usage Standard usage is appropriate for the kind of writing and speaking you are likely to do in your college work and future career.

Regular and Irregular Verbs Whereas regular verbs are predictablehaving an ed ending for past and past participle forms irregular verbs, as the term suggests, follow no definite pattern. raise, raised, raised [regular] see, saw, seen [irregular]

Present Tense Present tense verbs show an action or a state of being that is occurring at the present time. For he, she, and it, regular verbs in the present tense add an -s or an -es to the base word. If the verb ends in -y, you might have to drop the -y and add -ies for he, she, and it.

Past Tense Past tense verbs show an action or a state of being that occurred in the past. For regular verbs in the past tense, add -ed to the base form. If the base form already ends in -e, add just d. If the base form ends in a consonant followed by -y, drop the -y and add -ied.

Past Participles The past participle uses the helping verbs has, have, or had along with the past tense of the verb. For regular verbs, whose past tense ends in -ed, the past participle form of the verb is the same as the past tense.

Problem Verbs Certain verbs (present tense here) can be troublesome and should be studied with care. lie, lay sit, set rise, raise

Twelve Verb Tenses SIMPLE TENSES present past future PERFECT TENSES present perfect past perfect future perfect PROGRESSIVE TENSES present progressive past progressive future progressive PERFECT PROGRESSIVE TENSES present perfect progressive past perfect progressive future perfect progressive

Community Dialects Expressive and colorful May not adhere to the rules for standard usage Often not appropriate for college and professional writing

If the subject is singular, the verb should be singular, and if the subject is plural, the verb should be plural. The price of the shoes is high. The advantages of that shoe are obvious. Subject-Verb Agreement

Consistency in Tense There are no inflexible rules about selecting a tense for a certain kind of writing, but you should be consistent, changing tense only for a good reason. The present tense is customarily used in writing about literature. The past tense is likely to serve you best in writing about your personal experiences and about historical events.

Voice The active voice expression (subject, active verb, and sometimes object) is usually preferred over the passive voice expression (subject as the receiver of action, with doer unstated or at the end of a prepositional phrase.) She read the book. [active] The book was read by her. [passive]

Strong Verbs In your revision, replace weak verbs with strong ones. He was the first to leave. [weak verb] He left first. [strong verb]

Pronouns

Pronouns and Pronoun Case A pronoun is a word that is used in place of a noun. Case is the form a pronoun takes as it fills a position in a sentence.

Subjective Pronouns Subjective-case pronouns are I, he, and she (singular) and we and they (plural). Who can be either singular or plural. Subjective case pronouns can fill subject positions. We dance in the park. It was she who spoke. [referring back to and meaning the same as the subject] Others are in incompletely stated clauses (signaled by than or as)

Objective Pronouns Objective-case pronouns are me, him, and her (singular) and us and them (plural). Whom can be either singular or plural. Objective-case pronouns fill object positions. We saw her in the library. [object of a verb] They gave the results to us. [object of a preposition]

Three Techniques for Deciding Which Pronoun Case to Use If you have a compound element (such as a subject or an object of a preposition), consider only the pronoun part. They will visit you and (I, me). [Consider: They will visit me.]

Three Techniques for Deciding Which Pronoun Case to Use If the next important word after who or whom in a statement is a noun or pronoun, the word choice will be whom; otherwise, it will be who. Disregard qualifier clauses such as It seems and I feel. The person whom judges like will win. The person who works hardest will win. The person who, we think, worked hardest won. [ignoring the qualifier clause]

Three Techniques for Deciding Which Pronoun Case to Use Lets is made up of the words let and us and means You let us; therefore, when you select a pronoun to follow it, consider the two original words and select another object wordme. Lets you and me go to town.

Pronoun Agreement A pronoun agrees with its antecedent in person, number, and gender.

Pronoun Agreement Avoid needless shifting in person, which means shifting in point of view, such as from I to you. I was having trouble. You could see disaster ahead. Change to I was having trouble. I could see disaster ahead.

Pronoun Agreement Most problems with pronoun-antecedent agreement involve number. The principles are simple: If the antecedent (the word the pronoun refers back to) is singular, use a singular pronoun. If the antecedent is plural, use a plural pronoun. Roger forgot his notebook. Many students cast their votes. Someone lost his or her [not their] book.

Pronoun Agreement The pronoun should agree with its antecedent in gender, if the gender of the antecedent is specific. Masculine and feminine pronouns are gender- specific: he, him, she, her. Others are neuter: I, we, me, us, it, they, them, who, whom, that, which.

Pronoun Agreement The words who and whom refer to people. That can refer to ideas, things, and people but usually does not refer to individuals. Which refers to ideas and things but not to people. To avoid a perceived sex bias, you can use he or she or his or her instead of just he or his; however, many writers simply make antecedents and pronouns plural. Everyone should revise his or her composition carefully. Students should revise their compositions carefully.

Pronoun Reference A pronoun must refer clearly to its antecedent. Because a pronoun is a substitute word, it can express meaning clearly and definitely only if its antecedent is easily identified.

Adjectives and Adverbs

Adjectives Adjectives modify (describe) nouns and pronouns and answer the questions Which one? What kind? How many?

Adverbs Adverbs modify verbs, adjectives, and other adverbs and answer the questions Where? When? Why? How? To what degree? Most words ending in ly are adverbs.

Making Comparisons with Adjectives Some adjectives follow a regular pattern. nice, nicer, nicest lonely, more lonely, most lonely

Rules for Comparative and Superlative Adjective Forms a. Add er to short adjectives (one or two syllables) to rank units of two. Jethro is shorter than Cy. b. Add est to short adjectives (one or two syllables) to rank units of more than two. Senator Goodyear is the brightest person in Congress. c. Add the word more to long adjectives (three or more syllables) to rank units of two. Your state is more prosperous than mine.

More Rules for Comparative and Superlative Adjective Forms d. Add the word most to long adjectives (three or more syllables) to rank units of three or more. Your state is the most prosperous state in the West. e. Some adjectives are irregular in the way they change to show comparison. good, better, best bad, worse, worst

Making Comparisons with Adverbs Some adverbs follow a regular pattern. sadly, more sadly, most sadly carefully, more carefully, most carefully

Rules for Comparative and Superlative Adverb Forms Add er to the comparative form and est to the superlative form. Pierre works hard. [positive] Pierre works harder than Simon. [comparative] Pierre works hardest of all students in the class. [superlative]

Rules for Comparative and Superlative Adverbs Forms Add the word more to adverbs of two or more syllables for the comparative form and the word most to adverbs of two or more syllables for the superlative form. Sultana proofread carefully. [positive] Sultana proofread more carefully than Venny. [comparative] Sultana proofread most carefully in all the class. [superlative]

Rules for Comparative and Superlative Adverb Forms In some cases the word less may be substituted for more and the word least for most. Martelle examined the contract less carefully during her second reading. [comparative] Martelle examined the contract most carefully during her third reading. [superlative]

Double Negatives Avoid double negatives. Words such as no, not, none, nothing, never, hardly, barely, and scarcely should not be combined.

Confusing Adjectives and Adverbs Do not confuse adjectives with adverbs. Among the most commonly confused adjectives and adverbs are good / well bad / badly real / really

Confusing Adjectives and Adverbs The words good, bad, and real are always adjectives. The words badly and really are always adverbs. Well is usually an adverb. Well is sometimes an adjective.

Incorrect: Clint did good. [Good is not an adverb] Correct: Joline felt good. [Good does not address the matter of feeling; it indicates the condition of the subject, Joline.] Correct: Clint did well. [Used here as an adverb, well modifies the verb did.] Correct: Sigmund said, Carl, you are not a well person. [Used here as an adjective, well modifies the noun person.]

Incorrect: Elvis was real happy with his new disguise. [Happy is an adjective modifying the noun Elvis, and real modifies that adjective. Because only adverbs modify adjectives, we need the word really.] Correct: Elvis was really happy with his new disguise.

Incorrect: I feel badly. [Badly is an adverb but here indicates the condition of the subject; therefore, it modifies the pronoun I.] Correct: I feel bad. [Bad is an adjective modifying the pronoun I.] Correct: I explained that badly. [Badly, an adverb, modifies the verb explained.]

Dangling Modifiers A dangling modifier gives information but fails to make clear which word or group of words it refers to. Incorrect: Ignoring the traffic signals, the car crashed into a truck. [The car is not ignoring; the driver is.] Correct: Ignoring the traffic signals, the driver crashed his car into a truck.

Misplaced Modifiers A misplaced modifier is placed so that it modifies the wrong word or words. Incorrect: The monkeys attracted the attention of the elegant women who picked fleas off one another. Correct: The monkeys who picked fleas off one another attracted the attention of the elegant women.

Punctuation and Capitalization

Three Marks of End Punctuation. Periods use after a statement or common abbreviations. Questions marks use at the end of a direct question, not indirect questions. She asked me what caused the slide. Exclamation points use after a word or group of words that expresses strong feeling. Dont overwork it or use double exclamation points.

Commas The comma is used to separate and set off sentence elements. Use a comma to separate main clauses joined by one of the coordinating conjunctionsfor, and, nor, but, or, yet, so We went to the game, but it was cancelled. Use a comma after long introductory modifiers. The modifiers may be phrases or dependent clauses. Before she and I arrived, the meeting was called to order.

Commas Use a comma to separate words, phrases, and clauses in a series. He ran down the street, across the park, and into the forest. Use a comma to separate coordinate adjectives not joined by and that modify the same noun. I need a sturdy, reliable truck.

Commas Use a comma to separate sentence elements that might be misread. Outside, the thunder rolled. Use commas to set off nonessential (unnecessary for the meaning of the sentence) words, phrases, and clauses. Maria, who studied hard, will pass.

Commas Use commas to set off nouns used as direct address. What do you intend to do, Hamlet? Use commas to separate the numbers in a date. November 11, 1918, is a day worth remembering. Use commas to separate the city from the state. No comma is used between the state and the ZIP code. Boston, MA 02110

Semicolons The semicolon indicates a longer pause and stronger emphasis than the comma. It is used principally to separate main clauses within a sentence.

Semicolons Use a semicolon to separate main clauses not joined by a coordinating conjunction. You must buy that car today; tomorrow will be too late.

Semicolons Use a semicolon between two main clauses joined by a conjunctive adverb (such as however, otherwise, therefore, similarly, hence, on the other hand, then, consequently, accordingly, thus). It was very late; therefore, I remained at the hotel.

Quotation Marks Quotation marks are used principally to set off direct quotations. A direct quotation consists of material taken from the written work or the direct speech of others; it is set off by double quotation marks. Single quotation marks are used to set off a quotation within a quotation. He said, I dont remember if she said, Wait for me.

Quotation Marks Use quotation marks to set off slang, technical terms, and special words. The platoon system changed the game of football. [technical term]

Italics Italics (slanting type) are also used to call special attention to certain words of groups of words. In handwriting or typing, such words are underlined.

Italics Italicize (underline) foreign words and phrases that are still listed in the dictionary as foreign. modus operandi perestroika

Italics Italicize titles of books; long poems; plays; magazines; motion pictures; musical compositions, newspapers; works of art; names of aircraft and ships; and letters, numbers, and words referred to by their own name. War and Peace Apollo 12 Leaving the second o out of sophomore.

The Dash The dash is used when a stronger pause than a comma is needed. It can also be used to indicate a break in the flow of thought and to emphasize words (less formal than the colon in this situation.) I cant remember the townnow I doits Tupelo.

The Colon The colon is a formal mark of punctuation used chiefly to introduce something that is to follow, such as a list, a quotation, or an explanation. These cars are my favorites: Cadillac, Chevrolet, Toyota, Oldsmobile, and Pontiac.

Parentheses Parentheses are used to set off material that is of relatively little importance to the main thought of the sentence. Such material numbers, parenthetical material, figures, supplementary material, and sometimes explanatory detailsmerely amplifies the main thought. The years of the era (1961-1973) were full of action. I paid twenty dollars ($20) for that mousepad.

Brackets Brackets are used within a quotation to set off editorial additions or corrections made by the person who is quoting. It [the Yalta Agreement] contained many mistakes.

The Apostrophe The apostrophe is used with nouns and indefinite pronouns to show possession, to show the omission of letters and figures in contractions, and to form the plurals of letters, figures, and words referred to as words. mans coat girls clothes cant five ands its [contraction]

The Hyphen The hyphen is used to link two or more words together into a single compound word. Hyphenation, therefore, is essentially a spelling problem rather than a punctuation problem. Because the hyphen is not used with any degree of consistency, it is best to consult your dictionary to learn current usage.

Uses of the Hyphen Use a hyphen to separate the parts of many compound words. about-facego-between Use a hyphen between prefixes and proper names. all-Americanmid-July Use a hyphen with spelled-out compound numbers up to ninety-nine and with fractions. Twenty-sixone hundredtwo-thirds Use a hyphen to join two or more words used as a single-adjective modifier before a noun. First-class servicehard-fought game sad-looking mother

Use English Conventions for Capital Letters Capitalize the first word of a sentence Capitalize proper nouns and adjectives derived from proper nouns such as the names of persons, countries, nationalities and races, days of the week, months, and titles of books Capitalize words denoting family relationships when they are used before a name or substituted for a name. The minister greeted Aunt May, my grandfather, and Mother.

Spelling and Commonly Confused Words

Spelling Tips Do not omit letters. Incorrect: libaryCorrect: library Do not add letters. Incorrect: athaleteCorrect: athlete Do not substitute incorrect letters for correct letters. Incorrect: technacalCorrect: technical Do not transpose letters. Incorrect: perferCorrect: prefer

Spelling Tips Apply the spelling rules for spelling ei and ie words correctly. Use i before e Except after c Or when sounded like a As in neighbor and weigh Exceptions: either, financier, height, leisure, neither, seize, species, weird

Spelling Tips Apply the rules for dropping the final e or retaining the final e when a suffix is added. Correct: come coming

Spelling Tips Apply the rules for doubling a final consonant before a suffix beginning with a vowel if the final syllable is accented. Correct: transfertransferred

Spelling Tips Study the list of frequently misspelled words.

Confused Spelling/Confusing Words Some words are sometimes misspelled because they are mispronounced or share a pronunciation with another word. Incorrect: alright Correct: all right Two words with the same sound and different meanings : hear here

Avoiding Wordy Phrases At the present time Due to the fact that Until such time as I personally feel that At that point in time In this day and age

The Writing Process: Paragraphs and Essays

The Paragraph A paragraph is a group of sentences that relate to a single idea. The controlling idea is stated in the topic sentence. All of the other sentences explain or support the topic sentence.

The Essay The essay contains multiple paragraphs. It begins with an introductory paragraph that presents the main idea (thesis). The main idea is developed in several paragraphs that make up the body of the essay. An essay usually ends with a concluding paragraph that gives a feeling of finality.

The Writing Process Using prewriting techniques to explore a topic Limiting and then developing the topic, usually with an outline Writing a first draft Revising the draft as often as necessary Editing the material

Prewriting Prewriting includes activities you do before writing your first draft or whenever you need new ideas. These strategies help you get started and develop your ideas. Prewriting strategies: freewriting, brainstorming, clustering, defining a topic, and outlining

Freewriting Write without stopping, letting your ideas tumble forth. Helps you get your project underway and deal with writers block.

Generating key words and phrases related to the topic Begin by asking Who? What? Where? When? Why? and How? questions about your subject or by merely listing ideas concerning your subject. Brainstorming

Clustering Start by double-bubbling your topic. Then ask What comes to mind? and single- bubble other ideas on spokes radiating out from the double bubble.

The Topic Sentence An effective topic sentence has both a subject and a focus. The subject is what you intend to write about. The focus is what you intend to do with your subject. Example: Wilson High School subject offers a well-balanced academic program. focus

Outlining Pattern for showing the relationship of ideas

Topic sentence I. Major support A. Minor support B. Minor support 1. Details or examples 2. Details or examples II. Major support A. Minor support B. Minor support

Writing Your First Draft First (or rough) draft = your initial writing As you write, pay close attention to your outline But do not get caught up in correcting and polishing your writing during this stage

Revising Your Writing Rearrange and polish the writing Put sentences in the best possible order and come up with the best possible words The main points of revision are contained in the acronym CLUESS.

CLUESS Coherence: Does the material flow smoothly, with each idea leading logically to the next? Language: Are the words appropriate for the message, occasion, and audience? Unity: Are all ideas related to and subordinate to the topic sentence? Emphasis: Have you used techniques such as repetition and placement of ideas to emphasize your main point(s)? Support: Have you presented material to back up, justify, or prove your topic sentence? Sentences: Have you used some variety of structure and avoided fragments, comma splices, and run-ons?

Editing: Examine your work carefully. Look for problems in Capitalization, Omissions, Punctuation, and Spelling. (COPS)

Using the Writing Process Worksheet Explore your topic, organize your ideas, and write your paragraphs using the Writing Process Worksheet as your guide. Photocopy the blank form in the book or print it from the Student Companion site.

Combined and Specific Patterns of Writing and Writing Topics

Combined Patterns of Writing Patterns can help you organize your thoughts so that your audience can easily understand your message. A well-written essay is usually a combination of different patterns: Descriptive Narration, Exemplification, Analysis by Division, Process Analysis, Cause and Effect, Comparison and Contrast, Definition, Argument

Descriptive Narration Include these points: Situation Conflict Struggle Outcome Meaning

As appropriate, use the following in narratives: Images that appeal to the senses (sight, smell, taste, hearing, touch) and other details to advance action Dialogue Transitional devices to indicate chronological order

Transitional Words for Narratives FOR DESCRIPTION: Place: above, over, under, below, nearby, near, across, beyond, among, to the right, to the left, in the background, in the foreground, further, beside, opposite, within sight, out of sight FOR NARRATION: Time: after, before, later, earlier, initially, soon, recently, next, today, tomorrow, yesterday, now, then, until, currently, when, finally, not long after, immediately, (at) first, (at) last, third, previously, in the meantime, meanwhile

In narration, Give details concerning action Be consistent with point of view and verb tense Keep in mind that most narratives written as college assignments will have an expository purpose; that is, they explain a specific idea

Exemplification Using examples to Explain Convince Amuse

Characteristics of Good Examples Vivid examples attract attention Specific examples are identifiable Representative examples are typical and therefore the basis for generalization

In exemplification Tie your examples clearly to your thesis Draw your examples from what you have read, heard, and experienced Brainstorm a list or cluster of possible examples before you write

Transitional Words for Exemplification For example, as an example, another example, for instance, such as, including, specifically, especially, in particular, to illustrate, as an illustration, that is, i.e. (meaning that is), e.g. (meaning for example)

Analysis by Division Almost anything can be analyzed by division: How parts of the ear work in hearing How parts of the eye work in seeing How parts of the heart work in pumping blood throughout the body

Procedure for Analysis by Division Step 1 begin with something that is a unit Step 2 state the principle by which that unit functions Step 3 divide the unit into parts according to the principle Step 4 Discuss each of the parts in relation to the unit

To apply that procedure to a new boss: Unit Manager Principle of function Effective as a leader Parts based on the Fair, intelligent, stable, principle competent in the field Discussion Consider each part in relation to the persons effectiveness as a manager

Transition Words for Analysis by Division Time or numbering: first, second, third, another, last, finally, soon, later, currently, before, along with, another part (section, component) Space: above, below, to the left, to the right, near, beyond, under, next to, in the background, split, divide Emphasis: most important, equally important, central to the, to this end, as a result, taken collectively, with this purpose in mind, working with the, in fact, of course, above all, most of all, especially, primarily, without question

Two Types of Process Analysis Directive process analysis explains how to do something; it usually addresses the reader as you Informative process analysis explains how something was (is) done by giving data; does not use the words you or your

Basic Forms for Process Analysis Directive I. Preparation A. B. II. Steps A. B. C. Informative I. Background/context A. B. II. Sequence A. B. C.

Transitional Words for Process Analysis Order will usually be chronological (time-based) in some sense: first, second, third, then, soon, now, next, finally, at last, therefore, consequently Words used to show the passage of time such as hours, days of the week, and so on (especially for informative process analysis)

Cause and Effect Determine whether your topic should mainly inform or mainly persuade Use the right tone for your purpose and audience

Using Listing to Develop Cause and Effect Event, Situation, or Trend Causes 1. 2. 3. 4. Effects 1. 2. 3. 4.

Decide whether to concentrate on Causes Effects Combination of Causes and Effects

Basic Structure for Paragraph A typical outline might look like this: I. Cause or Effect 1 II. Cause or Effect 2 III. Cause or Effect 3

Emphasis in Cause and Effect Lend emphasis to your main concern(s) causes, effects, or a combinationby repeating key words, such as Cause Reason Effect Result Consequence Outcome

Kinds of Causes and Effects Primary (main) Secondary (contributing) Immediate Remote

Order Time Space Emphasis

Transitional Words for Cause and Effect Cause: as, because, because of, due to, for, for the reason that, since, bring about, another cause, for this reason, one cause, a second cause, another cause, a final cause Effect: accordingly, finally, consequently, hence, so, therefore, thus, as a consequence, as a result, resulting

Comparison and Contrast Use the 4 Ps: Purpose Points Pattern Presentation

Purpose Decide whether you are writing a work that is primarily comparison, primarily contrast, or balanced. During the exploration of your topic, define your purpose (inform or persuade) clearly.

Points Indicate your points of comparison or contrast, perhaps by listing Eliminate irrelevant points

Pattern After considering your topic and the planned focus, select the Subject-by-subject pattern Point-by-point pattern Compose an outline reflecting the pattern you select.

Basic Subject-by-Subject Pattern I. Subject X A. Point 1 B. Point 2 II. Subject Y A. Point 1 B. Point 2

Basic Point-by-Point Pattern I. Point 1 A. Subject X B. Subject Y II. Point 2 A.Subject X B.Subject Y

Presentation Give each point more or less equal treatment. Attention to each part of the outline will usually ensure balanced development. Use a carefully stated topic sentence for a paragraph and a clear thesis for an essay.

Transitional Words for Comparison and Contrast Comparison: in the same way, similarly, likewise, also, by comparison, in a like manner, as, with, as though, both, like, just as Contrast: but, by contrast, in contrast, despite, however, instead, nevertheless, on (to) the contrary, in spite of, still, yet, unlike, even so, rather than, otherwise

Definition Simple Definition Extended Definition

Simple Definition No two words have the same meaning. Forms of simple definitions: basic dictionary definitions, synonyms, direct explanations, indirect explanations, and analytical definitions. For formal or analytical definition, specify the term, class, and characteristic(s). Avoid is where and is when definitions, circular definitions, and the use of words in the definition that are more difficult than the word being defined.

Capitalism is an economic system termclass characterized by investment of characteristics money, private ownership, and free enterprise.

Extended Definition Use clustering to consider other patterns of development that may be used to define your term Narration Description Exemplification Analysis by Division Process Analysis Cause and Effect Classification Comparison and Contrast

Order The organization of your extended definition is likely to be one of emphasis, but it may be space or time, depending on subject material. You may use just one pattern of development for the overall sequence.

Ways to Introduce a Definition Question Statement of what it is not Statement of what it originally meant Discussion of why a clear definition is important Combination of these ways

Developing a Definition Development is likely to represent one or more of the patterns of narration, description, exposition, and argumentation. Whether or not you personalize depends on purpose and audience.

Transitional Words for Definition originates from, means, derives from, refers to, for example, as a term, as a concept, label, similar to, different from, in a particular context, in common usage, in historical context

Questions to Ask When Developing Ideas for Argument Background: What is the historical or social context for this controversial issue? Proposition (the thesis of the essay): What do I want my audience to believe or to do? Qualification of proposition: Can I limit my proposition so that those who disagree cannot easily challenge me with expectations? Refutation (taking the opposing view into account, mainly to point out its fundamental weakness): What is the view on the other side, and why is it flawed in reasoning or evidence? Support: in addition to sound reasoning, can I use appropriate facts, examples, statistics, and opinions of authorities?

Basic Form for Paragraph of Argument Proposition (topic sentence or thesis) I. Support 1 II. Support 2 III. Support 3

Transitional Words for Argument it follows that, as a result, causes taken collectively, as a concession, even though, of course, in the context of, in the light of, in the final analysis, following this, further, as additional support, moreover, consequently, according to, in support of, contrary to, therefore, naturally

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