Participatory GIS and decision-making – practical cases in...
Transcript of Participatory GIS and decision-making – practical cases in...
Participatory GIS and decision-making – practical cases in
agriculture, health, livestocks and tourism in Cameroon
Alfred Homère NGANDAM MFONDOUM* 1, 2, 3, Joachim ETOUNA1, 3, 4,
Christian SIMEN1, 3, Orelia TEKUH1, 3, Armel Fabrice MVOGO MOTO1, 3
1 I Love Geomatics; 2Stats N’ Maps; 3University of Yaoundé; 4National Institute of Cartography.
*Corresponding author: Alfred Homère NGANDAM MFONDOUM. I Love Geomatics,
Yaoundé, P.O Box 8381, Cameroon, [email protected]
Abstract – The aim of this paper is to assess the impact of Participatory GIS (PGIS) in the
process of decision-making in a developing country context. This practice is an alternative
process between GIS and Participatory Learning and Action (PLA) methods. It highlights
specificities in agriculture and livestocks, health and tourism whose different departments
are adjusting to government’s efforts to solve local issues while including local populations.
The main methods used here are cognitive mapping and focus groups with GIS facilitators.
The results obtained are Counting Zones, Health Areas and Touristic Spatial Units
delimitations confined or not inside the different district’s boundaries, but consensually
validated by all the stakeholders. It confirms that the Indigenous System of knowledge
(ISK), combined to GIS expertise and administrative coordination, is dynamic in
supporting the Cameroon’s advances on the field of proximity governance and territorial
planning.
Keywords–Cameroon; Cognitive mapping; Decision-making; ISK; PGIS; proximity
governance; territorial planning.
1. Background
Many authors in different words define GIS with the same background. It is a system designed to
capture, store, manipulate, analyze, manage, and present all types of geographical data ([1], [2], [3],
[4],[5]). This computer-based technology is increasingly used in both problem solving and decision
making processes, as well as for visualization of data in a spatial environment and other
numerous activities, which involve map-making ([6];[5]). It is far beyond map drawing performed
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by mapping software, because GIS enable complex spatial analysis ([6]); location, quantities,
densities, contents, nearby, and changes are some among them ([1], [3], [4], [5]).
GIS are usually seen as 'expert' systems because of hardware and software that require a high
level of technical expertise ([6]). Moreover, the data are expensive depending on the project to
conduct or the problem to solve, reinforcing in some cases top-down development planning or
abuse of the populations trust, if the data is not used to improve the circumstances in the
community but exclusive for the interests of the government ([7]). In those circumstances and for
purposes of good decision-making, the concept, techniques and practices of GIS have evolved to
Participatory GIS (PGIS).
PGIS has then emerged as an alternative method. It designates a participatory approach to spatial
planning and information, and communications management, which merges participatory
mapping with modern mapping techniques using GIS ([6], [8], [9], [10], [11]). PGIS put together spatial
analysis techniques and living experience of both modern and cultural or archaic practitioners, by
combining GIS 'expert' skills with socially differentiated local knowledge ([12]). In terms of
decision-making, it is an effort of including less favored groups of society in the process, which
draws on the diversity of experiences associated with participatory development and involves
communities in the production of GIS data and spatial decision-making ([6], [9], [7]).
From the above, it appears that an appropriate use and practice of PGIS could exert profound
impacts on community empowerment, innovation and social change ([10]). This said, how can
PGIS contribute or impulse the decision-making process in the case of Cameroon’s national
governance program?
It is hypothesize that developing countries lack expertise and finances to really access full GIS
technology can relied on the alternative of PGIS to fulfill their spatial decision-making.
Therefore, the aim of this article is to share lessons drawn from PGIS applications for decision-
making in Cameroon. Application’s experiences come from joined government and international
projects on one hand, and academic experimentations on the other hand, on the field of
agriculture, livestocks, health and tourism.
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2. Methodology
2.1. Context of needs and experimentations
Since three decades, Cameroon government is engaged to promote good decision-making and a
proximity governance, via a National Program of Governance (NPG) with the goal of better
understanding population needs and enable their intervention in problem solving. ([13], [14]). All
the fields of socioeconomic life are concerned and the state departments are fully involved in the
process. The specific goals that the two of them are targeting and some others experimentations
ask for PGIS applications.
- Agriculture and livestocks: both the Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Development, and
the Ministry of Livestocks, Fisheries and Animal industries are targeting to control and
improve their national productions. They decided to do so by performing a joined
General Census of Agriculture and Livestocks (GCAL) with many goals that are among
others, the livestock heads count, farms classification and statistics surveys, overlapping
borders of current extension zones claimed by two or more government’s field leads, and
conflicts solving between breeders and farmers in shared spaces. GIS experts of I Love
Geomatics Association have then traduced the goals targeted into needs of a participatory
updating and mapping boundaries of the current zones of agriculture extension, with the
connotation of “agriculture and livestocks counting zones”. (Table 1.). The main
participants mainly identified were government’s sector leads with agriculture
vulgarization agents and local population, especially breeders and farmers.
- Health: the Ministry of Public Health is targeting to promote equitable access to health
care to all the population over the national territory. Except the formation of medical
practitioners, it is important to provide different administrative levels with numbers and
categories of health facilities corresponding. Unfortunately, the delivered authorizations
file showing a considerable growth of health facilities does not correspond with the
existing map on one hand, and some health facilities are classified as belonging to two or
more different health zones. Facing the goal targeted and the conflicts between file and
field reality, I Love Geomatics Association experts have proposed a participatory
updating and mapping of health zones. (Table 1.). Government’s sector leads and others
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health local workers as mobile agent of vaccination are identified to work with local
population.
- Tourism: Since the year 2000, the Ministry of Tourism and Leisure has declared tourism
as “priority economic sector”. It then try to improve the quality of the destination in terms
of sustainable governance and planning for more arrivals. [15],[16],[17] has used participatory
mapping to conduct fieldwork for ecotourism studies in some attractive areas; the main
goals with local populations were then to locate attractions and propose itineraries for a
most integrated planning design renewal. In November 2009 and October-December
2015, while conducting fieldwork for his Ph.D. thesis, he found necessary with local
population to divide the space into spatial units based on touristic attractions, and
population’s daily experience, especially local tourists’ guides.
Although they are expressed differently, the three needs are inviting a deep implication of local
populations in the process, based on the premise that local people are knowledgeable of their
local surroundings and present conditions.([11]). Whether during the field data collection, in the
conception or in the validation of results, every step should be participative and call then to PGIS
practice.
Table 1. Recapitulation of main goals and needs
Theme
Goal to target
Literal expression Subsequent idea GIS translation into
needs
Agriculture
and livestocks
Improve national
production
General Census of
Agriculture and Livestocks
Participatory mapping
of Counting Zones
Health Promote equitable
health care access
Adequate numbers and
categories of health facilities
Participatory updating
of Health Areas
Tourism
Improve the quality
of the destination
Integrated planning renewal
design
Participatory
proposition of Touristic
Spatial Units map
The study area chosen is the Noun Division, located in latitudes North 4°26’- 6°15’20’’ and East
10°15’- 11°30’ in the Cameroon West Region and divided into nine (09) districts (Fig.1.). This
choice is justified by the fact that it is the only division submitted to the tourism
experimentations, while agriculture and health projects where applied and validated on the whole
country.
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Figure 1. Location map
2.2. Methods and materials
The participation of local populations in the PGIS is commonly ensured by using Participatory
Learning and Action (PLA) methods and tools ([18], [10]). Amongst them are cognitive or mental
maps, defined as “a construct which encompasses cognitive processes which enable people to
acquire code, store, recall and manipulate information about the nature of their spatial
environment” ([19]). Their use enables to share and materialize the local communities Indigenous
Spatial Knowledge (ISK). ([9], [11]). Their very basic methods include ephemeral mapping, done
on the ground using raw materials; and sketch mapping, calling for observation or memory
slightly elaborated on pieces of paper using symbols. ([18]). Only the second method has been
used for agriculture and health projects, while both methods have been used for tourism
experimentations especially to create a nature miniature 3D to locate the touristic attractions.
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Cognitive maps were preceded or accompanied by semi-structure interview questionnaires,
highlighting main goals and prepared for focus group. Beside, as the organization of spatial
elements can be identified in mental maps as a marker of socio-spatial representations ([20]), a
sample of local “daily markers” have been selected in advance and sketched on lightly
represented maps to direct the respondents. (Table 2.). The list of markers should be completed
by them with those they find important ([21]), popular and easy to remind. Some of them belong
to the natural environment as valleys, forests, rivers, mountains, tracks; and some others are
selected between human settlements as religious buildings, kings’ palaces or chiefdom, hamlets,
schools, market places, roads, etc.
In every locality, questionnaires combined to small sketches were distributed to individuals or
families; there followed one participatory evaluation with GIS facilitators. (Fig. 2.1.). Based on
the main convergent individuals or families sketches, respondents have been grouped in set of 15
to 25 around large sketches to confront their ideas and produce a common cognitive map,
because in the decision-making process the geographic representations created by the group is
more expressive of the reality than the individual mental maps. ([22]); then followed the second
participatory evaluation with GIS facilitators by submitting every map to the assessment of all
groups participants. The third drawing session could then start, conducted by a member of the
group that have provided the most consensually accepted map. GIS experts would use this last
map for the field verification. To do so, the most accessible daily markers are chosen with local
guides and saved in a mobile GPS. In the case of health goals, the smartphones were equipped
with an Open Data Kit (ODK) questionnaire, directly connected to a central database jointly
managed by I Love Geomatics GIS experts and World Health Organization supervisors.
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Table 2. Sample of tourism PGIS semi-direct composed questionnaires combined with
sketches
Main fieldwork goals/needs Individual/Family/Group sketch with spatial markers
Tourist attractions
(Redraw/Complete on the sketch)
Track to access the attractions
(Redraw/Complete on the sketch)
Places of ordinary daily movements
(Redraw/Complete on the sketch)
Places of special daily movements
(Redraw/Complete on the sketch)
Individual’s more accurate territory
(Redraw/Complete on the sketch)
Family’s more accurate territory
(Redraw/Complete on the sketch)
Group’s more accurate territory
(Redraw/Complete on the sketch)
For the tourism cognitive mapping, a “sand and stones sketching” group session were always
preceding the second and the third steps above. The sticks were used to locate touristic
attractions and the method has brought important changes during the group sketching. For
instance, 64 sketches, which represents 51% of the 125 participants casted in the Touristic
Spatial Units Mayouom-Matié-Manki via Njimom district, have brought modifications to the
final sketches they draw in accordance with the ephemeral mapping. (Table 3.)
Table 3. Tourism PGIS participants influenced by the "sand and stones sketching" group
session in the Touristic Spatial Unit via Njimom district.
Total (Groups) Number of markers or tracks modified on sketches
125 (15*5 & 25*2) One Two Three Four Five More than five
21 (16.8%) 16 (12.8%) 13 (10.4%) 09 (7.2%) 04 (3.2%) 01 (0.8%)
Total 51.2%
The data collected during the GPS campaign were displayed as a spatial map on a medium or
high spatial resolution satellite image in background. (Fig.2.2.). The GIS experts and all the
participants, 75 to 125, then proceed to the last data confrontation through a cross-validation
session. The full methodology flowchart brings more details to the steps. (Fig.2.3.)
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Figure 2.1. Family’s sketch group session for Touristic Spatial Units and Touristic Sites
Sectors boundaries in Njimom district.
Figure 2.2. Display of touristic sites on a spatial map after field campaign
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Figure 2.3. Flowchart resuming the methods steps
3. Results
Three PGIS has emerged from the three projects and experimentations conducted. An overview
of the results reveals deep differences between the existing boundaries and the ones proposed.
GIS software used for the following performing are ArcGis 10.5 and QGIS 3.4.
Before fieldwork Semi-direct questionnaires Sketches Smartphone ODK questionnaires
(Health goals only)
Manual and automatic Design
Individual/Family/Small groups Fieldwork
Extended groups
(10 to 15 participants)
Concertation/Distribution
Ephemeral mapping: Sand and stones
sketching (Tourism goals only)
Focus groups
Debriefing/Evaluation
Large groups
(25 participants) Focus groups
Debriefing/Evaluation
Consensual cognitive map +
local guides + GPS + ODK Validation Campaign
Breeder’s roads tracking
(Livestocks goals only)
Community group
(75 to 125 participants)
Field validation map + Large
screen display of spatial map
Cross-Validation
session
Updating GIS Database +
Shapefiles /Features
PGIS mapping
results
After fieldwork
Focus groups
Debriefing/Evaluation
Ephemeral mapping: Sand and stones
sketching (Tourism goals only)
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3.1.Strengthened GIS databases
One main point of the PGIS has been to collect data with local populations. Therefore, the GPS
fieldwork after the sketches validation has permitted to update the accuracy location of known
items, and discover the unknown ones, enriching and reinforcing by the same way the existing
database. Either new community farms, transhumance field extent, publicly unknown touristic
attractions or inoperative health care facilities, the participant’s knowledge has been greatly
helpful for the new database. The changes includes the labelling and alias, the GPS "X", "Y","Z"
coordinates, and new infrastructures.
Moreover, the existing files of the central administrations about the field reality are more
accurate, because inoperative structures detected are planned to be equipped, and fraudulent ones
are to be officially closed. It is especially the case of health facilities. This leads to a more
efficient intervention plan by concerned ministries with the consent of local populations.
3.2.Transformed maps of zones, areas or sectors needed
After updating the database, the maps were laid out. The main common point is that the proposed
delimitations are crossing district’s boundaries. (Fig.3.)
PGIS agriculture and livestocks maps results bring out ninety (90) Counting Zones
influenced by primary sector’s activities. There are exactly twenty-two (22) (24%) of
them shared between two districts, and five (5) (6%) shared between three districts.
The main reasons of these crossing are the nomadic pastoralists extension zones and
the increasingly community farming practices inside the Noun Division. (Fig. 4.1.)
PGIS health maps show up seventy-two (72) Health Areas, technically designed on the
mean distances. In effect, with the integration of new roads and local tracks used by
local population, the ArcGIS 10.5 Network Analysis extension process has eased to
integrate the mean walking time from the farthest hamlets to the main road, and the
mean driving time from that road to the main health facility. In addition to the
demarcation between Health Areas, this method has enabled to identify the level of
needs in numbers and classes of health facilities, related to inhabitants. Consequently,
eighteen (18) (25%) Health Areas boundaries overcome the limits of two districts,
while seven (10%) are shared by three districts inside the Noun division. (Fig. 4.2.)
Following goals and directions for whole viewing the Noun division’s issues expressed
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by the Ministry of Public Health, the Health areas have been grouped in five majors
Health Districts. (Fig. 4.3.)
Tourism PGIS maps result in twenty-seven (27) sectors, distributed equitably between
nine Tourisic Spatial Units (TSU). One proposition is that eight of the nine Touristic
Spatial Units are shaped out of the sub-division boundaries. This is mainly because
some populations of a neighbouring subdivision most spatially and culturally use some
touristic sites administratively belonging to another subdivision. Composed names
from two or three touristic landmarks are consequently used to designate TSU.
(Table4.). Only the Tourisic Spatial Units of Bancoupèn chiefdom-Nkoumbam via
Bangourain district keeps the same boundaries as the subdivision ones. Another
proposition concerns the delineation of the Touristic Spatial Unit of Mapé-Rifùm-Mata
via Magba district. It is the only TSU, which proposed boundaries exceed the Noun’s
division boundaries, thanks to the historical touristic site of Rifùm (circled in Purple,
Fig.4.4.); this one is the origins of both Bamoun people occupying the Noun division
and Tikar people expanded in a part of the Mayo-Banyo division. There are finally five
spots of spatial changes from subdivision to TSU; the total area of modification is
about 27 km2, bringing the touristic estimated expansion area to 7710 km2, that is
0.35% of the current Noun’s division area (7683km2). The new space shaped is a
territorial representation of tourism activities named for the purpose "Touristic Noun".
(Fig.4.4.)
Figure 3. Screenshot showing Health Areas limits crossing district’s boundaries
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Table 4. The nine Touristic Spatial Units
Touristic Spatial Unit Via the district of…
Bancoupèn chiefdom-Nkoumbam …Bangourain
Njinka/Nkounga-Mambain-Njikètkié …Foumban
Mangoum-Pouo’loum-Larentame …Foumbot
Pètpenoun-Bamendjing-Nkougham …Kouoptamo
Ngoundoup-Nkouchangkap-Didango …Koutaba
Mapé-Rifùm-Mata …Magba
Nchi/Mbam-Mantoum-Manchoutvi …Malantouen
Malandèn-Mfohouon-Maloa …Massangam
Mayouom-Matié-Manki …Njimom
Following different specificities in their approaches, the three PGIS have provided altogether
189 zones, areas and sectors in three types of repartitions.
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Figure 4. A) Agriculture and livestocks Counting Zones; B) Health Areas with district’s
boundaries in background; C) Health Areas distributed in the five Health Districts;
D)Touristic Spatial Units and Touristic Sites Sectors distributed in the Touristic Noun
proposed space
A B
C D
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4. Overview of lessons drawn and Outlooks
The experimentations conducted have led to some important lessons related to PGIS and
decision-making. First, it is one mean amongst others to test and assess the multi stakeholder’s
approach, enabling GIS experts, administrative delegates or agents and local populations to sit
and talk together about development issues. As the practice integrates several tools and methods,
the mixing of semi-structured interviews, focus groups and participatory observation used in the
cases studied have help to do so. This shows how much the maps resulting are supports for
communication, community legacy and local populations advocacy, because they take into
account their feelings, cultural considerations, and just reorganize "the territory they own" for
better assistance. ([9])
As another point, both local populations and government feel most free to act in the new
environment. The populations because their perceptions have been taken in account to build the
boundaries of the territory or the environment they lived in now; and the government because
many projects of national or local governance are less and less adapted to administrative
boundaries mostly inherited from colonization. For any purpose, the new territory is more
flexible and embedded into long-lasting spatial decision-making processes; it consequently offers
more alternatives because PGIS practice adapts to different local circumstances, socio-cultural
and biophysical environments. ([7],[12])
To end up, the combination of GIS techniques and participatory mapping had shown a great
importance in decision-making and territory planning for not only allowing locals populations to
get deeply involved in a development process, but also comforting national experts in their skills
and possibilities offered by the intermediacy of PGIS. Especially on the last point and inspired
by the ODK tool, I Love Geomatics Association experts have designed a new tool named
ILGDatacollector. It enables the collection of the field’s data with an instant tracking of the
interviewer, for punctual redirections or adjustments from the user’s headquarters. Commonly
used with others PLA methods and tools depending on the context, ILGDatacollector has
brought a plus in local PGIS practices, as it is the case for the Agriculture and livestocks
Counting Zones, Health Areas and Health Districts ongoing validations or updating. Moreover,
it makes easier the updating of Cameroon’s cities features through the Open Street Maps (OSM)
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process, known as a Volunteered Geographic Information (VGI) ([23]), enabling the availability
of more recent and updated data for public uses. On the other hand, the experimentations
conducted by [15],[16] and [17] were enough inspiring to propose a complementary tool to the PGIS
process, to expedite the enterprises or government managers in prioritizing their actions. It is a
combination of the Eisenhower matrix and the Analytical Hierarchy Process, that gives a 4*4
matrix called Governance Matrix, accompanied by a scale colored and graduated from 1 (lowest
priority) to 16 (highest priority). [24]
Finally, PGIS practices and its outlooks through the projects and experimentations described in
this paper are definitely time and money saving for governments, empowering and flexible for
population’s participation, and enough enriching and inspiring for GIS experts, in developing
countries for their decision-making process.
5. Acknowledgments
The authors are grateful to the concerned ministries departments, for trusting them as GIS
experts for the projects and approving their technical suggestions of testing PGIS methods. We
are also thankful to the laboratory of image processing and scientific committee whole teams of I
Love Geomatics Association because they took their time to provide comments and reviews to
improve the content of this paper. The general manager of the private consulting firm
GEOVECTORIX has also been awesome by enabling the use of her locals and computers upon
request, as well as participating to debates.
6. Authorship
All the authors have contributed equally to the conception of this article, the design, the data
acquisition, the fieldwork, the processing and the comments, as members of the I Love
Geomatics Association.
7. Conflicts of interest
None
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