Parte IV: Alessandro Volta, nel bicentenario dell'invenzione della pila, 1799-1999.

5/8/2018 Parte IV: Alessandro Volta, nel bicentenario dell'invenzione della pila, 1799-1999. - slidepdf.com

http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/parte-iv-alessandro-volta-nel-bicentenario-dellinvenzione-della-pila-1799-1999 1/12

7;<

R JWQH KP

KI LXIQO AK POIQJ

ONOWJNTH) LHIHGWJTKONK) KNQKQOIJTKONK

AJI :=<: JIIJ PKEKIKJ AHI GKLHNQHNJWKO AHIIJ RKIJ

:=<:

QHFRKHQQO AK L JFNJEO) LOFO. JXIJ POIQJ) XNKPHW\KQÂ AK R JPKJ) R. 7;1

:=<=

FONXFHNQO J POIQJ) LOFO) R. 7;1

:=01

\ JIJ POIQJ) K\QKQXQO IOFGJWAO) R. 7;8

:=5=

LHNQHNJWKO JLLJAHFKLO AK POIQJ) R. 7;8

:==2

K\QKQXQO “ ROK AKRJWQKFHNQO “ AK @K\KLJ ’J. POIQJ‖) R JPKJ) R. 7;8

:=;;

LHNQHNJWKO AHII‛KNPHNTKONH AHIIJ RKIJ) RR. 7;8&7;5

:;:=

RWKFO POIXFH AHII‛HAKTKONH N JTKONJIH AHIIH ORHWH AK POIQJ) R. 7;=

:;75

LHNQHNJWKO AHIIJ FOWQH AK POIQJ H QHFRKO POIQKJNO -:;7=+) RR. 7;=&<22

:;<2

@ONAJTKONH ’JIH\\JNAWO POIQJ‖ RWH\\O JLLJAHFKJ A‛KQJIKJ) WOFJ)-AJI :;11 RWH\\O JLLJAHFKJ N JTKONJIH AHK IKNLHK+ R. <22

:;18

GKLHNQHNJWKO AHIIJ NJ\LKQJ AK POIQJ) R. <2:

:;1;LHNQOLKNZXJNQH\KFO JNNKPHW\JWKO AHII‛KNPHNTKONH AHIIJ RKIJ) R. <2:

:;87

@ONAJTKONH @WJNLH\LO \OFJKNK) QHFRKO POIQKJNO) LOFO) R. <27

:;55

LHNQOLKNZXJNQH\KFO JNNKPHW\JWKO AHIIJ FOWQH AK POIQJ) R. <27

:;=7

LHNQWO AK LXIQXWJ \LKHNQK@KLJ ’J. POIQJ‖) R. <2<

:;;:

GKLHNQHNJWKO AHEIK H\RHWKFHNQK POIQKJNK) R. <2<

:;;8

AXHLHNQOLKNZXJNQH\KFO JNNKPHW\JWKO AHIIJ NJ\LKQJ AK POIQJ) RR. <2<&<21



7;1 KI LXIQO AK POIQJ

Jiij fowqh ak Jih||jnawo Poiqj) |rhnqo|k ji lxifknh ak xnj |qwjowaknjwkj `jfj ak |lkhntkjqo) rwhnah |xgkqo jppko xn‛knlh|&

|jnqh jqqkpkqâ ak onowjnth lhnqwjqh |orwjqqxqqo nhk ixoemk kn lxk heik í pk||xqoh ij |xj jqqkpkqâ |lkhnqk`klj |k í rwhpjihnqhfhnqh h|qwkn|hljqj4 Lofo) Rjpkj) Fkijno.

QHFRKHQQO AK L JFNJEO. Ij rwkfj knktkjqkpj í ij lo|qwxtkonh ak xnqhfrkhqqo) `jqqo hwkehwh ajk `jfkeikjwk kn rwo||kfkqâ ahiij pkiij akLjfrowj) j Ljfnjeo rwh||o Lofo) £ljfrjenj ak|qjnqh |oio xn‛owhqqjaj Lofo) fj |oikqjwkj³) lmh heik jphpj hihqqo nheik xiqkfk jnnk j akfowj`jpowkqj. Ki qhfrkhqqo) rwoehqqjqo kn iknhh nholij||klmh ajii‛jwlmkqhqqoFhilmkowwh No|hqqk) í ahlowjqo lon |qjqxh lmh |kfgoiheekjno ijWhikekonh h ij \lkhntj h lon gj||owkikhpk lmh kiix|qwjno ih knphntkonk ahiio|lkhntkjqo4 i‛hxakofhqwo) ij rk|qoij ja jwkj kn`kjffjgkih) i‛hihqqwo`owo) kilonahn|jqowh h ij Rkij. Nhii‛knqhwno pk `x loiioljqj -:8 fjwto+ xnj ahiihqwh phw|konk ahi gx|qo fjwfowho h|hexkqo aj Ekopjnnk Gjqqk|qj Lofoiik-:558&:=<:+) |kn ajii‛knktko lon|kahwjqo lofh ki rkû |ofkeikjnqh jiio

|lkhntkjqo. Ki rwkfo) |loirkqo jnlowj pkpo ki Poiqj) |k qwopj owj jiijEjiihwkj a‛Jwqh Foahwnj ak Fkijno h i‛jiqwo nhii‛JXIJ POIQJ

AHII‛XNKPHW\KQÂ AK R JPKJ) aoph `x loiioljqo nhi nophfgwh :=<:) -l`w. r.=5+. Ki 8 aklhfgwh :=<: lon xnj |oihnnh lhwkfonkj ih |roeikh ak Jih||jnawo Poiqj phnkpjno qwj|`hwkqh nhi rklloio qhfrko -l`w. r. 7=<+.

J xnj |hqqkfjnj ajiij fowqh ahiio |lkhntkjqo) ki 7< fjwto :=75)ij ’Lonewhejtkonh Fxnklkrjih‖ ak Lofo rxggikljpj xn poqo

xnjnkfh rhw ij lwhjtkonh ak xn Fonxfhnqo ’ji \offo Poiqj‖. @x nofknj&qj xn‛jrro|kqj loffk||konh) lmh qxqqjpkj knlonqw÷ nxfhwo|k o|qjloik) kn rjwqhnjqxwjik -xn‛hrkahfkj ak loihwj kn lkqqâ h xnj |qwjowaknjwkj h|onajtkonh lmh

fk|h kn eknollmko ih `knjnth lofxnjik+ h kn rjwqh roikqklmh -xnj lhwqj o|qkikqâahii‛Jx|qwkj j wklono|lhwh rxggiklk onowk j xn rxw ewjnah rhw|onjeeko lmh hwj |qjqo ’rwoqhqqo‖ ak Njroihonh+. \ljwqjqj i‛kroqh|k) |xeehwkqj aji Eophwno jx|qwkjlo) ak xn fonxfhnqo ji lmkx|o -kn Ljqqhawjih+) |k ekxn|h `knjifhnqhnhi :=<1 jiij ro|j ahiij rwkfj rkhqwj nhiij lhnqwjih rkjttj Dj|lj -owj Poiqj+..

FONXFHNQO J POIQJ) RKJTTJ POIQJ) LOFO. Ki fonxfhnqo `x knjx&exwjqo ki :8 jeo|qo :=<= lon xn‛owjtkonh ak @wjnlh|lo Follmhqqk) jiikh&po h |xllh||owh ak Poiqj nhiij ljqqhawj ak @k|klj j Lofo) lmh ekâ nhi :=<7jphpj aonjqo ji Iklho Poiqj ki gx|qo qxqqowj kpk loiioljqo. Ki fonxfhnqoí orhwj ak Rofrho Fjwlmh|k -:5=;&:=8=+) jiikhpo ahi Ljnopj h rwo`h|&

|owh j Gwhwj. Ki Poiqj pk í wkqwjqqo awjrrheekjqo nhiij qoej rwo`h||owjih)lon ki ljro iheehwfhnqh knliknjqo -lof‛hwj |xo phtto nhii‛hqâ fjqxwj+ h|owwheehnao lon ij ah|qwj ij Rkij. Ki gj|jfhnqo nholij||klo í orhwj ak@wjnlh|lo Axwhiik. I‛kn|khfh í ak wkeowo|j lofro|qhttj h |oihnnkqâ -l`w. r.=<) r. 7=7 h r. 7;2+.

KI LXIQO AK POIQJ

ONOWJNTH) LHIHGWJTKONK) KNQKQOIJTKONK

AJI :=<: JIIJ PKEKIKJ

AHI GKLHNQHNJWKO AHII‛KNPHNTKONH AHIIJ RKIJ

:=<:

:=<=

Ki gx|qo ak Poiqj ahi Lofoiiknhiih |xh nxfhwo|h phw|konk

lono|lkxqh. Kn zxh|qj rjeknj-ajii‛jiqo+4 Rwkfo

owkeknjih):=7=) Ejiihwkj a‛Jwqh Foahwnj ak Fkijno3 Owkeknjih

ak Ljfnjeo -:=<:) whriklj+3

Owkeknjih ahii‛Jxij Poiqj j Rjpkj-:=<:+. J `wonqh4 Ahwkpjtkonh akLh|jwh Ghwwj -:=51+) K|qkqxqo

Iofgjwao3 Ahwkpjtkonh ak Jnqonko Wh|ljiajnk -:;75+Qhfrko Poiqkjno -kn|khfh+.



7;8

I‛K|qkqxqo Iofgjwao Jlljahfkj ak \lkhnth h Ihqqhwh) lmh hgghki ewjnah |lkhntkjqo qwj k |xok rwkfk fhfgwk h lofh rwkfo

Rwh|kahnqh mj |kn ajii‛knktko |poiqo xn wxoio lhnqwjih rhw ij wjlloiqj) ij lon& |hwpjtkonh h ij pjiowkttjtkonh ahiih fhfowkh poiqkjnh -|k phaj jiih rr. :55&:5= h :=2&:;2+.

\ JIJ POIQJ) K\QKQXQO IOFGJWAO. Nhi :=01 phnkpjno knjxexwjqh nhi&i‛jnqklj |hah ahii‛K|qkqxqo) kn Rjijtto Gwhwj) ih \jih Poiqkjnh ah|qknjqh jiijlon|hwpjtkonh ahk Lkfhik |lkhnqk`klk jlzxk|qjqk lon |oqqo|lwktkonh njtko&njih ajiio |qh||o K|qkqxqo. Nhi :;8;) lon ki qwj|`hwkfhnqo ahiij rwh|kahntjh aheik x``klk nhii‛jqqkexo Rjijtto Ijnawkjnk) phnnh jiih|qkqj xnj nxopj hrkû jfrkj \jij Poiqj -l`w. r. :=;+.

LHNQHNJWKO JLLJAHFKLO AK POIQJ) R JPKJ. Wklowwhnao kiLhnqhnjwko ahiij lmkjfjqj ak Jih||jnawo Poiqj j Rwo`h||owh ak

@k|klj ahii‛Jqhnho rjph|h -:=5=+) zxh|q‛xiqkfo akhah pkqj kn rjwqkloijwh j

axh kfrowqjnqk knktkjqkph) i‛xnj ak ljwjqqhwh |lkhnqk`klo) i‛jiqwj ak njqxwjlhihgwjqkpj.

I JXWHH JA MONOWHF. Rhw |oihnnkttjwh ij wklowwhntj) i‛Xnkphw|kqâ akRjpkj lon`hwk|lh ij ijxwhj ja monowhf rhw ij `k|klj j axh ewjnak |lkhntkj&qk lmh |k |ono ak|qknqk nheik |qxak |xii‛hihqqwklkqâ h |xi fjenhqk|fo òwnhn&ao |knqh|k qhowklmh ònajfhnqjik4 Mhwfjnn pon Mhifmoiqt -:=7:&:=;1+h Djfh| Lijwc Fj}uhii -:=<:&:=5;+) ki lxk Fjqqhw jna foqkon -:=55+pkhnh rolmk jnnk aoro -:==:+ rxggikljqo kn haktkonh kqjikjnj j lxwj akEkopjnnk Ljnqonk) akwhqqowh ahii‛K|qkqxqo ak `k|klj ahii‛Xnkphw|kqâ ak Rjpkj.

FONXFHNQO J POIQJ) XNKPHW\KQÂ AK R JPKJ. Ewjtkh jiij ehnhwo|kqâ ak

xn lkqqjakno rjph|h) ki ljpjikhw @wjnlh|lo Nollj) `x hwhqqo nhi lowqkihfjeekowh ahii‛Xnkphw|kqâ -ekâ ’Rowqklo Ihejih‖+ xn fonxfhnqo j Poiqjaofknjqo ajiij |qjqxj j `kexwj knqhwj ak Poiqj whjikttjqj ajiio |lxiqowh Jnqonko Qjnqjwaknk -:=7;&:=5;+) ak|lhroio ak Rofrho Fjwlmh|k) lmh |kk|rkw÷ rhw ih `jqqhtth ahiio |lkhntkjqo jii‛h|hfrijwh ahi Lofoiik lon|hw&pjqo nhiij qofgj ak Ljfnjeo -l`w. r. =7+.

K \QKQXQO “ ROK A KRJWQKFHNQO “ AK @ K\KLJ ’J. P OIQJ‖) R JPKJ. I‛K|qkqxqo ak @k|klj |rhwkfhnqjih ahii‛Xnkphw|kqâ ak Rjpkj

nj|lhpj nhi :==2) nhii‛Kqjikj ro|qxnkqjwkj) |oqqo ij exkaj ak Ekopjnnk

Ljnqonk) lmh nh `x akwhqqowh `kno ji :=;<. I‛K|qkqxqo hwj |hntj |oixtkonh aklonqknxkqâ lon ki Ejgknhqqo ak @k|klj) lmh hwj |qjqo lwhjqo nhi :55< h akwhq&qo aj Poiqj aji :55= ji :=21. Zxjnao nhi :;<5 i‛K|qkqxqo `x qwj|`hwkqo aji Rjijtto lhnqwjih ahii‛Xnkphw|kqâ nhi lo|kaahqqo Roio |lkhnqk`klo) non ljf&gk÷ qxqqjpkj nofh) lofh wklowaj ij ijrkah £|hahf non nofhf nxfhnzxhfxqjpkq³. Akphnnh |xllh||kpjfhnqh K|qkqxqo ak @k|klj |xrhwkowh) rok K|qkqxqo ak @k|klj ehnhwjih) `kno j qwj|òwfjw|k) lon i‛k|qkqxtkonh ahk akrjw&qkfhnqk xnkphw|kqjwk) kn Akrjwqkfhnqo ak @k|klj ’J. Poiqj‖.

L HNQHNJWKO AHII‛ KNPHNTKONH AHIIJ R KIJ. Lofo) lkqqâ njqjih

ak Poiqj) lhihgwj ki lhnqhnjwko ahii‛knphntkonh ahiij Rkij lonxn‛H|ro|ktkonh lmh knqhnah wkpjiheekjwh lon ih ewjnak H|ro|ktkonkXnkphw|jik o|rkqjqh ajiih ewjnak ljrkqjik hxworhh h jfhwkljnh -Pkhnnj) Rjwkek) Lmkljeo+.

:=<:) :=<=) :=01) :=5=) :==2) :==;

I J \OLKHQÂ

\QOWKLJ LOFHN\H

H EIK \QXAK POIQKJNK

@onajqj nhi :=5=) í ij rkû jnqkljj||olkjtkonh lxiqxwjih ahi qhwwkqo&wko aheik owkeknjwk fjnajfhnqkrwopknlkjik h akolh|k ak Lofo -ajIhllo j Pjwh|h) j \onawko) jiLjnqon Qklkno+) lon io |loro akwjlloeikhwnh) |qxakjwnh h ak`òn&ahwnh ij qwjaktkonh |qowklj.Rxggiklj xn rhwkoaklo h xnj loiij&nj -’Wjlloiqj |qowklj‖+) oiqwh j|kneoih orhwh h fonoewj`kh) qwjlxk i‛Orhwj ak Rjoio Ekopko h ijwjlloiqj Ijwkx|. Ro||khah xnj wklljgkgikoqhlj) j ak|ro|ktkonh aheik|qxako|k. \k í ak|qknqj |kn aji :=;;lon ij rxggikljtkonh ak ijpowkahakljqk ja Jih||jnawo Poiqj -JJ.PP.) Wjlloiqj Poiqkjnj+) j lxkmjnno `jqqo |hexkqo4 @. \loijwk)

Rxggikljtkonk poiqkjnh nhi :²Lhnqhnjwko ahiij fowqh -:;70+3 G.\loijwk) Lofo nhii‛hqâ ak Poiqj) hA. Wx|lj) K pkjeek ak Jih||jnawoPoiqj -:;8:+3 P. Ixljqk) Gkgikoewj`kj poiqkjnj nhi :82² jnnkphw|jwko ahiij fowqh -:;=2+3 JJ. PP.) Knqowno j Poiqj -:;;0) Jqqk :;;=3 l`w. r. <21+.

:=01

:=5=

:==2

:=;;



7;0 KI LXIQO AK POIQJ

H\RO\KTKONH POIQKJNJ -RWKFJ H \HLONAJ+. Rwoewjffjqj owkeknjwkj&fhnqh rhw ki :=;8) :82² jnnkphw|jwko ahiij nj|lkqj ak Poiqj)i‛H|ro|ktkonh hwj ahakljqj) oiqwh lmh jii‛h|ro|ktkonh ahk lkfhik ak Poiqj)jii‛knax|qwkj hihqqwklj knqhwnjtkonjih) jii‛knax|qwkj |hwklj njtkonjih) jiihGhiih Jwqk) jiij `iowklxiqxwj) jii‛jwqkekjnjqo fogkikhwo ak Ljnqû) jiih rkl&loih kfrwh|h ioljik h j xn‛h|ro|ktkonh knqhwnjtkonjih ak fjllmknh. Ki

rwoehqqo) nhiij |xj rjwqh jwlmkqhqqonklj h ahlowjqkpj) hwj orhwj ahii‛jw&lmkqhqqo Hxehnko Iknjqk. K rjakeikonk |k h|qhnahpjno rhw xn ixneo qwjqqoajii‛jqqxjih rkjttj Ljpoxw phw|o k ekjwaknk j ijeo h ki ’LjfroEjwkgjiak‖) j wkao||o ahi Goweo Pklo. Ij `jllkjqj rwknlkrjih hwj kn |qkihkfrhwo -|qkih lmh wklmkjfjpj i‛hrolj ak Poiqj+ ha hwj j``kjnljqj aj axhjiqh loionnh wkrwoaxlhnqk ij |jeofj ahiij Rkij. Ij |xrhw`klkh lofrih||k&pj lorhwqj ajiih ejiihwkh hwj ak lkwlj :8.222 fhqwk zxjawjqk. Jlljnqo jeikhnqk rxggiklk) rjwqhlkrjwono jii‛knehnqh kfrheno hlonofklo i‛knqhwj lkq&qjaknjntj h xnj |oqqo|lwktkonh njtkonjih. Jii‛knjxexwjtkonh -72 fjeeko:=;;+ `x rwh|hnqh Xfghwqo K.

I‛= ixeiko xn lowqo lkwlxkqo rwopoljpj xn wopkno|o knlhnako lmh kngwhph qhfro ak|qwx||h k rjakeikonk h ij fjeekow rjwqh ak zxjnqo pk hwjh|ro|qo) qwj lxk zxj|k qxqqk k rwhtko|k lkfhik poiqkjnk -|qwxfhnqk rwh|qjqkrwhpjihnqhfhnqh ajii‛K|qkqxqo Iofgjwao h ajii‛Xnkphw|kqâ ak Rjpkj+. KiLofkqjqo owejnkttjqowh h ij lkqqjaknjntj whjekpjno lon |qwjowaknjwkopkeowh h qhfrh|qkpkqâ. Ki ekownjih ’Ij Rwopknlkj‖ ijnlk÷ xnj |oqqo|lwk&tkonh h) nhi |hqqhfgwh ahiio |qh||o jnno) xnj \hlonaj H|ro|ktkonh) |xrwoehqqo ahiio |qh||o Iknjqk -£ak xnj ewjtkj h ak xnj `wh|lmhttj aj `jw zxj|k akfhnqkljwh i‛jnqklo³) lofh hggh j akwh Ixkek Fj||xhwo) `onajqo&wh h rwkfo akwhqqowh ahi ekownjih+) phnkpj |oihnnhfhnqh knjxexwjqj4 ki:= |hqqhfgwh wklhphqqh ij pk|kqj ak Xfghwqo K jllofrjenjqo ajiij lon&|owqh Fjwemhwkqj h ajii‛hwhah ji qwono Rwknlkrh ak Njroik lon ij lon&|owqh Hihnj ak Fonqhnhewo. Nhiij |qh||j ekownjqj) ij `jfkeikj whjih j||k&

|qhpj kn Axofo jiij rwkfj h|hlxtkonh ahii‛Owjqowko ’Ki Njqjih‖ ak aonIowhnto Rhwo|k.

I‛H|ro|ktkonh Poiqkjnj ahi :=;; j Lofo -ajii‛jiqo+4 k Whjik

jii‛knjxexwjtkonh3 axh |jih3 ij rxggikljtkonh lhihgwjqkpj ahk

Qhihewj`k|qk3 phaxqj jhwhj ahiij rwkfj h|ro|ktkonh.



7;5

Rhw i‛ollj|konh phneono rowqjqh j qhwfknh kn lkqqâ orhwh kn`wj|qwxqqxwj&ik h ak wh|qjxwo4 lo|é i‛Moqhi Riknkx|) |x rwoehqqo ahii‛knehenhwh \jipkonkh ahii‛jwlmkqhqqo @wkehwko -:=;;+) ij whjikttjtkonh ahk ekjwaknk j ijeo) |hw&pktk qwjnpkjwk h ij lorhwqxwj ak xn qwjqqo ahi qowwhnqh Lo|kj.

Kn j||hntj ak xn ljqjioeo ahiih H|ro|ktkonk) j zxh|qj `xntkonh j||oi|hhewhekjfhnqh ki rhwkoaklo ’Lofo h i‛H|ro|ktkonh Poiqkjnj‖) akwhqqo aji&

i‛knehenhw Hnwklo Fx|j h |qjfrjqo nhi low|o ahi :=;; ajiij Qkroewj`kjLoorhwjqkpj Lofhn|h -l`w. r. 7=8+.

Nhii‛jfgkqo ahii‛H|ro|ktkonh |k qhnnhwo jnlmh jilxnk Lonewh||k) qwj lxk ki rwkfo Lonewh||o njtkonjih aheik hihqqwklk|qk kqjikjnk h zxhiih lmh phnnhwolmkjfjqh ih ’@äqh| Poiqkhnnh| ah| Qëiëewjrmk|qh|‖) lonewh||o knqhwnjtko&njih ahk qhihewj`k|qk lmh |k |poi|h qwj Fkijno -<2 fjeeko+) Lofo -<: fje& eko&< ekxeno+) Goioenj -8&0 ekxeno) rhw whnahwh ofjeeko jiij lkqqâ akEjipjnk+) @kwhnth h Wofj -=&:: ekxeno+. J Lofo k qhihewj`k|qk ro|jpjnoxnj qjwej loffhfowjqkpj jiij gj|h ahi Fonxfhnqo ak rkjttj Poiqj.

RWKFO LONEWH\\O N JTKONJIH AHEIK HIHQQWKLK\QK KQJIKJNK) LOFO) :=&

7< EKXENO. Ki Lonpheno) knahqqo |x rworo|qj ak Ekx|hrrh Loiofgo) `xknqwoaoqqo aj xnj fjek|qwjih loffhfowjtkonh ak Poiqj h|ro|qj aj Jxex|qo Wkemk) rwo`h||owh jii‛Xnkphw|kqâ ak Goioenj) kn lxk phnkpj qwjl&lkjqj xnj |knqh|k h|jxwkhnqh ahiih akphw|h ’qhowkh ahiij Rkij‖ h nhiij zxjih`x hnxnlkjqo ki lhihgwh ekxaktko4 £Fhwlë ij Rkij i‛hihqqwklkqâ lh||÷) |k rx÷akwh) ak h||hwh zxj|k h|lix|kpjfhnqh oeehqqo ak |qxako) rhw akphnkwh fhttoak wklhwlj roqhnqk||kfo) `hlonao) xnkphw|jih3 rhw h||j ij |lkhntj roqë |ph&ijwh ha o``wkwh jii‛xofo xnj hnhwekj fxiqkòwfh) lmh ekâ |hfgwj ah|qknjqj j rwoaxwwh nhii‛xfjnj lkpkiqâ fxqjtkonk lo|é rwoònah) aj roqhw|k òw|h rjwjeonjwh |oiqjnqo j zxhiih lmh kn hqâ whfoqj whl÷ i‛x|o ahi `xolo³.

Nhk ekownk 7: h 77 ekxeno |k qhnnhwo ih J||hfgihh ehnhwjik

ahii‛J||olkjtkonh Hihqqwoqhlnklj Kqjikjnj h ahiij \olkhqâ Kqjikjnj ak @k|klj. Jih||jnawo Poiqj dxnkow pk h|ro|h ij rworo|qj ak wkxnkwh kn xn‛xnklj rxggik&ljtkonh ih orhwh |rjw|h ak Poiqj -`xqxwj Haktkonh Njtkonjih+. Qwj k whijqowk

:=;;

Aji gj||o4 Knewh||o ahiij rwkfj H|ro|ktkonh3 ki `xwko|o knlhnakolmh ak|qwx||h ij rwkfj

H|ro|ktkonh3 `jllkjqj ahiij |hlonaj H|ro|ktkonh.

Lmwonkzxh| kiix|qwëh| ah| @äqh|poiqkhnnh| ah| Qëiëewjrmk|qh|.



7;= KI LXIQO AK POIQJ

ahi Lonpheno4 Jnqonko Rjlknoqqk) Djlogx| Mhnwklx| Pjn‛q Mo``) Lh|jwh\jiaknk) Ekx|hrrh Rontko) Gjwqoiofho Ljghiij) Ukimhif Lonwja Wðnqehn.

Nhk ekownk ahi Lonpheno ki nxfhwo ak pk|kqjqowk ahii‛H|ro|ktkonh hwj ekâjwwkpjqo j :22.222. \oijfhnqh jnlowj xnj |hqqkfjnj) ha hllo lmh ki `xwko&|o knlhnako ahii‛= ixeiko jpwhggh kfrwh||o xnj awjffjqklj |poiqj) aj lxkrhwjiqwo ij lkqqâ h eik owejnkttjqowk |k |jwhgghwo wkrwh|k lon oweoeiko h

|qwjowaknjwkj h``klkhntj) ajnao pkqj kn fhn ak axh fh|k jiij \hlonajH|ro|ktkonh -£RO\Q @JQJ WH\XWEO³) qkqoijpjno oweoeiko|h ih lwonjlmh+.

R WKFO POIXFH AHII‛H AKTKONH N JTKONJIH AHIIH O RHWH AK

P OIQJ. Ki fknk|qwo ahi Qh|owo) ki lofj|lo Rjoio Ljwljno) nhi:;20) jlloeikhnao ki poqo ahi lonpheno ahi Lhnqhnjwko ahiij Rkij) knljwk&lj i‛Jlljahfkj ahk Iknlhk h i‛K|qkqxqo Iofgjwao ak lxwjwh h akwkehwh i‛hak& tkonh njtkonjih ahiih orhwh ak Jih||jnawo Poiqj. Pkhnh lo|qkqxkqj xnj lof&fk||konh lon ki lofrkqo ak wjlloeikhwh k fjqhwkjik h rxggikljwik. K |hqqhpoixfk ak Ih orhwh ak J. Poiqj phaono ij ixlh qwj ki :;:= h ki :;7;

-Hakqowh Xiwklo Mohrik) Fkijno+. J zxh|qk `jnno |hexkqo) |oqqo eik jx|rklkahii‛K|qkqxqo Iofgjwao h ahiij \olkhqâ Kqjikjnj ak @k|klj) k lknzxh poixfkahii‛Hrk|qoijwko nhi rhwkoao :;1;&:;88) ki poixfh ak Jeekxnqh nhi :;00h kn`knh k axh poixfk ak Knaklk nhi :;51&:;50 -Hakqowh Tjnklmhiik) Goioenj+. Rhw eik knqhwphnqk ro|qk kn jqqo nhi low|o ahiih Lhihgwjtkonk ahi Gklhnqhnjwko ahiij Rkij |k phaj jiih rr. :=2&:=5 h r. 715.

L HNQHNJWKO AHIIJ FOWQH AK P OIQJ ) Q HFRKO P OIQKJNO ) :;7=. Ij lkqqâ njqjih ak Poiqj poiih rhw i‛ollj|konh wknnopjwh h

|xrhwjwh k `j|qk ahii‛H|ro|ktkonh Poiqkjnj ahi :=;; lon xnj |hwkh ak knktkj&qkph lmh) jlljnqo j zxhiih h|ro|kqkph) pkahwo kfrowqjnqk fjnk`h|qjtkonk ak

ljwjqqhwh |lkhnqk k̀lo h knqhwphnqk kn`wj|qwxqqxwjik ak wkikhpo) nonlmë ij whj&ikttjtkonh ak orhwh jwlmkqhqqonklmh ak hihpjqo kfrjqqo fonxfhnqjih h |kenk̀ kljqo k|qkqxtkonjih. @xwono lo|qkqxkqk xn Lofkqjqo a‛Onowh) xnLofkqjqo h|hlxqkpo akwhqqo aj Exeikhifo Fjwlonk) xnj Loffk||konh rhw eik |qxak poiqkjnk h xnj Loffk|konh rhw k Lonewh||k \lkhnqk`klk) rwh|khaxqjaj Zxkwkno Fjdowjnj. Ij \hewhqhwkj Ehnhwjih ahi Lofkqjqo rhw ihOnowjnth j Poiqj) rwh|khaxqo ajii‛on. Gjwjekoij) phnnh j``kajqj jii‛kf&

:;75

:;:=

Ki Qhfrko Poiqkjno -jwlmkqhqqo @hahwklo @wkehwko+4 `oqoewj`kj

ahii‛hrolj h `wonqh|rktko ahipoixfh kn `oiko ak rwh|hnqjtkonh

ahii‛orhwj rxggikljqo aji

fhlhnjqh @wjnlh|lo \ofjknklon k qkrk ak Fjwahw|qhke.

Ki Qhfrko Poiqkjno axwjnqh kijpowk -:;70+4 ij |qwxqqxwj kn

lhfhnqo jwfjqo. \oqqo4 Rijnkfhqwkj.



7;;

rwhnakqowh lofj|lo Hnwklo Fx|j) j lxk `hlh ljro ki loowaknjfhnqo qwjknax|qwkjik |hwklk) rhw|onjeek ahi fonao jlljahfklo h jxqowkqâ roikqklmhnjtkonjik h ioljik.

H\RO\KTKONH POIQKJNJ. Lofh |hah ahii‛H|ro|ktkonh `x rwh|lhiqj ijPkiij ahii‛Oifo) nhi |oggoweo ak Goweo Pklo) jlzxk|qjqj aji Lofxnh ak

Lofo jiij `jfkeikj Pk|lonqk ak Foawonh lon ki lonlow|o ahk lkqqjaknk hahi Lofkqjqo Poiqkjno. Rhw i‛ollj|konh phnnhwo whjikttjqk ajii‛jwlmkqhqqoNjroihonh Fonqow`jno rjakeikonk h ejiihwkh ro|qkllh) jakjlhnqk ji rjwloh jiij pkiij. Kn qxqqo ij |xrhw`klkh lorhwqj hwj ak :7.222 fhqwk zxjawjqk.

I‛h|ro|ktkonh hwj jwqkloijqj kn qwh |htkonk rwknlkrjik4 i‛H\RO\KTKONH AHIIH

KNAX\QWKH KAWOHIHQQWKLMH) lmh wjrrjwh|hnqjpj ih rkû kfrowqjnqk owej&nkttjtkonk ak ljqheowkj3 i‛H\RO\KTKONH KNQHWNJTKONJIH AK QHIH@ONKJ H

QHIHEWJ@KJ) lmh h|ronhpj k lkfhik h xn‛jfrkj aolxfhnqjtkonh aheik|lwkqqk poiqkjnk3 i‛H\RO\KTKONH N JTKONJIH \HWKLJ) lmh aolxfhnqjpj ijpkqjikqâ ahii‛kfrwhnakqowkj lofj|lj jqqwjphw|o i‛jiih|qkfhnqo ak xn rjak&eikonh) lo|qwxkqo jk ijqk ahiij Pkiij) lonqhnhnqh qhijk h `kijqok.

LONPHENO KNQHWNJTKONJIH AHK @K\KLK. K|qkqxqo Ljwaxllk) Lofo ::&:0|hqqhfgwh -|h||konk |lkhnqk`klmh+3 Xnkphw|kqâ ak Rjpkj) :5 |hqqhfgwh -pk|k&qj+3 Wofj) 7:&77 |hqqhfgwh -lhwkfonkj x``klkjih kn Ljfrkaoeiko h pk|kqh+.Rhw zxh|qo hphnqo) wk|xiqjqo xno ahk rkû kfrowqjnqk jrrxnqjfhnqk |lkhn&qk`klk lmh |k |kjno qhnxqk kn Kqjikj nhk rwkfk ahlhnnk ahi Nophlhnqo h lmhwklmkjf÷ j Lofo) Rjpkj h Wofj -zxh|qh ih qwh |hak ahi Lonpheno+ k’rjawk‖ ahiij `k|klj foahwnj) |k wkfjnaj jii‛knqhwphnqo ak @wjnlo Gj||jnk rxggikljqo jiih rr. 05&57 ak zxh|qo poixfh. Ij |hah rhw ih |h||konk lofj&|lmh ahi Lonewh||o `x i‛Jxij ak |lkhnth -owj \jij Lj|jwqhiik+ ahii‛K|qkqxqoLjwaxllk. Ij \jij whlj nhiih ahlowjtkonk jiih rjwhqk -rkqqowh JlmkiihTjfghiik+ k fhajeikonk lon k nofk ahk Lonewh||k|qk

@ JWO POIQKJNO) \ JN F JXWKTKO \ORWJ GWXNJQH -LOFO+. I‛kahj ak xnj£onowjntj rhwrhqxj j Poiqj rhw fhtto ak xn `jwo³ wk|jih jk rwkfk ahiNophlhnqo h `x rworxenjqj) kn rjwqkloijwh) aj xn whikeko|o) Aon IxkekExjnhiij) jfklo ahiih |lkhnth h ahi rwoewh||o. Kn ollj|konh ahi lhnqhnjwkoahiij fowqh ahiio |lkhntkjqo) i‛kahj “ non h|hnqh ajiih |xeeh|qkonk whikeko|h

:=;;) :;:=) :;75



<22 KI LXIQO AK POIQJ

jikfhnqjqh ajiij gkoewj`kj jroioehqklj ak Poiqj whajqqj aj Ljiik|qo Ewjnak “`x wkrwh|j ajk Ro|qhihewj`onklk Kqjikjnk) lmh wkx|lkwono j whjikttjwh rhw ki:;75) kn ioljikqâ \jn Fjxwktko |orwj Gwxnjqh) xnj qowwh `jwo |xii‛h|hfrkoak zxhiio ak \jn Fjwqkno ahiij Gjqqjeikj. \x rwoehqqo ahii‛knehenhw EjgwkhihEkx||jnk) ij qowwh) kn lhfhnqo jwfjqo) í jiqj 7; fhqwk h whlj jiij |offkqâxn `jwo hihqqwklo lmh rwokhqqj “ wxoqjnao jiij phiolkqâ ak xn ekwo ji fknxqo

“ `j|lk ixfkno|k ak loiowh phwah) gkjnlo h wo||o `kno j xnj ak|qjntj ak 12&82 lmkiofhqwk -ajiij ah|lwktkonh ak X.@. Foiqhnk) |k phaj r. 7:=+.

QHFRKO POIQKJNO) LOFO. Poixqo ajii‛knax|qwkjih h xofo roikqklo@wjnlh|lo \ofjknk rhw o|rkqjwh k lkfhik ak Poiqj whlxrhwjqk h wklo|qwxkqkaoro i‛knlhnako ahi :=;; h aonjqo jiij lkqqâ kn ollj|konh ahi Lhnqhnjwkoahiij fowqh ahi ewjnah |lkhntkjqo) ki Qhfrko Poiqkjno í xn fjx|oiho&|jlwjwko hwhqqo kn `owfh nholij||klmh fj |x |qwxqqxwj kn lhfhnqo jwfjqoajii‛jwlmkqhqqo @hahwklo @wkehwko. Knjxexwjqo i‛jnno |xllh||kpo -:;7=+)h||o í akphnqjqo xno ahk |kfgoik ahiij lkqqâ h xno ahk fx|hk |lkhnqk`klk rkûpk|kqjqk kn Kqjikj4 |haklk phqwknh rwh|hnqjno i‛kqknhwjwko |lkhnqk`klo ak Poiqj)ajk rwkfk h|rhwkfhnqk ak hihqqwoioekj jiih h|rhwkhnth |xk ej|) jiij Rkij jqqwj&

phw|o i‛h|ro|ktkonh ak xnj ewjnah pjwkhqâ ak |qwxfhnqk) qwj lxk |k ak|qkn&exono zxhiik -whlxrhwjqk ajiih lhnhwk ahii‛knlhnako+ xqkikttjqk o lo|qwxkqkajiio |qh||o Poiqj. Ij ejiihwkj ahi ioeekjqo í wk|hwpjqj jiij aolxfhnqjtko&nh ahii‛orhwj |lkhnqk`klj) ahiij pkqj h ahiij `jfj ahi `k|klo lofj|lo. Jqqxjihlon|hwpjqowh ahi Qhfrko Poiqkjno í Rkhqwo Qoah|lmknk.

Qwj ih jiqwh orhwh whjikttjqh j Lofo nhi :;75 |k |henjijno io \qjako\knkejeikj) lo|qwxkqo rhw o|rkqjwh ih ejwh |rowqkph) h ki wh|qjxwo ahiij qowwhahi Gwoihqqo. Kn qxqqh ih |lxoih kqjikjnh ki 8 fjwto :;75 `x ahakljqo jiijloffhfowjtkonh ak Poiqj. \hqqkfjnh ak |qxako `xwono knahqqh ajifonao jlljahfklo njtkonjih.

Io |qh||o Kn|qkqxq ah @wjnlh “ Jljaëfkh ah| \lkhnlh| rxggikljpj nhi:;75) kn @wjnlkj) ki qh|qo ahii‛jiiolxtkonh qhnxqj aj Rjxi Djnhq jiLonewh||o Knqhwnjtkonjih ahk `k|klk i‛:: |hqqhfgwh :;75) nhi low|o ahiijekownjqj knjxexwjih rwh||o ki Qhjqwo \olkjih ak Lofo. Ki qh|qo |k lonlix&ahpj lon ki noqo jnhaaoqo wkrowqjqo aj Pklqow Mxeo) |hlonao ki zxjih£xn ekowno) rj||jnao rhw ij Gkgikoqhlj ahii‛Kn|qkqxq Njqkonji ajpjnqk j

Rjeknj rwhlhahnqh -ajii‛jiqo+4 Knjxexwjtkonh ahi Qhfrko

Poiqkjno) :;7= -kn rwkfo rkjno4 @hahwklo @wkehwko) ki Ljwaknjih

Fj``k h @wjnlh|lo \ofjknk+3Ljwqoiknj ahi :;753 ij Poiqkjnj

-:;70) fhn|kih+3 ki Lonewh||oahk @k|klk.

Kn zxh|qj rjeknj4 Hnwklo Fx|j3fhajeikonk ahii‛Jxij ak |lkhnth) K|qkqxqo Ljwaxllk) Lofo3 Pkiij

Oifo) |hah ahii‛H|ro|ktkonh ahi:;75.

J `wonqh4 -kn gj||o+ Jnqonko\rjiikno) Ekxiko Lj|jqk hEkjn`wjnlo Fkeiko jiij lmkx|xwj

ahii‛Jnno poiqkjno :;553 -jilhnqwo+ Nxfhwo xnklo rhw ih

Lhihgwjtkonk ahi :;1;.



<2:

xnj lowonj a‛jiiowo ahakljqj ”JX EWJNA P OIQJKWH‛) Njroihonh jpwhggh ewjqqjqo lon i‛xnemkj ih xiqkfh qwh ihqqhwh rhw non ij|lkjwh lmh ”JX EWJNA

P OIQJ‛³.

@ ONAJTKONH ’J IH\\JNAWO P OIQJ‖) RWH\\O JLLJAHFKJ A‛K QJIKJ )

WOFJ. K|qkqxkqj rhw knakwh lonphenk rhwkoaklk |x rworo|qj ahiihaxh lij||k ahii‛Jlljahfkj -\lkhnth @k|klmh h \lkhnth Fowjik+) í |qjqj aji :;11 jnnh||j jii‛Jlljahfkj Njtkonjih ahk Iknlhk. Ki rwkfo lonpheno) |xiij @k|klj Nxlihjwh) |k qhnnh nhi :;<:3 nh |hexkwono axh |xii‛Hxworj -:;<<+ h jiqwwkxnaklk `kno ji :;5:) |x qhfk lmh pjnno ajii‛kffxnoioekj jii‛jpkjtkonh) jiijfjqhfjqklj jk wjrrowqk qwj Owkhnqh h Ollkahnqh nhi Fhakohpo -:;85 h :;0;+.Eik jqqk |ono |qjqk rxggikljqk ajiij @onajtkonh kn xn‛jrro|qj loiijnj.

G KLHNQHNJWKO AHIIJ NJ\LKQJ AK P OIQJ. Nono|qjnqh ij awjf&fjqklj |kqxjtkonh ahi Rjh|h jnlowj |lo||o ajiih pklhnah ghiik&

lmh) |k qhnnhwo j Lofo loffhfowjtkonk ak Jih||jnawo Poiqj rwh||o kiQhjqwo \olkjih) nhiij Ljqqhawjih h jiij Qofgj ak Poiqj.

LOFO JA J IH\\JNAWO P OIQJ NHI KK L HNQHNJWKO AHIIJ NJ\LKQJ

F K\LHIIJNHJ AK \LWKQQK ) F JWTOWJQK HAKQOWH) LOFO :;18. Ki Poixfh)hakqo j lxwj ahi Fxnklkrko ak Lofo h ahi Lofkqjqo rhw ih onowjnth jPoiqj) lonqhnhpj |jeek ak Ekopjnnk Roipjnk h Ljwio Poirjqk |x qhfk |lkhn&qk`klk) ak Ekxikjno Jikjqk) @hahwklo @wkehwko) Hqqowh Woqj) Ixkek Wophiik hRkhqwo Pjlljwk |xeik j|rhqqk |qowklk h klonoewj`klk. Lmkxahpj ki poixfh xngwhph |jeeko j lxwj ahiij \olkhqâ Kawohihqqwklj Lofjlknj) |xii‛orhwj akPoiqj nhiio |pkixrro ahii‛knax|qwkj hihqqwklj.

L HNQOLKNZXJNQH\KFO JNNKPHW\JWKO AHII‛ KNPHNTKONH AHIIJ

R KIJ. Ij ’Poiqkjnj‖) owejno x``klkjih ahi Lofkqjqo rhw ih ono&wjnth j Poiqj nhi :82² jnnkphw|jwko ahii‛knphntkonh ahiij Rkij) x|lkpj nhifjeeko :;1; lon ki rwoewjffj ahiih fjnk`h|qjtkonk4 xn kn|khfh ak|ofo&

ehnho ak hphnqk ak ak|rjwjqj njqxwj4 Lonpheno njtkonjih ahk \knajlk h ahk Rwh|kahnqk ahiih Jffknk|qwjtkonk rwopknlkjik3 Lonlow|o krrklo njtkonjih3

:;75) :;<2) :;18) :;1;

:;<2

:;18

:;1;

Lorhwqknj ahi Poixfhlhihgwjqkpo hakqo j Lofo nhi

:;18.



KI LHNQWO AK LXIQXWJ

\LKHNQK@KLJ ’J. POIQJ‖

Ki Lhnqwo Poiqj “ lofh í rkû gwh&phfhnqh lono|lkxqo “ í xn‛J||o&lkjtkonh |hntj |loro ak ixlwo ekx&wkakljfhnqh wklono|lkxqj) ak lxk|ono \olk ki Lofxnh) i‛Jffk&nk|qwjtkonh rwopknlkjih h ijLjfhwj ak loffhwlko ak Lofo)ij Whekonh Iofgjwakj h k iLofxnh ak Ljfrkonh a‛Kqjikj.Ogkhqqkpo |olkjih í ij rwofotkonhahiij lxiqxwj |lkhnqk`klj h qhlnoio&eklj) ji |hwpktko ahiij |olkhqâ lkpkihh ahii‛hlonofkj) nhi nofh ahi|offo `k|klo Jih||jnawo Poiqj.Qjih ogkhqqkpo pkhnh wjeekxnqojqqwjphw|o io |poiekfhnqo ak jqqk&pkqâ k|qkqxtkonjik) knakwkttjqh aj xnLon|keiko |lkhnqk`klo k lxk fhfgwk|ono ah|kenjqk ajk Whqqowk aheik

Jqhnhk ahiij Iofgjwakj) lon k

zxjik ki Lhnqwo mj |qkrxijqo xn‛jr&ro|kqj Lonphntkonh.

Ih jqqkpkqâ ahi Lhnqwo Poiqj |k |pk&ixrrjno ixneo zxjqqwo akwhqqwklkrwknlkrjik4& i‛owejnkttjtkonh ak hphnqk hfjnk`h|qjtkonk ak jiqo rwo`kio|lkhnqk`klo3& ij lo|qkqxtkonh ak xnj whqh akloorhwjtkonh |lkhnqk`klj knqhwnj&tkonjih3& io |pkixrro ak jqqkpkqâ poiqh j`jpowkwh i‛jrrikljtkonh ahk wk|xiqj&


Fo|qwj ak hihqqwklkqâ jrrikljqj3 @h|qkpji lknhfjqoewj k̀lo Pkiij Oifo3 @h|qkpji njtkonjih ahiij ljntonh3 Fo|qwj `iowowqk`wxqqkloij3 Lonewh||oknqhwnjtkonjih ahk @k|klk -|k phaj zxk |oqqo+3 ::² Lonlow|o knqhwnjtkonjih Hihejntj Jxqofogkik3 Lonewh||o knqhwnjtkonjih ahiij qhihpk|konh -owejnkt& tjqo ajii‛JNKH+.

LONPHENO KNQHWNJTKONJIH \XK W JEEK LO\FKLK) \HQQHFGWH :;1;)P JWHNNJ. Ij \olkhqâ Kqjikjnj ak @k|klj) wk|owqj ewjtkh ji lonqwkgxqo ak Eko&pjnnk Roipjnk) lmh jphpj `onajqo nhi aoroexhwwj ij \lxoij Knqhwnjtkonjih ak@k|klj ak Pkiij Fonj|qhwo j Pjwhnnj) owejnktt÷ nhi :;1; “ kn ollj|konh ahi:82² jnnkphw|jwko ahii‛knphntkonh ahiij Rkij “ xn Lonpheno knqhwnjtkonjih|xk Wjeek lo|fklk) j lxk rjwqhlkr÷ Hnwklo @hwfk -rwh|hnqjqo aji Rwo&ewjffjlofh ’ewjnah `k|klo kqjio&jfhwkljno‖+) ji |xo rwkfo wkhnqwo kn Kqjikj.

@ ONAJTKONH @ WJNLH\LO \OFJKNK ) LOFO. Kn ofjeeko jiihpoionqâ ahi aonjqowh ahi Qhfrko Poiqkjno) ij `jfkeikj pk k|qk&

qxk|lh xnj @onajtkonh j ixk knqkqoijqj lon io |loro ak rwhfkjwh h knlowje& ekjwh kn Kqjikj) nhi nofh ak Jih||jnawo Poiqj) eik |qxak ak `k|klj. Pkhnh lo|ék|qkqxkqo ki Rwhfko qwkhnnjih rhw ij `k|klj @wjnlh|lo \ofjknk “ j``hwfjqo|klofh xno ahk rkû rwh|qkeko|k wklono|lkfhnqk kn Kqjikj rhw rhw|onjikqâ ahifonao |lkhnqk`klo “ lmh pkhnh j||henjqo rhw ki :;87 j Rkhwo Ljiakwoij. Ki Rwhfko í j``kjnljqo aj gow|h ak |qxako rhw wklhwljqowk h |qxahnqk.

L HNQOLKNZXJNQH\KFO JNNKPHW\JWKO AHIIJ FOWQH AK P OIQJ. Ki8 fjwto ki \knajlo ak Lofo) Jnqonko \rjiikno) jrwkpj

i‛’Jnno Poiqkjno‖. Kn ekownjqj) phnkpjno rwh|hnqjqk ki poixfh \qowkj ahifhqjno ak Ljwio Rjoionk h ki `kif Jih||jnawo Poiqj4 \qowkj ak xn ehnko j

fk|xwj a‛xofo -Qhihpk|konh ahiij \pktthwj Kqjikjnj+.

LONPHENK) LONEWH\\K H LON@HWHNTH. Lonpheno&akgjqqkqo \lkhntj h |olkhqâ nheik xiqkfk :82 jnnk -7= fjeeko+3 @wjnlo \owh|knk) Poiqj h ih qhih&lofxnkljtkonk -:7 ekxeno) J||olkjtkonh Wjakoqhlnklj Kqjikjnj+3Lonpheno knqhwnjtkonjih Ki lofrowqjfhnqo |qolj|qklo kn |k|qhfk lij||klkh zxjnqk|qklk -akwhqqowk Ekxiko Lj|jqk h Do|hrm @owa) Lhwnoggko) 72&78ekxeno4 i‛jfhwkljno Fkqlm @hkehngjxf rwh|hnqj xnj fhfowkj lmh ehqqjih gj|k ak xnj nxopj |lkhntj) ij ’Qhowkj ahi ljo|‖+3 LNW) K|qkqxqo akHlonofkj ak Ghwejfo) Qhowkj ahk |k|qhfk aknjfklk kn hlonofkj -Pjwhnnj)ekxeno+3 Knqhwnjqkonji \lmooi o` Rij|fj Rm{|kl|) Ij qhowkj ahk rij|fk

fjenhqkljfhnqh lon`knjqk -owejnkttjqowh Rkhwo Ljiakwoij) Pjwhnnj) :²&:0|hqqhfgwh+3 I]]PKKK Wkxnkonh njtkonjih JHK -Pkiij Oifo) Lofo) :=&7<|hqqhfgwh+3 I]KKK Lonewh||o ahiij \olkhqâ Kqjikjnj ak @k|klj h Lon|henjahi Rwhfko |qwjowaknjwko rhw ij @k|klj ’@wjnlh|lo \ofjknk‖ j Haojwao Jfjiak -Pkiij Oifo) Lofo) jrhwqxwj := |hqqhfgwh) rwh|hnqk k rwhfkNoghi Gj|op) Giolm) \hewí h Qkne+3 KN@N) Ij `k|klj ahiih rjwqklhiih hih&fhnqjwk -Ljfrkonh a‛Kqjikj) |hqqhfgwh+3 Ekownjqh ak |qxako poiqkjnh h Fo|qwj ak fjno|lwkqqk -K|qkqxqo Iofgjwao) :2&:: oqqogwh+3 \olkhqâ\qowklj Lofhn|h) Lon`hwhnth Poiqkjnh -knktko := oqqogwh3 Jqqk) :;5=+.

FO\QWH) W J\\HENH HA HPHNQK. HNHI) Fo|qwj Hnhwekj hihqqwklj4 ajiij Rkij ak Poiqj j oeek -Gwoihqqo) Lofo+3 Fo|qwj `kijqhiklj ’Lkqqâ ak Lofo‖

-Lixg H|rhwkj+3 Fo|qwj ak rkqqxwj Ki rjqwkfonko a‛jwqh ahiij lkqqâ3 Fo|qwj|xiih Lhihgwjtkonk poiqkjnh ahi rj||jqo -\olkhqâ \qowklj Lofhn|h h QhfrkoPoiqkjno+3 JRQ h Lkwloio lxiqxwjih Heo&Ka) Rwkfj |hihqqkpj knqhwnjtkonjihak rkqqxwj h ewj`klj ’Jih||jnawo Poiqj‖3 Lkwloio Heo&Ka) HNJI Rwopknlkjih

:;87

:;55



<2<

h @jfkeikj Lofj|lj) Lonlow|o ihqqhwjwko3 Lkwloio @oqoewj`klo Lofo hLjfhwj ak Loffhwlko ak Lofo) Wj||henj fonakjih ak òqoewj`kj3 Gjiihqqkwx||k -J||olkjtkonh ’Kqjikj&XW\\‖) Qhjqwo \olkjih+3 XLRQ) Rjwjqj ak phqwk&nh kn onowh ak Poiqj3 Ljffknjqj jqqowno jk ixoemk poiqkjnk) fjnk`h|qjtko&nh roak|qklj3 Gx|qo kn gwonto ak Poiqj) Lj|j njqjih kn Pkj Poiqj) Lofo-jiiolxtkonh ak Rkhwo Ljiakwoij+3 Qjwej ji Qhfrko Poiqkjno -IHWKH+3

Lonlhwqo ak fx|klmh ak lofro|kqowk lofj|lmk ahi \hqqh& h Oqqolhnqo-Gj|kiklj ak \. @hahih) Lofo) Jnqkzxjh Fx|kljh Kqjikljh \qxako|k+3@kijwfonklj ’J. Poiqj‖ h Ljrrhiij fx|kljih ahi Axofo ak Lofo)Lonlhwqo kn onowh ahk :82 jnnk ajiij fowqh ak Poiqj h ak Ghhqmophn.

L HNQWO AK LXIQXWJ \LKHNQK@KLJ ’J. P OIQJ‖) LOFO. XnjLonphntkonh qwj ij Ljfhwj ak Loffhwlko ak Lofo) ki

Roikqhlnklo ak Fkijno h ih Xnkphw|kqâ aheik \qxak ak Fkijno h ak Rjpkj ajpjpkqj j xn Lhnqwo knqkqoijqo jiij fhfowkj ak Jih||jnawo Poiqj) ih lxk `knj&ikqâ “ rxw non lonlhnqwjnao|k |xiij pjiowkttjtkonh ahiih fhfowkh poiqkjnh “ qxqqjpkj |k wk`jlhpjno jiij qwjaktkonh |lkhnqk`klj ahiij lkqqâ h ahi qhwwkqo&wko ak Lofo) wh|j |orwjqqxqqo eiowko|j ajiij `kexwj ahi ewjnah `k|klo. I‛jqqolo|qkqxqkpo) |hexkqo nhi :;=<) h ki wklono|lkfhnqo whekonjih ahi :;=1ajpjno ji Lhnqwo |oikakqâ k|qkqxtkonjih zxjih J||olkjtkonh |hntj |loro akixlwo ekxwkakljfhnqh wklono|lkxqj j |xrrowqo ahi qhwwkqowko h ahiihXnkphw|kqâ iofgjwah rhw ij rwofotkonh ahiij lxiqxwj |lkhnqk`klj. Ki |xokfrheno nheik jnnk :;;1&7227 nhiij rjwqhlkrjtkonh jk LofkqjqkLofj|lo) Whekonjih h Njtkonjih rhw ih Lhihgwjtkonk ahi Gklhnqhnjwkoahiij Rkij h nhiij whjikttjtkonh ak xn ewjn nxfhwo ak knktkjqkph nhii‛jfgk&qo ahiih Lhihgwjtkonk rhw ki 782² jnnkphw|jwko ahiij nj|lkqj ak Poiqj) rwkfj)h ahi Gklhnqhnjwko ahiij Rkij) rok) mj lon`hwfjqo ij |xj poljtkonh ak owej&nkttjqowh lxiqxwjih jnlmh kn wk`hwkfhnqo jiij pjiowkttjtkonh ahiij `kexwj

ahi ewjnah |lkhntkjqo.

G KLHNQHNJWKO AHEIK H\RHWKFHNQK POIQKJNK . Rhw loffhfowjwhi‛jppko aheik h|rhwkfhnqk lmh jpwhgghwo rowqjqo jii‛knphntkonh

ahiij Rkij) ij Axwjlhii Knqhwnjqkonji Knl. rxggiklj ki poixfh Ofjeeko jiij\lkhntj ) j lxwj ak Wklljwao Ejiik) lon ij loiijgowjtkonh ahiij @onajtkonh @wjnlh|lo \ofjknk.

AXHLHNQOLKNZXJNQH\KFO JNNKPHW\JWKO AHIIJ NJ\LKQJ AK P OIQJ.

Ki :5 `hggwjko) pkekikj ahii‛jnnkphw|jwko) ki Ewxrro ak Ijpowo rhw ih Lhihgwjtkonk Poiqkjnh -lofro|qo aji Lofxnh) ajiij Rwopknlkj h ajiijLjfhwj ak Loffhwlko ak Lofo h aji Lhnqwo ak Lxiqxwj \lkhnqk`klj ’J. Poiqj‖h |xllh||kpjfhnqh k|qkqxkqo|k kn Lofkqjqo+ knaklh xnj lon`hwhntj |qjfrj rhw i‛jppko ahi Rwoewjffj ak fjnk`h|qjtkonk ahi Gklhnqhnjwko ahii‛knphntkonhahiij Rkij. Whijqowk |ono @jgko Ghpkijlzxj ahii‛Xnkphw|kqâ aheik \qxak ak Rjpkj) Wklljwao Ejiik ahii‛Xnkphw|kqâ aheik \qxak ak Fkijno h ki Rwh|kahnqh ahi LhnqwoPoiqj) Jnqonko \rjiikno.

RXGGIKLJTKONK) LONPHENK) LONEWH\\K H LON@HWHNTH. Jilxnh knktkjqk&ph mjnno rwhlhaxqo i‛jppko x``klkjih) lofh4 Ixlko @wheonh|h) ’Eik knìx|&|k ak Go|lopklm h ahiij lmkfklj ahiih j``knkqâ nhiih rwkfh `j|k ahii‛hihqqwo&ioekj ak Poiqj‖ -kn4 Lhnqwo ak Lxiqxwj \lkhnqk`klj‖J. Poiqj‖) Lhnqwo Poiqj) Jrrxnqk) knqhwphnqk) whijtkonk aj xn jnno ak jqqkpkqâ) :;;<+3 @jfkeikjLofj|lj) Xi Qjlxkn ak lxfj|lm rjw xi :;;8) lon fhajeikonk |qowklk ahak&ljqk jiij pkqj h jiih orhwh ak Poiqj.

:;1;) :;87) :;55) :;=7) :;;:) :;;8

qk ahiij wklhwlj |lkhnqk`klj h qhlno&ioeklj ji qh||xqo hlonofklo) rwo&axqqkpo h |olkjih ahi qhwwkqowko3& ij ak``x|konh ahiij lxiqxwj |lkhn&qk`klj h qhlnoioeklj j qxqqk k ikphiik)lon |rhlkjih wk`hwkfhnqo jiij qwjak&tkonh |lkhnqk`klj ioljih h j zxhiijpoiqwkjnj kn rjwqkloijwh.

Ki Lhnqwo mj wklhpxqo nxfhwo|kwklono|lkfhnqk k|qkqxtkonjik) qwjlxk4& Lhwqk`kljtkonh K\O ;22:4 7222ahi \k|qhfj ak Eh|qkonh rhw ijZxjikqâ3& kn|hwkfhnqo nhii‛Jigo ahk ijgowj&qowk jxqowkttjqk aji Fknk|qhwo ahi&i‛k|qwxtkonh) ahii‛xnkphw|kqâ h ahiijwklhwlj -FKXW+3& kn|hwkfhnqo nhiij qjghiij ahiihK|qkqxtkonk lxiqxwjik wklono|lkxqhaji Fknk|qhwo rhw k Ghnk h ih jqqk&pkqâ lxiqxwjik3

& kn|hwkfhnqo nhiij qjghiij aheikHnqk lmh |poieono jqqkpkqâ ak ak``x&|konh ahiij lxiqxwj |lkhnqk k̀lj hqhlnoioeklj) wklono|lkxqk ajiFKXW.

Ajiij ònajtkonh ahi Lhnqwo) |xoRwh|kahnqh í Jnqonko \rjiikno)Rwh|kahnqh ahi Lon|keiko |lkhnqk`k&lo Ixkek Ajaaj h Loowaknjqowh|lkhnqk k̀lo Ekxiko Lj|jqk.Akwhqqowh ahi Lhnqwo í @wjnloFhwljiik) |xghnqwjqo nhi |hqqhfgwh7222 j @hahwklo Ljnoggko&Loahiik) owj Lon|keikhwh lxiqxwjih.

:;=7

:;;:

:;;8

J `wonqh4 Lorhwqknh ahi poixfh rhw ih lhihgwjtkonk ahi :;;: jLofo h ahi Rwoewjffj

rwhikfknjwh ahi Gklhnqhnjwkoahiij Rkij -:;;8+. \oqqo4 Ki

Rwh|kahnqh ahiij \olkhqâ Kqjikjnjak @k|klj -\K@+ Whnjqo Jnehio

Wkllk h @kowhnto Ghntonk-Qhihlof Kqjikj+ knqwoaxlono kiLonlhwqo lon \jipjqowh Jlljwao

ji Lonewh||o ahi Lhnqhnjwkoahiij \K@ j Lofo -:;;=+.




Knktkjqkph jppkjqh aoro ij rwh|hnqjtkonh ahi Rwoewjffj4 @jfkeikjLofj|lj) Gkgikoewj`kj Poiqkjnj) knaklh ahiih orhwh lmh qwjqqjno Jih||jnawoPoiqj) lon|hwpjqh nhiij Gkgikoqhlj Lofxnjih ak Lofo3 Lhnqwo Poiqj) Knlonqwk lon Jih||jnawo Poiqj nhi 782² ahiij nj|lkqj) lon pk|kqh ji QhfrkoPoiqkjno -Whijqowk4 Ixlko @wheonh|h) @jgko Ghpkijlzxj) Rkhqwo Qoah|lmknk)Exkao Lihwklk) Qowzxjqo Fx||knk+3 J||olkjtkonh ’Ij \qhllj‖) Lofo)

Poiqj h ki |xo qhfro. Poiqj nhiij lxiqxwj |lkhnqk`klj ahi ”522) Poiqj h k |xokixoemk -Jxakqowkxf Loiiheko Ejiiko3 Whijqowk4 Ekoweko Wxfk) Ixlko@wheonh|h) \qh`jno Ahiij Qowwh+3 Woqjw{ Lixg Lofo Gjwjahiio) kn loiij&gowjtkonh lon ki Roikqhlnklo ak Fkijno) ’Ihtkonh Jrhwqj‖ Aj Poiqj jiih jxqo|qwjah qhihfjqklmh -whijqowk4 Ixkek Ajaaj) Fjxwktko Ahlknj) Jnawhj\kiph|qwk+3 Jih||jnawo Poiqj :;;8&:;;;) Aji 782² ahiij nj|lkqj ji Gklhnqhnjwko ahiij Rkij) Rwoewjffj Rwhikfknjwh) Lofo) :;;8 -j lxwj ahiEwxrro ak Ijpowo+3 @jfkeikj Lofj|lj) K iùff ah Loff4 i‛hihqqwklkqâ jLofo h kn Rwopknlkj -ehnnjko :;;0+3 Ijnajx Nhquowc&Lhnqwo Poiqj) K qhfk lwxlkjik ahiij rwogihfjqklj hnhwehqklj. Ak|jwfo nxlihjwh h `xqxwoahii‛hnhwekj jqofklj -Jxij Fjenj Loiiheko Ejiiko) fjwto :;;0) whijqowk4@wjnlh|lo Ljioehwo) Lon`hwhnth Rxeuj|m rwhfko Noghi rhw ij Rjlh3

Xeo @jwknhiik) Akwhqqowh Ehnhwjih Hnhj+3 ]PK Lonewh||o njtkonjih ak\qowkj ahii‛j|qwonofkj -Pkiij Oifo) fjeeko :;;03 Jqqk+3 JLQJL)Wk|qjfrj jnj|qjqklj ahiih lwofoqkrkh Onowjnth j Poiqj nhi Lhnqhnjwkoahiij Rkij) ekxeno :;;03 Lonpheno Njtkonjih |xiij \xrhwlonaxqqkpkqâ ja jiqj qhfrhwjqxwj ak qwjn|ktkonh -Pkiij Oifo) oqqogwh :;;0+3 \olkhqâ\qowklj Lofhn|h) Knqowno j Poiqj4 lhqk) ewxrrk) rhw|onh qwj wk`owfh h wkpo&ixtkonh -:502&:=<2+ -Gkgikoqhlj Lofxnjih ak Lofo) aklhfgwh :;;03 Jqqk) ehnnjko :;;=+3 \olkhqâ Kqjikjnj ak @k|klj) I]]]KKK Lonewh||o Njtkonjih -ahi Lhnqhnjwko+) Pkiij Oifo) 75&<: oqqogwh :;55.

FO\QWH) W J\\HENH HA HPHNQK. Lkwlo|lwktkonh ak Ljfnjeo Poiqj) :=

`hggwjko) Rwokhtkonh ak Jih||jnawo Poiqj4 \qowkj ak xn ehnko j fk|xwja‛xofo -Ghwnjwao Fjijlwkaj) Wq|k+3 Xnkphw|kqâ ahiij Qhwtj Hqâ) Qhjqwo\olkjih) Lofo) := `hggwjko) Rwokhtkonh ak Kqknhwjwk Poiqkjnk -Xfghwqo@hwaknjnao Foiqhnk+ h Lonlhwqo ahiij rkjnk|qj Oiej Gjijcihhq|3Xnkphw|kqâ ahiij Qhwtj Hqâ) Lonlhwqo kn \. @hahih) Lofo) := `hggwjko3Ljfhwj ak Loffhwlko ak Lofo) Jxakqowkxf ak Pkiij Hwgj) Lhwnoggko) H|ro|ktkonh |xiih Lhihgwjtkonk Poiqkjnh ahi :=;; h :;75 -nhii‛jfgkqo ahi7² \jionh ahii‛Xnkphw|kqâ+3 Xnkphw|kqâ Qhwtj Hqâ) Lofo) Knqkqoijtkonh ja Jih||jnawo Poiqj ahiij \qhiij Loixfgj WJ 01² 78f 7<| A “<<² :1f -|kphaj j r. 78=+3 J||olkjtkonh ’Ij \qhllj‖) Lofo) Pk|kqh exkajqh jk ixoemkpoiqkjnk3 Xnkphw|kqâ ahiij Qhwtj Hqâ) Lofo) :&:1 oqqogwh) Fo|qwj AjPoiqj j Fjwlonk -j lxwj ak @wjnlo \owh|knk) kn loiijgowjtkonh lon

i‛J||olkjtkonh Wjakojfjqowk Kqjikjnk) Lofo+3 Lonlhwqo ahiij@kijwfonklj ’J. Poiqj‖) Ljfnjeo Poiqj) :0 |hqqhfgwh :;;0.

Parte IV: Alessandro Volta, nel bicentenario dell'invenzione della pila, 1799-1999.

Documents

Transcript of Parte IV: Alessandro Volta, nel bicentenario dell'invenzione della pila, 1799-1999.