Overview ofChild Development

Child Development

n Definition:® Change in the child that occurs over time. Changes follow

an orderly pattern that moves toward greater complexityand enhances survival.

n Periods of development:® Prenatal period: from conception to birth® Infancy and toddlerhood: birth to 2 years® Early childhood: 2-6 years old® Middle childhood: 6-11 years old® Adolescence: 11-20 years old

Domains of Development

Development is described in three domains, but growthin one domain influences the other domains.

n Physical Domain:® body size, body proportions, appearance, brain development, motor

development, perception capacities, physical health.

n Cognitive Domain:® thought processes and intellectual abilities including attention,

memory, problem solving, imagination, creativity, academic andeveryday knowledge, metacognition, and language.

n Social/Emotional Domain:® self-knowledge (gender identity, sexual identity, ethnic identity),

moral reasoning, understanding and expression of emotions, self-regulation, temperament, understanding others, interpersonal skills,and friendships.

Theories

n What is a theory?® Orderly set of ideas which describe, explain, and predict

behavior.

n Why are theories important?® To give meaning to what we observe.® As a basis for action -- finding ways to improve the lives and

education of children.

Origins of ChildDevelopment Theories

6th - 15th centuriesMedieval period

n Preformationism: children seen as littleadults.

n Childhood is not a unique phase.n Children were cared for until they could

begin caring for themselves, around 7years old.

n Children dressed as adults, worked atadult jobs, could be married, were madeinto kings, were imprisoned or hanged asadults.

16th CenturyReformation period

n Puritan religion influenced how childrenwere viewed.

n Children are born evil, and must becivilized.

n A goal emerged to raise childreneffectively.

n Special books were designed for children.

17th Century Age of Enlightenment

n John Locke believed in tabularasa - children are blankslates when they are born.

n The environment andnurturing is how childrendevelop.

n Children can be moldedthrough instruction,examples and rewards.

n Forerunner of behaviorism,growth is determined by theenvironment.

www.cooperativeindividualism.org/ locke-john.jpg

18th CenturyAge of Reason

n Jean-Jacques Rousseau opined thatchildren were noble savages, bornwith an innate sense of morality;the timing of growth should notbe interfered with.

n Wrote the story of Emile, afictional tale of a boy raised innature who is allowed to choosewhat and how to learn.

n Rousseau used the idea of stagesof development.

n Forerunner of maturationistbeliefs, growth is determined bybiology.

19th CenturyIndustrial Revolution

n Charles Darwin looked at thevariation within a species and thevariations among species.

n Developed theories of naturalselection and survival of the fittest .

n Forerunner of ethology, belief thatbehavior has a survival value.

n Darwin made parallels betweenhuman prenatal growth and otheranimals.

n Darwin authored one of the firstbaby biographies which initiatedscientific child study.

20th Century

Theories about children's developmentexpanded around the world.

n Childhood was seen as worthy of specialattention.

n Finally laws were passed to protectchildren, laws to:® define parental responsibility® establish limits to child labor® mandate education

PsychoanalyticalTheories

Beliefs focus on the formation of personality. Accordingto this approach, children move through various stages,confronting conflicts between biological drives andsocial expectations. The child's success withnegotiating each stage affects his success in coping withthe following stage.

Sigmund Freud

Psychosexual Theoryn Was based on his

therapy with troubledadults.

n He emphasized that achild's personality isformed by the wayswhich his parentsmanaged his sexualand aggressive drives.

Erik EriksonPsychosocial Theory

n Expanded on Freud's theories.n Believed that development is life-long.n Emphasized that at each stage, the child

acquires attitudes and skills resultingfrom the successful negotiation of thepsychological conflict.

n Identified 8 stages:® Basic trust vs mistrust (birth - 1 year)® Autonomy vs shame and doubt (ages 1-3)® Initiative vs guilt (ages 3-6)® Industry vs inferiority (ages 6-11)® Identity vs identity confusion (adolescence)® Intimacy vs isolation (young adulthood)® Generativity vs stagnation (middle adulthood)® Integrity vs despair (the elderly)

Behavioral and SocialLearning Theories

Beliefs that describe the importance of theenvironment and nurturing in the growth of achild.

Behaviorism

n Developed as a more scientific and observableway to study behavior

n Behaviorism became the dominant view fromthe 1920's to 1960's, allowing for the possibilityof change and improvement for everyone.

John Watsonn Early 20th century, "Father of American

Behaviorist theory.”n Based his work on Pavlov's experiments on

the digestive system of dogs (dogs weretrained to salivate by using a neutralstimulus.)

n Researched classical conditioning: aninfant Albert was not fearful of a rat, butwhen a loud sound was made wheneverAlbert touched the rat, Albert grew afraidof the rat. Even when there was no noisemade, Albert cried when he saw it, andlater extended his fear to other white furryobjects (bunnies, fur coat, dog, etc.).

n Argued that parents should use the powerof conditioning to mold children.

www.psych.utah.edu./…/Cards/Watson.html

B. F. Skinner

n Believed that children learn through theconsequences of their actions.

n Proposed that children "operate" on theirenvironment, and they will adjust their behaviorto attract more reinforcements like praise andrewards and to avoid punishments.

n Believed that learning could be broken downinto smaller tasks, and that offering immediaterewards for accomplishments would stimulatefurther learning.

Social Learning Theory

Albert Banduran Stressed how children learn by

observation and imitation.n Believed that children gradually become

more selective in what they imitate.

Biological Theories

Belief that heredity and innate biologicalprocesses govern growth.

Maturationists: G. Stanley Halland Arnold Gesell

n Believed there is a predeterminedbiological timetable® Children mature and grow when they're ready® Parents and teachers should be responsive to the child's

cues.

n Hall and Gesell were proponents of thenormative approach to child study: usingage-related averages of children's growthand behaviors to define what is normal.

Ethology

n Examines how behavior is determined bya species' need for survival.

n Has its roots in Charles Darwin's research.n Describes a "critical period" or "sensitive

period," when a child is biologicallyprepared to learn, but also requires thesupport of influences and opportunities inthe environment.

Konrad Lorenz

n Known for hiswork on"imprinting":baby goslingswill attach totheir firstguardian afterhatching, andtheir survivaldepends on thisattachment.

Attachment Theory

n John Bowlby applied these theories to histheory of attachment.

n Attachment between an infant and hercaregiver can insure the infant’s survival.

Cognitive Theories

Beliefs that describe how children learn

Jean PiagetCognitive

developmenttheory

n Explains how children "construct"their understanding of the worldthrough their active involvementand interactions.

n Studied his 3 children to focus noton what they knew but how theyknew it.

n Described children's understandingas their "schemas." When theyencounter something new, theyeither use assimilation oraccommodation.® Assimilation is fitting the new

information into a currentschema

® Accommodation is adjusting aschema to fit the newinformation.

Piaget’s CognitiveDevelopment Stages

n Sensori-motor® Ages birth - 2: the infant uses his senses and motor abilities

to understand the world

n Preoperation® Ages 2-7: the child uses metal representations of objects and

is able to use symbolic thought and language

n Concrete operations® Ages 7-11; the child uses logical operations or principles

when solving problems

n Formal operations® Ages 12 up; the use of logical operations in a systematic

fashion and with the ability to use abstractions

Lev VygotskySocio-Cultural Theory

n Knowledge is not individuallyconstructed, but constructedwithin a social context, amongpeople.

n Cultural values and customsdictate what is important to learn.

n Children learn from more expertmembers of the society.

n Vygotsky described the "zone ofproximal development", wherelearning occurs. This zone is thedifference between what the childcan accomplish independently andthe potential development whichthe child can achieve with the"scaffolding" of a more capableperson.

ced.ncsc.edu/hyy/devtheories.htm

Information Processing Theory

n Uses the model of the computer todescribe how the brain works.

n Focuses on how information is perceived,how information is stored in memory,how memories are retrieved and thenused to solve problems.

Systems Theory

The belief that development can't beexplained by a single concept, but rather bya complex system.

Urie Bronfenbrenner

Ecological Systems Theoryn Explains that the varied

systems of the environmentand the interrelationshipsamong the systems shape achild's development.

n Proposes that both theenvironment and biologyinfluence the child'sdevelopment.

n Describes the ways in whichenvironment affects the childand the ways in which thechild influences theenvironment.

Bronfenbrenner’s Ecological Modeln The microsystem - activities and

interactions in the child'simmediate surroundings: parents,school, friends, etc.

n The mesosystem - relationshipsamong the entities involved in thechild's microsystem: parents'interactions with teachers, aschool's interactions with thedaycare provider

n The exosystem - social institutionswhich affect children indirectly:the parents' work settings andpolicies, extended family networks,mass media, community resources

n The macrosystem - broadercultural values, laws andgovernmental resources

n The chronosystem - changeswhich occur during a child's life,both personally, like the birth of asibling and culturally, like the Iraqiwar.