Otobong Mmah, Ileana Nikolakopoulou and Logan Smith ...
1
This poster analyses the origins of present-day economic and political circumstances in Ghana. We investigate how Ghana’s climate and resource endowment generated an environment under which the British colonial-era cocoa trade economy flourished, shaping economic cleavages that arise from agglomeration around colonial production centers, and political cleavages that are eased or hardened by the creation of new economic opportunities. IV.1 Administrative Boundaries and Political Economic Significance III.2 Export Crop Production and the Rise of Financial Capitals In the map depicting the Concnetration of poverty in Ghana,, it is clear that poverty is concentrated in the hinterland, while rates of poverty are much lower in the coastal area- which is the region behind tmost of the export production for agricultral products. Cocoa production in recent decades has accounted for the second largest export sector in Ghana, following minerals and oil. Notably, along the coastline is where the largest prooprotion of gold mines and mineral wealth is to be found.. II. Colonial Economy G hana is classified as being part of ‘Africa of the colonial trade economy’ (Amin). The end of the slave trade created a window of opportunity for a new kind of economic specialization in the region. The British were selective in their colonisation of the coastal zone, and subsequently organised a profitable system of colonial trade. Under the new organizational system, trade was promoted across the coast, with the hinterland being reduced to a source of labor, rather than of wealth. This redirection of trade had particularly adverse effects for the domestic trade, and led to the migration of many laborers towards the coast. The growth which the Gold Coast experienced under the cocoa boom, one of four cases of what Jerven refers to as ‘boom and bust’ in African history, is testament to how profitable the export of cocoa was. During this period of ‘the cash-crop revolution’, the peasants turned to the production of cocoa as a result of its earning potential (despite the majority of profits going to the British), and a marked increase in domestic productivity and in the production quantities was achieved (Jerven). According to studies which have been conducted (Moradi et al.) the profits from the export of cocoa were able to promote development during this period of British colonial rule. I.1 Location Ghana is a country in the region of West Africa. It has a land mass of 238,535 km 2 and it has a coastline that stretches 500 kilometres along the Atlantic. This coastline was essential for trade during Ghana's colonial period. Ghana is bordered by three coutries: the Ivory Coast in the west, Burkina Faso in the north, and Togo in the east. To the south of Ghana is the gulf of Guinea. I.2 Agro-Ecological Zones Thereare sixagro-ecological zones in Ghana: Sudan Savannah, Guinea Savannah, CoastalSavannah, Forest/Savannah transitional zone, Deciduous Forest zone and the Rainforest zone (yieldgap, 2020). The agro-ecological set up of Ghana contributed to the natural migration that Ghana saw in the 20th century of citizens moving from the North to the South. I.3Resourceendowment Ghana has an abundance of gold as well as a mining industry in diamond, gold and manganese. as of 2018, Ghana was Africa's largest gold producer, surpassing South Africa in2018. It also has recent discovered crude oil in commercia quantities. Traditionally it is noted for its cocoa and coffee plantations as well as it’s fishing industry. The population density reflects this, with the biggest population settling near the coast where the resources are concentrated . III.1 Coastal/Hinterland Cleavage and Effects on Export Production Ghana, as mentioned previously, was a countrywhoseeconomicgrowth was basedon colonial trade. L'economie dela trait e, was basedaround theexploitation of agriculturalresources, for ensuring exports . Economic growth thereforerelied on geography, with the coastalarea being thearea of high opportunity and growth. This is depictedin the graph below, wherethered areaindicates high economic development, in essencetheareawhere coocaproductiontookplace. Thehinterland is theblue area, and experiencedeconomicunderdevelopment, essentiallyproviding labourfortheagricultural coastal zone.Thisresultedin a regional disequilibriumand mass migration towardsthecoast, whichhas also resulted in changesin electoralcleavagesfor the state. II.2 Institutions T he British, driven by fiscal concerns, shaped their colonial policy accordingly. They sought to reduce the number of European administrators and relied on social classes of the "traditional" society to appropriate the best land for cocoa production and to organize internal migration. This form of indirect rule meant that no suitable institutions for acquiring human and physical capital were formed. The end of colonialism in 1957 left the government, headed by Nkrumah, to deal with the complexities of economic rule. Moreover, the colonial institutions for collecting taxes were not strong, and evasions was easy, something which was costly for future development of post- colonial Ghana. IV.2 Electoral Cleavages Resulting from Colonial Era Disputes and Inequality of Economic Opportunity Voting patterns in Ghana are rooted in differences in economic prosperity. Voters in the economically prosperous Ashanti and surrounding cocoa-producing regions often vote for the NPP. As Ashanti is home to mainly ethnically Akan Ghanaians, they tend to vote in favor of the NPP (Ayee, 2008, pp. 192). Non- cocoa producing regions, largely home to Ewe Ghanaians, possess different economic opportunities than Ashanti, leading Ewe Ghanaians to vote for the NDC to represent their economic ideals. This creates a cleavage that on the surface may look ethnic, but is rooted in economic and colonial history, as British colonizers recognized chiefly claims to land by the Akan over cocoa-producing Ashanti in exchange for extracting the region’s economic benefit, making the Akan the most powerful group upon Independence (Boone, 2003, 147-148). Today, the NPP still capitalize on this colonial division and focus their campaign efforts on areas where there are more Akans, or areas surrounded by large populations of Akans (Ichino and Nathan, 2013, 360). The strength of these voting blocs has begun to waver in recent years, with more political competition occurring at the constituency level, and the NPP and the NDC promoting similar platforms. Despite party platform convergence, both parties have retained their traditional ethnic voting base, suggesting ethnic roots may also influence voting cleavages. Citation Course Readings: Amin, S. 1972. Austin, G. 2010. Radelet, Steven. 2010. Ayee, Joseph R. A. 2008. "The evolution of the New Patriotic Party in Ghana." South African Journal of International Affairs 15 (2): 185-214. https://doi.org/10.1080/10220460802614064 . Boone, Catherine. 2003. Political Topographies of the African State: Territorial Authority and Institutional Choice.Cambridge Studies in Comparative Politics. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Ghana, Parliament of. 2018. Report of the Committee on Subsidiary Legislation on the Referendum (Creation of New Regions) Regulations. edited by Parliament of Ghana Library.. Ichino, Nahomi, and Noah L. Nathan. 2013. "Crossing the Line: Local Ethnic Geography and Voting in Ghana." The American Political Science Review 107 (2): 344-361. http://www.jstor.org/stable/43654018 . Minion, K. C. Morrison. 2004. "Political Parties in Ghana through Four Republics: A Path to Democratic Consolidation." Comparative Politics 36 (4): 421-442. https://doi.org/10.2307/4150169 . http://www.jstor.org/stable/4150169 . Location and Endowment Political Geography Economic Geography Colonial Economy and Institutions Introduction DV435 Economic and Political Geography of Ghana Otobong Mmah, Ileana Nikolakopoulou and Logan Smith Department of Government Department of International Development I.4 Population Ghana 2020 population is estimated at 31,072,940 people at mid year according to UN data. Ghana population is equivalent to 0.4% of the total world population. Ghana ranks number 47 in the list of countries (and dependencies) by population. The population density in Ghana is 137 per Km 2 (354 people per mi 2 ). As mentioned earlier, a lot of the population is concentrated in the south due to the natural geography of Ghana but also because of it's resource endowment in the South and the industrialisation surrounding it. 1992 electoral map by region. Green – NDC, Blue – NPP. Map Credit: Nohen et. al. africanelections.tripod.com (2012). Data Cross-Referenced with Electoral Commission Ghana. 2016 electoral map by constituency. Green – NDC, Blue – NPP. Map Credit: PeaceFM Ghana (2016). Data Cross-Referenced with Electoral Commission Ghana. Laderach, Peter & Martinez Valle, Armando & Schroth, Götz & Castro, N.. (2013). Predicting the future climatic suitability for cocoa farming of the world's leading producer countries, Ghana and Côte d'Ivoire. Climatic Change. 14 World Bank Group, Cocoa Production in Ghana Report Economic Map of Ghana GDP per square kilometer. Map Credit: G-Econ, Yale, 2005. World Bank Group, "Concentration of Poverty among regions,"Ghana's Challenges: Widening regional inequality and natural resource depreciation Administrative Regions of Central and Western Ghana. Map Credit: University of Texas, Austin Historical British Colonies and Protectorates . Map Credit: Citinewsroom (2019). Ghanaian Administrative Regions (2018). Map Credit: Citinewsroom (2019). The administrative borders of Ghana have long been shaped by resource endowment and the nation’s colonial history. After independence, two parties arose, the United Gold Coast Convention, representing Western- aligned elites with strong economic prowess fueled by resource productivity during colonial administration; and the opposing Convention People’s Party, famously led by Kwame Nkrumah, which took a populist approach, representing working class Ghanaians (Morrison, 2004, 423). This class cleavage has persisted through turnovers of political authority, demonstrating the pervasiveness endowment and colonial authority have over Ghanaian politics. World Bank, Export of Goods and Services (% Gdp) Nkrumah supported state-led developmetn and pursued development policies to diversify the Ghanaian economy often with high economic and social costs. As of recently, Ghana, having introduced reforms since the 1980s (Bloom and Sachs), has been classed as an emerging country, which is the fastest growing country category with an average growth rate of 2.6 percent per capita over the period from 1996- 2008 (Radelet). IV.3. The Legacy of Cocoa Production and its Effects on Migration Flows Kwame Nkrumah worked in opposition to an economically strong group of Ashanti chiefs in the 1960s. To generate political support, and stifle sub-nationalist Ashanti (Boone, 2003 pp. 143), he dubbed chieftaincies a product of colonial history, and used cocoa surpluses to fund roads, dams, and industry via rent-seeking. This was a dramatic shift from the ideals of British colonial rule, and helped Nkrumah develop a Ghanaian identity for his followers post-independence which still influences political cleavages today.
Transcript of Otobong Mmah, Ileana Nikolakopoulou and Logan Smith ...
This poster analyses the origins of present-day economic and political circumstances in Ghana. We investigate how Ghana’s climate and resource endowment generated an environment under which the British colonial-era cocoa trade economy flourished, shaping economic cleavages that arise from agglomeration around colonial production centers, and political cleavages that are eased or hardened by the creation of new economic opportunities.
IV.1 Ad m i n i s t ra t i ve B ou n d ar i es an d P o l i t i ca l
Econ om i c S i gn i f i can ce
I I I . 2 E xport C r op P r oduc ti on a n d t h e R i s e o f F i nanc i a l C a p i ta l sIn the map depicting the Concnetration of poverty in Ghana,, it is clear that poverty is concentrated in the hinterland, while rates of poverty are much lower in the coastal area-which is the region behind tmost of the export production for agricultral products. Cocoa production in recent decades has accounted for the second largest export sector in Ghana, following minerals and oil. Notably, along the coastline is where the largest prooprotion of gold mines and mineral wealth is to be found..
I I . C o l on i a l E c onom yGhana is classified as being part of ‘Africa of the colonial trade economy’ (Amin). The end of the slave trade created a window of opportunity for a new kind of economic specialization in the region. The British were selective in their colonisation of the coastal zone, and subsequently organised a profitable system of colonial trade. Under the new organizational system, trade was promoted across the coast, with the hinterland being reduced to a source of labor, rather than of wealth. This redirection of trade had particularly adverse effects for the domestic trade, and led to the migration of many laborers towards the coast. The growth which the Gold Coast experienced under the cocoa boom, one of four cases of what Jervenrefers to as ‘boom and bust’ in African history, is testament to how profitable the export of cocoa was. During this period of ‘the cash-crop revolution’, the peasants turned to the production of cocoa as a result of its earning potential (despite the majority of profits going to the British), and a marked increase in domestic productivity and in the production quantities was achieved (Jerven). According to studies which have been conducted (Moradi et al.) the profits from the export of cocoa were able to promote development during this period of British colonial rule.
I . 1 L o c a t i o nG h a n a i s a c o u n t r y i n t h e r e g i o n o f We s t A f r i c a . I t h a s a l a n d m a s s o f 2 3 8 , 5 3 5 k m 2 a n d i t h a s a c o a s t l i n e t h a t s t r e t c h e s 5 0 0 k i l o m e t r e s a l o n g t h e A t l a n t i c . T h i s c o a s t l i n e w a s e s s e n t i a l fo r t ra d e d u r i n g G h a n a ' s c o l o n i a l p e r i o d .G h a n a i s b o r d e r e d b y t h r e e c o u t r i e s : t h e I v o r y C o a s t i n t h e w e s t , B u r k i n a Fa s o i n t h e n o r t h , a n d To g o i n t h e e a s t . To t h e s o u t h o f G h a n a i s t h e g u l f o f G u i n e a .
I . 2 A g r o -Eco l og i ca l Z o nesThereare sixagro-ecological zones in Ghana: Sudan Savannah, Guinea Savannah, CoastalSavannah, Forest/Savannah transitional zone, Deciduous Forest zone and the Rainforest zone(yieldgap, 2020). The agro-ecological set up of Ghana contributed to the natural migration that Ghana saw in the 20th century of citizens moving from the North to the South.
I.3ResourceendowmentGhana has an abundance of gold as well as amining industry in diamond, gold andmanganese. as of 2018, Ghana wasAfrica's largest gold producer, surpassing SouthAfrica in2018.It also has recent discovered crude oil incommercia quantities. Traditionally it is notedfor itscocoaandcoffeeplantationsaswell as it’sfishing industry. The population density reflectsthis, with the biggest population settling nearthe coast where the resources areconcentrated .
I I I . 1 C o a s t a l / H i n t e r l an d C l e av a g e a n d E f f e c t s o n E x p o r t P r o d u c t i o nGhana, as mentioned previously, was a country whose economic growth was based on colonial trade. L'economie de la traite, was based around the exploitation of agricultural resources, for ensuring exports . Economic growth therefore relied on geography, with the coastal area being the area of high opportunity and growth . This is depicted in the graph below, where the red area indicate s high economic development, in essence the area where coocaproduction took place. The hinterland is the blue area, and experienced economic underdevelopment, essentiallyproviding labourfor the agricultural coastal zone. This resulted in a regional disequilibrium and mass migration towards the coast, which has also resulted in changes in electoral cleavages for the state.
I I . 2 I n s t i t ut i onsT h e B r i t i s h , d r i v e n b y f i s c a l c o n c e r n s , s h a p e d t h e i r c o l o n i a l p o l i c y a c c o r d i n g l y. T h e y s o u g h t t o r e d u c e t h e n u m b e r o f E u r o p e a n a d m i n i s t ra t o r s a n d r e l i e d o n s o c i a l c l a s s e s o f t h e " t ra d i t i o n a l " s o c i e t y t o a p p r o p r i a t e t h e b e s t l a n d fo r c o c o a p r o d u c t i o n a n d t o o r g a n i z e i n t e r n a l m i g ra t i o n . T h i s fo r m o f i n d i r e c t r u l e m e a n t t h a t n o s u i t a b l e i n s t i t u t i o n s fo r a c q u i r i n g h u m a n a n d p h y s i c a l c a p i t a l w e r e fo r m e d . T h e e n d o f c o l o n i a l i s m i n 1 9 5 7 l e f t t h e g o v e r n m e n t , h e a d e d b y N k r u m a h , t o d e a l w i t h t h e c o m p l e x i t i e s o f e c o n o m i c r u l e . M o r e o v e r, t h e c o l o n i a l i n s t i t u t i o n s fo r c o l l e c t i n g t a x e s w e r e n o t s t r o n g , a n d e v a s i o n s w a s e a s y, s o m e t h i n g w h i c h w a s c o s t l y fo r f u t u r e d e v e l o p m e n t o f p o s t -c o l o n i a l G h a n a .
IV.2 El ec t ora l
Cl eavages Resu l t i n g
f rom Col on i a l Era
Di sp u t es an d
In eq u a l i t y o f Econ om i c
O p p ort u n i t y
Voting patterns in Ghana are rooted in
differences in economic prosperity. Voters
in the economically prosperous Ashanti
and surrounding cocoa-producing regions
often vote for the NPP. As Ashanti is
home to mainly ethnically Akan
Ghanaians, they tend to vote in favor of
the NPP (Ayee, 2008, pp. 192). Non-
cocoa producing regions, largely home to
Ewe Ghanaians, possess different
economic opportunities than Ashanti,
leading Ewe Ghanaians to vote for the
NDC to represent their economic ideals.
This creates a cleavage that on the surface
may look ethnic, but is rooted in
economic and colonial history, as British
colonizers recognized chiefly claims to
land by the Akan over cocoa-producing
Ashanti in exchange for extracting the
region’s economic benefit, making the
Akan the most powerful group upon
Independence (Boone, 2003, 147-148).
Today, the NPP still capitalize on this
colonial division and focus their campaign
efforts on areas where there are more
Akans, or areas surrounded by large
populations of Akans (Ichino and Nathan,
2013, 360). The strength of these voting
blocs has begun to waver in recent years,
with more political competition occurring
at the constituency level, and the NPP and
the NDC promoting similar platforms.
Despite party platform convergence, both
parties have retained their traditional
ethnic voting base, suggesting ethnic roots
may also influence voting cleavages.
C i t a t i onCourse Readings: Amin, S. 1972. Austin, G. 2010. Radelet, Steven. 2010.Ayee, Joseph R. A. 2008. "The evolution of the New Patriotic Party in Ghana." South African Journal of International Affairs 15 (2): 185-214. https://doi.org/10.1080/10220460802614064.Boone, Catherine. 2003. Political Topographies of the African State: Territorial Authority and Institutional Choice.Cambridge Studies in Comparative Politics. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Ghana, Parliament of. 2018. Report of the Committee on Subsidiary Legislation on the Referendum (Creation of New Regions) Regulations. edited by Parliament of Ghana Library..Ichino, Nahomi, and Noah L. Nathan. 2013. "Crossing the Line: Local Ethnic Geography and Voting in Ghana." The American Political Science Review 107 (2): 344-361. http://www.jstor.org/stable/43654018.Minion, K. C. Morrison. 2004. "Political Parties in Ghana through Four Republics: A Path to Democratic Consolidation." Comparative Politics 36 (4): 421-442. https://doi.org/10.2307/4150169. http://www.jstor.org/stable/4150169.
Location and Endowment Political GeographyEconomic GeographyColonial Economy and Institutions
Introduction
DV435 Economic and Political Geography of GhanaOtobong Mmah, Ileana Nikolakopoulou and Logan Smith
Department of GovernmentDepartment of International Development
I . 4 P o p u l a t i o nG h a n a 2 0 2 0 p o p u l a t i o n i s e s t i m a t e d a t 3 1 , 0 7 2 , 9 4 0 p e o p l e a t m i d y e a r a c c o r d i n g t o U N d a t a . G h a n a p o p u l a t i o n i s e q u i v a l e n t t o 0 . 4 % o f t h e t o t a l w o r l d p o p u l a t i o n . G h a n a ra n k s n u m b e r 4 7 i n t h e l i s t o f c o u n t r i e s ( a n d d e p e n d e n c i e s ) b y p o p u l a t i o n . T h e p o p u l a t i o n d e n s i t y i n G h a n a i s 1 3 7 p e r K m 2 ( 3 5 4 p e o p l e p e r m i 2 ) . A s m e n t i o n e d e a r l i e r, a l o t o f t h e p o p u l a t i o n i s c o n c e n t ra t e d i n t h e s o u t h d u e t o t h e n a t u ra l g e o g ra p h y o f G h a n a b u t a l s o b e c a u s e o f i t ' s r e s o u r c e e n d o w m e n t i n t h e S o u t h a n d t h e i n d u s t r i a l i s a t i o n s u r r o u n d i n g i t .
1992 electoral map by region. Green – NDC, Blue – NPP. Map Credit: Nohen et. al. africanelections.tripod.com (2012).Data Cross-Referenced with Electoral Commission Ghana.
2016 electoral map by constituency. Green – NDC, Blue – NPP. Map Credit: PeaceFM Ghana (2016). Data Cross-Referenced with Electoral Commission Ghana.
Laderach, Peter & Martinez Valle, Armando & Schroth, Götz & Castro, N.. (2013). Predicting the future climatic suitability for cocoa farming of the world's leading producer countries, Ghana and Côte d'Ivoire. Climatic Change. 14
World Bank Group, Cocoa Production in Ghana Report
Economic Map of Ghana GDP per square kilometer. Map Credit: G-Econ, Yale, 2005.
World Bank Group, "Concentration of Poverty among regions,"Ghana's Challenges: Widening regional inequality and natural resource depreciation
Administrative Regions of Central and Western Ghana. Map Credit: University of Texas, Austin
Historical British Colonies and Protectorates. Map Credit: Citinewsroom (2019).
Ghanaian Administrative Regions (2018). Map Credit: Citinewsroom (2019).
The administrative borders of Ghana
have long been shaped by resource
endowment and the nation’s colonial
history. After independence, two
parties arose, the United Gold Coast
Convention, representing Western-
aligned elites with strong economic
prowess fueled by resource
productivity during colonial
administration; and the opposing
Convention People’s Party, famously
led by Kwame Nkrumah, which took a
populist approach, representing
working class Ghanaians (Morrison,
2004, 423). This class cleavage has
persisted through turnovers of political
authority, demonstrating the
pervasiveness endowment and colonial
authority have over Ghanaian politics.
World Bank, Export of Goods and Services (% Gdp)
Nkrumah supported state-led developmetn and pursued development policies to diversify the Ghanaian economy often with high economic and social costs. As of recently, Ghana, having introduced reforms since the 1980s (Bloom and Sachs), has been classed as an emerging country, which is the fastest growing country category with an average growth rate of 2.6 percent per capita over the period from 1996-2008 (Radelet).
IV.3. The Legacy of Cocoa
Production and its Effects on
Migration FlowsKwame Nkrumah worked in opposition to an
economically strong group of Ashanti chiefs
in the 1960s. To generate political support,
and stifle sub-nationalist Ashanti (Boone,
2003 pp. 143), he dubbed chieftaincies a
product of colonial history, and used cocoa
surpluses to fund roads, dams, and industry
via rent-seeking. This was a dramatic shift
from the ideals of British colonial rule, and
helped Nkrumah develop a Ghanaian identity
for his followers post-independence which
still influences political cleavages today.
