Organizatonal Behaviour

8/8/2019 Organizatonal Behaviour

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Disha Institute of IT & Management


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ORGANIZATIONAL BEHAVIOR (3.21)

What is organizational behavior? Discuss the impact work force diversity on organizational

behavior?

Organizational behavior is field of study that illustrates the impact that individual, groups and

structure have on behavior within organization for his purpose of applying such knowledgetowards improving an organization affective ness i.e. OB is concussed with the study of what

people do in an organization and how that behavior affects the performance of the organization.

Underlying this systematic approach is the belief that behavior is not random. It stems from and isdirected towards some and that individual believes, rightly or wrongly, is in his or her best interest.

Ob is an applied behavioral science that is built on contribution from a number of behavioraldisciplines. The predominant areas are:-

a) Psychology:- The science that sets to explain and sometimes change the behavior of humanbeing. The contribution includes study of topics like Motivation, personality, Emotions, JobSatisfaction etc.

b) Sociology:- The study people in relation to them human beings. The contribution includesstudy of topics like Group dynamics, work team, communication, power etc.

c) Anthropology:- The study of societies to learn about human being and their activities. Thecontribution includes study of topics like organizational culture, organizational

environment, cross-cultural analysis etc.

d) Political science:- The study of individual and groups within a political environment. Thecontribution includes the study of topics like conflict, Intra-organizational politics, power

etc.

One of the most important and broad based challenges currently facing organizations is adapting to

people who are different. The term to describe this challenge is work force diversity. While

globalization focuses on differences between people from different countries work force diversityaddresses differences among people within given countries.

Work force means that organizations are becoming more heterogeneous in terms of gender, which

varies from the so-called norm. It includes women, south Indians, Bengalines, Punjabis, physicallydisabled, elderly etc.

Work forces diversity has important implications for management practice. Managers have to shifttheir philosophy from treating everyone alike to recognizing differences and responding to those

differences in ways that ensure employee retention and greater productivity while at the

sometimes, not (page no 7) discriminating. This shift includes, for instead, providing diversity

training and revamping benefits programs to accommodate the different employees. Work forcediversity if positively managed, can increase creativity and innovation in organizations as well as

improve decision making by providing different perspectives on problems. When work diversity is

not managed properly, there is potential for higher turnover, more difficult communication andmore interpersonal conflicts.


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PERSONALITY

Personality is defined as the sum total of ways in which an individual reacts an interacts withothers. Adult personality is generally considered to be made up of hereditary and environmental

factors, moderated by situational conditional.

Hereditary:- Hereditary refers to those factors that were determined by conception. Physical

stature, facial alteration, gender temperament, energy level and biological rhythms are

characteristics that are either completely or substantially influenced by parents. Evidencedemonstrates that traits such as shyness, fear and distress are most likely caused by inherited

genetic characteristics.

If personality characteristics were completely dictated by heredity, they would be

fixed at birth and no amount of experience would alter them. If one is relaxed and easygoing as achild, for ex. that would be the result of ones genes, and it would not be possible to change those

characteristics. But personality characteristics are not completely dictated by heredity.

Environment:- Among the factors that exact pressures on our personality formation are the

cultures in which we are area raised; our earlier conditioning the norms among our family, friendsand social groups and other influences that we experience. These environmental factors play a

substantial role in shaping our personalities. Cultural establishes the norms attributes and values

that are passed along from generations to the and create consistencies of time ideology that is onlymoderate intensely fostered in one culture may only have emphasis in another. It can be concluded

that both heredity and environment are the primary determinations of personality.

Situations:- The third factor, the situation influences the effects of heredity and environment on

personality. An individuals personality, although generally stable and consistent does change in

different situations. The different demands of different situations call forth different aspects of

ones personality. So we shouldnt look at personality patterns in isolation.

Determinations of personality that are more input than in others in shaping the personality of a

manager include:-

1. Locus of control:- The degree to which people believe they masters of their own fate.Individuals who believe that they control what happens to them make more successful

manager than those who believe that what happens to them is controlled by outside forces

such as luck or chance.2. Introvert and Extrovert:- Extrovert i.e. individuals who are gregarious and social are

more successful as managers than Introverts i.e. individuals who are shy, quite and retiring.


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ORGANIZATIONAL CULTURE

Organizational culture is defined as a system of shared meaning held by members that distinguish

has one organization from other organization. Simply stated, a companys culture comprises the

values, norms and behavior that characterize it and its work environment. It encompasses, amongother things, the way people behave, especially how they work with each other, how they are

accountable, and how they are rewarded. Culture also includes the communication flow within the

organization.There are seven primary characteristics that, in aggregate, capture the essence of an organization

culture.1) Innovation and risk taking:- The degrees to which employees are encouraged to be

innovative and take risk.

2) Attention to detail:- The degree to which employees is expected to exhibit precisionanalysis and attention to detail.

3) Outcome orientation:- The degree to which management focuses on results or outcomesrather then on the techniques and processes used to achieve those outcomes.

In the organization for mutual benefits and lobbying on the behalf of or against a particularindividual or decision alternative.

Political behavior can be legitimate or illegitimate.

Legitimate political behavior refers to normal everyday politics-complaining to yoursupervisor, bypassing the chain of command forming coalitions, obstructing organizational

policies or decisions through inaction or excessive adherence to rules and developing contacts

outside the organization through ones professional activities.

Illegitimate political behavior violates the implied rules of the game. Illegitimate political behavior

includes sabotage whistle blowing and symbolic protests such as wearing unorthodox dress and

group of employees simultaneously calling in sick.

1)Factors contributing to political behavior:-

Factors contributing to political behavior either {I} individual characteristics, derived from theunique qualities of the people the organization employees or {ii} organizations culture or internal

environment.

2) Individual Factors:- In terms of traits, employees who are high self-monitors, process aninternal focus of control and have a high need for power are more


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Politics

When employees in organizations convert their power into action, they are described as beingengaged in politics. Those with good political skills have the ability to use their bases of power

effectively.

Political behavior in organizations is defined as activities that are not required as part of

ones formal role in the organization, but that influence or attempt to influence the distribution ofadvantages and disadvantages within the organization.

This definition encompasses 3 key elements:-

a) Political behavior is outside ones specified job requirements. The behavior requires someefforts to use ones political bases.

b) Political behavior tries to influence the goals, criteria or processes used for decision makingwhen is said that politic is concerned with the distribution of advantages and disadvantages

within the organization.c) The definition include varied political behaviors such as with holding key information from

decision makers, joining a condition, spreading rumors, leaking confidential informationabout organizational activates to the media, exchanging favors with

others.

POWER AND POLITICS

Power is the ability of individuals or groups to induce or influence the beliefs or actions of other

persons or groups.

A person can have power over the other person only if the first person hassomething which other person desires.

Bases of Power:-

Power can be of two types- formal and personal.

Formal Power:-

Formal power is based on an individuals position in an organization. Formal power can come

from the ability to coerce or reward, from formal authoring or from control of information.

Coercive power:-

The coercive power base is dependent on fees. One reacts to this power out of fear of the negativeresults that might occur if one failed to comply. It rests on the application, or the threat of

application, of physical sanctions such as the infliction of pain, the generation of frustration

through restriction of movement, or the controlling by force of basic physiological or safety needs.


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Q1. Discuss the meaning and scope of organizational behavior what are the contemporary

challenges to organizational behavior.

Ans. Organizational behavior is a field of study that investigates that impact that individuals,

groups and structure have on behavior within organizations, for the purpose applying, such

knowledge towards improving an organizations effectiveness.

OB is concerned with the study of what people do in an organizations end how thatbehavior affects the performance of an organization.

These are lot of challenges today for managers to use OB concepts. These include:

A) Responding to Globalization:- Globalization affects a managers people skills in at leasttwo ways. First, if a manager is transferred to his employers operating division or

subsidiary in another another country. Once there, he has to manage a work force that is

likely to be very different in needs, aspirations, and attends from those he used to workback home. Second even in his own country a manager is going to find himself working

with bosses, peers, and other employees who were born and raised in different culture what

motivates one person may not motivate another person. Or the managers style ofcommunication may be straight forward and threatening. To work effectively with these

people, the manager will need to understand their culture, how it is shaped, and how toadapt his management style to their differences.

b) Managing workforce diversity:- One of the most important and broad based challenges

currently facing organizations is adapting people who are different. While globalization focuses on

differences between people from different countries, workforce diversity addresses differenceamong people within given countries.

Workforce diversity means that organizations are becoming more heterogeneous in

terms of gender, race and ethnicity. Employees dont set aside their cultural values and lifestylepreferences when the come to work. The challenge for organizations, therefore, is to make them

more accommodating to diverse group of people by addressing their different lifestyle, family

needs and work style.Workforce diversity has important implications for management practice. Managers have

to shift their philosophy from treating everyone alike to recognizing differences and responding to

those differences in ways that ensure employee retention and greater productivity while, at the

same time, not discriminating. This shift includes for instance providing diversity training andrevamping benefits programs to accommodate the different needs of different employees.

Diversity if positively managed can increase creativity and innovation in organizations as well as

improve decision making by providing different perspectives on problems. When diversity is notmanaged properly, there communication and more interpersonal conflicts.

Quality management is driven by constant attainment of customer satisfaction through the

continuous improvement of all organizational processes. It has implications for OB because itrequires employees to rethink what they do and become more involved in workplace decisions.

Todays managers understand that the success of any effort at improving quality

and productivity must include their employees. These employees will not only be a major force in


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carrying out changes but increasingly participate in planning those changes. OB offers important

insights into helping managers work through there changes.

Individual Behavior

Individual Behavior is influenced by factors such as biographical characteristics, ability andlearning. Biographical characters include factors such as employees age, gender, length of service

with an organization.

Age:- The relationship between age and job performance is of increasing importance in the

study of organization behavior. The reason for this is a widespread belief that job performance

declines with increasing age. But at the same time, there are some positive qualities that olderworkers bring to their jobs, especially experience, strong work ethics and commitment to quality.

But older workers are also perceived as lacking flexibility and as resistant to new technology.

The older worker gets, the less likely he is to quit his job. As workers get older, they havefewer alternative job opportunities. In addition, older workers are less likely to resize than are

younger workers because their long tenure tends to provide them with higher wage rates, longer

paid vacations and more attractive pension benefits.The natural conclusion is that the demands of most jobs, even those with heavy

manual labor requirement are not extreme enough for any decline in physical skills attributable toage to have an impact on productivity, or if there is some decay due to age, it is offset by aging due

to experience.

Gender:- Important differences between men and women that will effect their job performance.

There are no consistent male-female differences in problem-solving ability, analytical skills,

competitive drive, and socio ability. Psychological studies have fund that women are more willingto conform to authority and that men are more aggressive and more likely then women to have

expectations of success, but those differences are minor. One issue that seems to differ between

gender, especially when the employee has preschool-age children, is preference for workschedules. Working mothers are more likely to prefer pail time work, flexible work schedules and

telecommunicating in order to accommodate their family responsibilities.

Marital Status:- Research consistently indicates that married employees have fewer absences,

undergo less turnover and are mere satisfied with their jobs then are their unmarried workers.

Marriage imposes increased responsibilities that may make a steady job more valuable and

important.

Tenure:- If we define seniority as time on a particular job, we can say that the most recent

evidence demonstrates positive relationship a between seniority and job productivity. So tenure,expressed as work experience, appears to be negatively related to absenteeism. Tenure is also a

potent variable in explaining turnover. The longer a person is in a job, the less likely he or she is to

quit. Consistent with research that suggests that past behavior is the best predictor of future

behavior evidence indicates that tenure on an employees previous job is a powerful predictor ofthat employees future turnover. The evidence indicates that tenure and satisfaction are positively

related.

Ability


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Ability refers to an individuals capacity to perform the various tasks in a job. It is a current

assessment of what one can do. An individuals overall abilities are essentially made up of two sets

of factors. Intellectual and physical abilities.

Types of abilities:-

Intellectual Abilities:- These are those activities that are needed to perform mental activities.

Intelligence quotient (IQ) tests are designed to ascertain ones general intellectual abilities. The

seven most frequently cited dimensions are number aptitude, verbal comprehension, inductivereasoning, spatial visualization and memory. Jobs differ in the demands they place on incumbents

to use their intellectual abilities. Generally speaking the more information-processing demand that

exist in a job, the more general intelligence and verbal abilities will be necessary to performancethe job successfully. The most recent evidence suggests that intelligence can be better understood

by breaking it down into four subparts: cognitive, social, emotional and cultural. Cognitive

intelligence encompasses the aptitudes like IQ, number aptitude etc. Social intelligence is personsability to relate effectively to others. Emotional intelligence is the ability to identify, understand,

and manage emotions. And cultural intelligence is awareness of cross-cultural differences and theability to function successfully in cross cultural functions.

Physical Ability:- Physical ability refers to the capacity to tasks demanding stamina, dexterity,

strength and similar characteristics. To the same degree that intellectual abilities play a larger role

in complex jobs with demanding information. Processing requirements, specific physical abilitiesgain importance for successfully doing less-skilled and more standardized jobs. For examples, jobs

in which success demands stamina manual dexterity, leg strength similar talent require

management to identify an employees physical capabilities.

LEARNING

Any relatively permanent change in behavior is called learning. Three theories have been offered

explain the process of learning by which we acquire patter us of behavior. These are classical

conditioning operant conditioning and social learning.

a) Classical Conditioning:- deals with the association of one event with another desiredevent resulting in desired behavior or learning.

b) Operant Conditioning:- A type of conditioning in which desired voluntary behavior leadsto a reward or prevents punishment. The tendency to repeat such behavior is influenced by

the reinforcement or lack of reinforcement about by the consequences of the behavior.

Therefore, reinforcement strengthens a behavior and increases the like hood that it will be

repeated.c) Social learning:- People can learn through observation and direct experience. The

influence of this model is central to the social viewpoint. Four processes have been found

to determine the influence that a model will have an individual.


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i) Attention Processes:- People learn from a model only when they recognize and payattention to its critical features.

ii) Retention Processes:- A models influence will depend on how well the individualremembers the models action after the model is no longer readily available.

iii) Motor Reproduction Process:- After a person has a new behavior by observing themodel the watching must be converted to doing. This process then demonstrates thattheir individual can perform the modeled activities.

Because learning takes place on the job as well as prior to it managers will be concerted with how

they can teach employees to behave in ways that most benefit the organization and this change

their attitude. When managers attempt to mold individuals by guiding their learning in graduatedsteps, they are shaping behavior and this changing their attitude.

There are four ways in which to shape behavior positive reinforcement negative reinforcement,punishment and extinction.

Following a response with something pleasant is called positive reinforcement Negative responsehappens when individuals learn to avoid or escape from unpleasant consequences. Punishment is

causing an unpleasant condition in an attempt to eliminate an unpleasant behavior. Eliminating anyreinforcement that is maintaining a behavior is called extinction.

VALUES

Values represent basic conviction that a specific mode of conduct or end- state of existence is

personally or society preferable to an opposite mode of conduct. They contain a Judgmental

element in that they carry an individuals ideas as to what is right, good or desirable. Values haveboth context and intensity attributes. The context attribute says that a mode of conduct is

important. The intensity attributes specifics how important it is.

Values are important to the study of organizational behavior they lay the foundation for theunderstanding of attributes and motivation and because the influence our perception.

Managers have to become capable of working with people from different cultures. Because value

and attributes differ across cultures, are understanding of these differences should be helpful in

explaining and predicating behavior of employees from different cultures. Nine dimensions onwhich cultures differ:-

1) Assertiveness:- The extent to which a society encourages people to be tough,assertive, confrontational and competitive verses modest and tender.

2) Future Oriented:- The extent to which a society encourages and rewards futureoriented behaviors such as planning, investing in future and laying gratification.

3) Gender Differentiation:- The extend to which society maximizes gender role anddifferences.

4) Power Distance:- Degree to which members of society expect power to theunequally shared.

5) Performance Oriented:- This refers to the degree to which a society encourages andrewards groups members for performances improvement an excellent.


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6) Individualism/collectivism:- This is the degree to which individuals are encouragedby societal institutions to be integrated groups within organizations and society.

ATTITUDES

Attitudes are evaluative statements or Judgment concerning objects, people or events. They reflect

how one feel about something. These are three components of an attitude: cognition, affect andbehavior.

1) Cognitive component of an attitude is opining or belief segment of an attitude. E.g.discrimination is wrong. Such an opinion is the cognitive component of an attitude.

2) Affective component of an attitude is the emotional or feeling segment of an attitude e.g. Idont like Mr. X because he discriminates against minorities.

3) Behavioral component of an attitude is an intention to behave in a certain way towardssomeone or something.

These three component:- cognitive, affect and behavior- are helpful in understanding the potentialrelationship between attitudes and behavior. In contrast to values, attitudes are less stable. E.G.

Advertising message attempt to alter your with feeling related to product/services. That attitudemay lead to desirable response/behavior i.e. the purchase of product or service.

TYPES OF ATTITUDES

A person can have thousand of attitudes. The work related attitudes can positive or negativeevaluation that employees hold about their work environment. Most of the research in

organizational behavior is concerned with three attitudes: job satisfaction, job involvement and

organizational commitment.

Job Satisfaction:- The term job satisfaction refers to an individuals general attitudes towards his

or her job. A person with high level of job satisfaction holds positive attitudes about the job, while

a person who is dissatisfied with his/ her job holds negative attitudes about the job.Job Involvement:- Job involvement measures the degree to which a person identified

psychologically with his/her job and considers his/her perceived performance level important to

self work. Employees with high level of job involvement strongly identify with and really care

about the kind of work they do.

Organization Commitment:- It is a degree to which an employee identifies with a particular

organization and its goals, and wishes to maintain membership in the organization. The research

demonstrates negative relationship between organizational negative relationship betweenorganizational commitment and both absenteeism and turnover.

ATTITUDE-BEHAVIOR RELATIONSHIP

Attitudes effect behavior and vice-verse. Important attitudes are ones that reflect fundamentalvalues, self interest or identification with individuals or groups that a person values. Attitudes that

individuals consider important tend to show a strong relationship to behavior. The more specific

the attitude


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and the more specific the behavior, the stronger the link between the two.

Discrepancies between attitudes and behavior are more likely to occur when social pressures tobehave in a certain ways hold exceptional power. The attitude-behavior relationship is likely to be

much stronger if an attitude refers to something with which the individual has direct personal

experience.

COGNITIVE DISSINANCE

Dissonance means inconsistency. Any form of inconsistency is uncomfortable and that individuals

will attempt to reduce the dissonance and hence, discomfort. Therefore, individuals will seek astable state, in which there is minimum of dissonance.

Cognitive dissonance refers to any incompatibility that an individual might perceive

between two or more of his/her attitudes or between his/her behavior and attitudes.No individual can completely avoid dissonance. The desire to reduce dissonance

would be determined by the importance of the dements creating dissonance, the degree of

influence the individual beliefs he/she has over the elements, and rewards that may be involved indissonance.

If the elements creating the dissonance are relatively unimportant, the pressure to correctthis imbalance will be low.

The degree of influence that individuals believe that they have over the elements will havean impact on how they will react to the dissonance. If they perceive the dissonance to be an

uncontrollable result-something over which they have no correct they are less likely to be

receptive to attitude change. If for ex. the dissonance producing behavior is required as a result ofthe bosss directive the pressure to reduce dissonance would be less then if the behavior was

performed voluntarily. While dissonance exists, if can be rationalized and justified.

Rewards also influence the degree to which individuals are motivated to reducedissonance. High rewards accompanying high dissonance. The rewards act to reduce dissonance

by increasing the consistency side of the individuals balance sheet.

Self Esteem:- People differ in the degree to which they like or dislike themselves. This trait iscalled self esteem. Self esteem is directly related to expectations for success. High self esteem

believe that they possess the ability they need to succeed at work individuals with high self-esteem

will take more risks in job selection and are more likely to choose unconventional jobs then people

with low self esteem.Low self esteem is more susceptible to external influence then is high self esteem. Low self

esteem is dependent on the receipt of positive evaluations from others. As a result they are more

likely to seek approval from others and more prone to conform to the beliefs and behaviors ofthose they respect than are high self esteems. In managerial positions, low self esteem will tend to

be concerned with pleasing others and therefore are less likely to take unpopular stands than are

high self esteem. High self esteem is more satisfied with their jobs then is low self esteems.

Self Monitoring:- It refers to personality trait that measures an individuals ability to adjusthis/her behavior to external situational factors.

Individuals high are self monitoring show considerable adaptability in adjusting their

behavior to external situational factors. They are highly sensitive to external cues and can behavedifferently in different situational. High self monitors are capable of presenting striking


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contradictions between their public persona and their private self. Low self monitors cant disguise

themselves in that way. They tend to display their true disposition and attitudes in every situationhence there is high behavioral consistency between who they are end what is they do. It can be

hypothesized that high self monitors will be more successful in managerial positions in which

individuals are requires to play multiple roles. The high self monitors are capable of putting on

different facts for different audience.

EMOTIONS

Emotions are intense feeling that are directed at someone or something.

In contrast to emotions, there is mood that refers to feelings that tend to be less intense than

emotions and that lack emotional stimulus.Both emotions and mood together form affect which is a generic term which covers a broad range

of feelings that people experience.

Emotions are reactions to an object, not a trait. They are objecting specific. A person showshis emotions which he is happy about something angry at someone or afraid of something. Moods

on the other hand are not directed to a n object. Emotions can turn into moods when one loses

focus on the contextual object.Related to emotions is emotional labor which refers to a situation in which an

employee expresses organizationally desired emotions during interpersonal transactions.Emotional labor creates dilemmas for employees when their job requires them to exhibit emotions

that are incongruous with their actual feelings. Hence there can be felt emotions and displayedemotion. Felt emotions are individuals actual emotions. In contrast, displayed emotions are those

that are organizationally required and considered appropriate in a given job. They are not innate,

they are learned e.g. We are expected to a ct sad the funerals regardless of whether we consider thepersons death to be a loss, and to pretend to be happy at weddings even if we dont feel like

celebrating.

EMOTION DIMENSIONSVarity:- Emotions can either be positive or negative. Positive emotions-like happiness and hope

express a favorable evolution or feeling. Negative emotions like anger or hate express the opposite

emotions can not be neutral. Being neutral is non emotional. Importantly, negative emotions seem

to have a greater effect on individuals. Research has identified six universal emotion:- anger, fear,sadness, happiness, disgust and surprise.

Intensity:- People give different responses to identifiable emotion provoking stimuli. In some

cases this can be attributed to the individuals personality. Other times it is result of the jobrequirements. People vary in their inherent ability to express intensity. There are some individual

who almost never show their feelings. They rarely get angry. They never show rage. In contrast,

there are some individuals who seem to be on an emotional roller-coaster. When they are happy,

they are ecstatic. Where they are sad, they are deeply depressed. And two people can be in thesame situation- one showing excitement and joy, the remaining calm and collected.

Jobs make different intensity demands in terms of emotions labor. For instance,

judges and air traffic controllers are expected to be calm and controlled, even in stressful


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situations. Conversely the effectiveness of public address announces at sporting events and lowers

can depend on their ability to alter their displayed emotional intensity as the need arises.

Frequency and duration:- Emotional labor that requires high frequency or long durations

is more demanding and requires more exertion by employees. So whether an employee can

successfully meet the emotional demands of a given job depends not only on what emotions needto be displayed and their intensity, but also on how frequently and for how long the effort has to be

made.

Gender and emotions:- The evidence does confirm differences between men and women when it

comes to emotional reactions and ability to read others, In contrasting the genders, women showgreater emotional expressions than men, they experience emotions more intensely and they display

more frequent expressions of both positive and negative emotions except anger. In contras to men,

women also report more comfort in expressing emotions. Finally women cusses than are men.Women have more innate ability to read others and present their emotions then do men.

Emotional intelligence:- (EI)refers to an assortment of non cognitive skills, capabilities andcompetencies that influence a persons ability to successes in coping with environmental demands

and pressures. It is a compound of five dimensions.a) Self awareness:- Being aware of what you are feeling .b) Self management: - The ability to manage ones own emotions and impulses.c) Self motivation:- The ability to persist in the face of setbacks and failures. d) Empathy:- The ability to sense how others are feeling.e) Social skills:- The ability to handle the emotions of others.

Several students suggest that EI may play an important role in job performance.

Top performance recruiters exhibit high levels of EI. The implications from theinitial evidences on EI is that employers should consider it as a factor in selection,

especially in jobs that demand a high degree of social interaction

Given the same objective data, we should expect people may make differentchoices when they are angry and stressed out then when they are clam and

collected.

Negative emotions can result in a limited search for new alternatives and

less vigilant use of information. On the other hand, positive emotions can increaseproblem solving skills and facilitate the integrations of information.

Motivation:- Motivation theories propose that individuals are motivated to the extend that theirbehavior is expected to lead to desired outcomes. The image is that of a rational exchange. The

employees essentially trade efforts for pay, security, promotions, and so forth. But people are not

cold, unfeeling machines. Their perceptions and calculations of situations are filled with emotional

content that significantly influences how much effort they exert. People who are highly motivatesin their jobs, they are emotionally committed. People who are engaged in their work become

physically cognitively and emotionally immersed in the experience of activity, in the pursuit of a

goal.


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Leadership:- The ability to lead others is a fundamental quality sought by organizations.

Effective leaders rely on the expression of feelings to help convey their messages. When leaderfeel excite, enthusiastic and active, they may be more likely to energies their subordinates and

convey a sense of efficacy competence optimize and enjoyment. Corporate executives know that

emotional content is critical if employees are to buy into their vision of their companys future and

accept change. By arousing emotions and linking them to an appealing vision, leaders increase thelike hood that managers and employees alike will accept change.

Interpersonal Conflict:- Whenever conflicts arise, emotions also surface. A managers success intrying to resolve conflicts is often largely attributed to his ability to identify the emotional elements

in the conflict and to get the conflicting parties to work through their emotions. And the managers

who ignores the emotional elements in conflicts, focusing singularly on rational and take focusedconcerns, is unlikely to be very effective in resolving those conflicts.

b) Reward power:- The opposite of coercive power is reward power. People comply with thewishes or directives of another because doing so produces positive benefits; therefore, one who can

distribute rewards that others view as valuable will have power over those others. These rewards

can either be financial or non-financial.

c) Legitimate Power:- Legitimate power represents the power a person receives as a result of his

or her position in the formal hierarchy of an organization. It is the formal authority to control anduse organizational resources. Legitimate power is broader than the power to coerce and reward.

Specifically, it includes acceptance by members in an organization of the authority of a position.

d) Information Power:- Information Power comes from access to and control overinformation. People in an organization who have data or knowledge that others need canmake those other dependent on them.

II) Personal PowerPersonal power comes from an individuals unique characteristics. Three bases of personal

power- expertise, the respect and admiration of others and charisma.

a) ExpertPower: - Expert power is influence wielded as a result of expertise, special skills orknowledge. Expertise has become one of the most power sources of influence as the world

has become one of the most power sources of influence as the world has become more

technologically oriented. As jobs become more specialized, we become increasinglydependent on experts to achieve goals.

b) Referent Power:- Referent power is based on identification with a person who hasdesirable resources or personal traits. Referent power develops out of admiration of anotherand a desire to be like that person. For example, celebrities are paid millions to endorse

products in commercials. They have the power to influence peoples choice of products.

c) Charismatic Power: - Charismatic Power is extent ion of referent power stemming froman individuals personality and interpersonal skills. Charismatic people get others to followthem because they can articulate attractive VISIONS, take personal risks, demonstrate

environmental and follower sensitivity and are willing to engage in behavior that most

others consider unconventional.


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DEPENDENCY

The greater Bs dependency on A, the greater the power A has over B.

When a person possess anything that others require, but alone has a control over it, he

makes others dependent over him and thus, gain power over them. Dependency, then, is

inversely proportional to the alternative sources of supply. If something is plentiful, possessionof it will not increase anyones power. If everyone is intelligent, intelligence gives no special

advantage. Conversely, the more that a person has options, the less power he places in thehands of others. Hence, most organizations develop multiple suppliers rather than give their

business to only one.

Dependency is increased when the resources a person controls is important, scarceand nonsubstitutable.

Importance

If nobody wants what a person has got, its is not going to create dependency. To create

dependency, therefore. The things a person control must be perceived as being important.

Scarcity

If something is plentiful, possession of it will not increase ones power. A resource needs to beperceived as scarce to create dependency.

Nonsubstitutability

The more that a resource has no visible substitutes, the more power that control over that

resources provides.

Power Tactics

Power tactics refer to ways in which individuals translate power bases into specific actions.

There are seven tactical dimensions or strategies by which managerial employees influenceothers:-

-Reason: - Use of facts and data to make a logical or rational presentation of ideas.

-Friendliness: - Use of flattery, creation of goodwill, acting humble and being friendly prior tomaking a request.

-Coalition: - Getting the support of other people in the organization to back up the request.

-Bargaining: - Use of negotiation through the exchange of benefits or favors.

-Assertiveness: - Use of a direct and forceful approach such as demanding compliance withrequest, repeated reminders, ordering individuals to do what is asked etc.

-Higher Authority: - Gaining the support of higher levels in the organization to back-up

request.

-Sanctions:- Use of organizationally derived rewards and punishments such as preventing or

premising a salary increase threatening to give an unsatisfactory performance evolution or with

holding a promotion. Likely to engage in political behavior.

The high self monitor is more sensitive to social cues, exhibits higher levels of socialconformity and is more likely to be skilled in political behavior then the low self monitor.

Individuals with an internal locus of control, because they believe they can control their

environment, are more prone to take a proactive stance and attempt to manipulate situations intheir favor.


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Individuals with an internal focus of control, because they believe they can control their

environment are more prone to take a productive stance and attempt to manipulate situations intheir favor.

Machiavellian personality which is characterized by the will to manipulate and the desire

for power is comfortable using politics as a means to further his or her self interest.

Individuals investment in the organization perceived alternatives and expectations ofsuccess will influence the degree to which he/she will pursue illegitimate means of political

action. The more a person has invested in the organization in terms of expectations ofincreased future benefits, the more he/she has to lose if forced out and less likely he/she is to

use illegitimate means.

The more alternative job opportunities an individual has due to favorable job market or thepossession of scarce skills or knowledge a prominent reputation or influential contracts outside

the organization the more likely he/she is to risk illegitimate political actions.

Organizational Factors:- Political activity is probably more a function of the organizational

characteristics than of individual difference variables.

When organizations downsize to improve efficiency, reduction in resources has to be made.Threatened with the loss of resources, people may engage in political actions to safeguard what

they have. But any changes, especially those that imply significant reallocation of resources withinthe organization are likely to stimulate conflict and increase politicking.

Promotion decisions have consistently been found to be one of the most political actions inorganizations. The opportunity for promotions or advancement encourages people to comate for

limits resources and to try to positively influence the decision outcome.

The less trust there is within the organization the higher the level of political behavior and themore likely that the political behavior will be of the illegitimate kind. So high trust should suppress

the level of political behavior in general and inhibit illegitimate action in particular.

Role ambiguity means that the prescribed behavior of the employee is not clear. There are fewerlimits, therefore, to the scope and functions of the employees political actions. Because political

activities as those not required as part of ones formal role the greater the role ambiguity, the more

one can engage in political activities with little change of it being visible.

The more that organizations use subjective criteria in the appraisal emphasize the single outcome

measure, or allow significant time to pass between the time of an action and its appraisal the

greater the like hood then an employee can get away with politicking.

The more then an organizations culture emphasizes the zero-sum or win-lose approach to reward

allocations, the more employees will be motivate to engage in politicking. In zero-sum approachany gain that one person or group achieves has come at the expense of another person or group.

Such a practice encourages making others look bad and increasing the visibility of what you do.

The more pressure that employees feel to perform well, the more likely they are to engage inpoliticking when people are strictly accountable for outcomes, this puts great pressures on them to

Look good.


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When employees see the people on top engaging in political behavior especially when they do so

successfully and are rewarded for it, a climate is created that supports politicking. Politicking bytop management gives permission to those lower in the organization to play politics by implying

such behavior that is acceptable.

How do people respond to organizational politics

There is very strong evidence indicating that perceptions of organizational politics are negatively

related to job satisfaction. The perception of politics also tends to increase job anxiety or stress.This is due to perception that by not engaging in politics, a person may be losing ground to others

who are actively politickers. When politickers becomes too much to handle, it can lead to

employees quitting. Politics lead to self-reported decline in employee performance. Perceivedorganizational politics appear to have a demotivating effect on individuals, thus leading to

decreased performance levels.

ORGANISATION STRUCTURE

An organization structure defines how job tasks are formally divided, grouped and coordinated.There are six elements that mangers need to address when they design their organizations

structure. These are :- a) Work specialization. b) Departmentalization. c) Chain of command. d)Span of control. e) Centralisation & Decentralization. f) Formalisation

A) Work Specialization: - refers to the degree to which tasks in the organization aresubdivided into separate jobs. The essence of work specialization is that, rather than an

entire job being done by one individual, it is broken down into a number of steps, with eachstep being completed by a separate individual.

B) Departmentalisation:- Once the jobs have been divided through work specialization, thesejobs have to be grouped together so that common tasks can be coordinated. The basis bywhich jobs are grouped together is called departmentalization.

The activities can be grouped by functions performed. A

Manufacturing manager might organize his plant by separating engineering, accounting,manufacturing, personnel and supply specialists into common departments. Functional

departmentalization seeks to achieve economics of scale by placing people with common skills and

orientations into common units.

Tasks can also be departmentalized by the type of product theorganization produces. Each major product is placed under the authority of an executive who has

complete global responsibility for that product. The major advantage of this type of grouping is

increased accountability for product performance, since all the activities related to a product areunder the direction of a single manager.

Another way to departmentalize is on the basis of geography

or territory. The sales function, for instance, may have western, southern, eastern region. Each of

these regions is in effect, a department organized around geography. If an organisations customersare scattered over a large geographic area and have similar needs based on their location, then this

form of departmentalization.


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A final category of departmentalization is to use the particular type of

customer. An organization can organize itself around customer groups like corporates, retail,government etc.

C) Chain of Command is an unbroken line of authority that extends from the top of the

organization to the lowest level and clarifies who reports to whom. It answers questions for

employees such as To whom do I go if I have a problem? and To whom am I responsible?The unity of command principle helps preserve the concept of an

unbroken line of authority. It states that a person should have one and only one superior to whomhe or she is directly responsible. If the unity of command is broken, an employee might have to

cope with conflicting demands or priorities from several superiors.

D) Span of control refers to the number of subordinates a manager can efficiently andeffectively direct. Span of control is important because, to a large degree, it determines the

number of levels and managers and organization has all things being equal the wider or

larger the span, the more efficient the organization. Narrow span has three majordrawbacks. First, they are expensive because they add to the levels of management.

Second, they make vertical communication in the organization more complex. The added

levels of hierarchy slow down decision making and tend to isolate upper management.Third, narrow spans of control encourage overly tight supervision and discourage

autonomy.E) Centralisation and Decentralisation Centralisation refers to the degree to which

decision making is concentrated at a single point in the organization. The concept includesonly formal authority that is, the rights inherent to ones position. Typically, its said that if

top management makes the organisations key decision with little or no input from lower-

level personnel, then the organization is centralized. In contrast, the actually given thediscretion to make decision, the more decentralisation there is.

An organization characterized by centralization is anInherently different structural entity from one that is an inherently different structural entity

from one that is decentralized. In a decentralized organization, action can be taken more

quickly to solve problem, more people provide input into decisions and employees are lesslikely to feel alienated from those who make the decisions that effect their work lives.

Consistent with recent management efforts to make organization

more flexible and responsive, there has been a marked trend toward decentralizing decision

making. In large companies, lower-level managers are closer to the action and typically havemore detailed knowledge about problems than do top management.

F) Formalisation refers to the degree to which job within the organization are standardized. Ifa job is highly formalized then the job incumbent has a minimum amount of discretion

Pageno43.

Over what is to be done, when it is to be done and how it is to be done. Employees can beexpected always to handle the same input in exactly same way, resulting in a consistentand uniform output. There are explicitly job description lots of organizational rules, anddearly defined procedures covering work processes in organizations in which thee is highformalization. Where formalization is low, job behaviors are relatively non-programmed


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and employees have a great deal of freedom to exercise discretion in their work. Becausean individuals discretion on the job is inversely related to the amount of behavior in thatjob that is preprogrammed by the organization, the greater the standardization and theless input the employee has into how his or her work is to be done. Standardization nothis/her work is to be done. Standardization not only eliminates the possibility ofemployees engaging in alternative behaviors, but it even removes the need for employees

to consider alternatives.Common organizational Designs:-There are three common organizational designs- Simple structure, bureaucracy and thematrix structure.

A) Simple Structure:- Simple structure is characterized by a low degree ofdepartmentalization, wide span of control, authority centralized in a singleperson and little formalization. The simple structure is a felt organization, itusually has only two or three vertical levels, a lower body of employees and oneindividual in whom the decision making authority is centralized. The simplestructure is most widely practiced in small businesses in which the manager and

the owner are one and the same. The strength of the simple structure less in itssimplicity. Its fast flexible and inexpensive to maintain and accountability is dear.B) Bureaucracy:- The key concept that underlies all bureaucracy is standardization.

It is a structure with highly routine operating tasks achieved throughspecialization very formalized rules and regulations, tasks that are grouped intofunctional departments, centralized authority, narrow span of control and decisionmaking the chain of command.

The primary strength of bureaucracy lies in its ability to perform standardizedactivities in a highly efficient manner. Putting like specialties together in functionaldepartments results in economics of scale, minimum duplications of personal andequipment. Furthermore bureaucracy gives opportunity to less talented and henceless costly middle and lower level managers. The pervasiveness of rules andregulations substitutes for managerial discretion. Standardized operations, coupledwith high formalization allow decision making to be centralized. There is little needtherefore for innovative and experienced decision makers below the level of seniorexecutives.c) Matrix Structure:- Matrix structure creates dual line of authority and combinesfunctional and product departmentalization .The strength of functional departmentalization lies in putting like specialists together,which minimizes the number necessary while allowing the pooling and sharing ofspecialized resources across products. Its major disadvantage is the difficulty of

coordinating the tasks of diverse functional specialists so that their activities arecompleted on time and within budget. Product departmentation, on the other hand,has exactly the opposite benefits and disadvantages. It facilitates coordination amongspecialties to achieve on-time completion and meet budgets targets. Further more, itprovides clear responsibility for all activities related to a product, but with duplication


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of activities and costs. The matrix attempts to gain the strength of each, whileavoiding their weaknesses.

The most obvious structural characteristics of the matrix is that it breaks the unityof command concept. Employees in the matrix have two bosses-their functionaldepartment managers and their product managers. Therefore, the matrix has a dualchain of command.

The strength of the matrix lies in its ability to facilitate coordination when theorganization has a multiplicity of complex and interdependent activities. As anorganization gets larger, its information processing capacity can become overloaded.In a bureaucracy, complexity results in increased formularization. The direct andfrequent contact between different specialists in the matrix can make for bettercommunication and more quickly reaches the people who need to take account of it.

There is another advantage to the matrix. It facilitates the efficient allocation ofspecialists. When individuals with highly specialized skills are lodged in one

functional department or a product group their talents are monopolized andunderused. The matrix achieves the advantage of economics of scale by providing theorganization with both the best resources and an effective way of ensuring theirefficient development.


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NEW DESIGN OPTIONS

Senior managers in a number of organizations have been working to develop new structuraloptions that can better help their firms to compete effectively. Two new structures of such type

have come up in recent times:-a) The Team Structure:- The primary characteristics of the team structure are that it breaks

down departmental barriers and decentralize decision making to the level of the work

teams. Team structures also require employees to be generalists as well as specialists.More often, primarily among larger organizations, the team structure complements what

is typically a bureaucracy. This allows, the organization to achieve the efficiency of bureaucracy

standardization, while gaining the flexibility that team provides.b) The Virtual Organization (also sometimes called network or modular organization)

virtual organization is typically a small, core organization that outsources major business

functions. In structural terms, the virtual organization is highly centralized, with little or nodepartmentalization.

The core of the organization is a small group of executives whose job is to overseedirectly any activities that are done in house and to coordinate relationships with the other

organization that manufacture, distribute and perform other crucial functions for the virtualorganization. In essence, managers in virtual structures spend most of their time coordinating and

controlling external relations, typically by way of computer network links.

The major advantage to the virtual organization is its flexibility. For instance, it allowsindividuals with an innovative idea and little money to successfully compete with bigger

companies. The primary drawback to this structure is that it reduces managements control over

key parts of its business.

NEGOTIATIONNegotiation is defined as a process in which two or more parties exchange goods or services and

attempt to agree on the exchange rate for them.

There are two general approaches to negotiation- distributive bargaining and integrative

bargaining.A) Distributive Bargaining:- Distributive bargaining is defined as negotiations that seeks to

divide up a fixed amount of resources, a win lose situation. Its most identifying feature is

that it operates under zero sum conditions i.e. each party bargains aggressively and treatsthe other as an opponent who must be defeated.

The essence of distributive bargaining is that each party has a target point that defines

what he/she would like to achieve. Each also has a resistance point, which marks the lowest

outcome that is acceptable the point below which they would break off negotiations rather thenaccept a less favorable settlement. The area between these two points makes up each ones

aspiration range. As long as these is some overlap between the aspiration ranges, their exists a

settlement range in which each ones aspiration can be met.


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When engaged in distributive bargaining ones tactics focus on try to get ones opponent to

agree to ones specific target point or to get as close to it as possible. Examples of such tactics arepersuading to his/her target point and the advisability of accepting a settlement near yours arguing

that your target is fair, which your opponents is not and attempting to get you opponent to feel

emotionally generous toward you and thus accept an outcome close to your target point.

B) Integrative Bargaining :- Negotiation that seeks one or more settlements than create win-

win situation.In terms of intra-organizational behavior all things being equal integrative bargaining is

preferable to distributive bargaining. Integrative bargaining builds long term relationships and

facilitates working together in the future. It bonds negotiators and allows each to leave thebargaining table feeling that he/she has achieved a victory. Distributive bargaining on the other

hand, leaves one party a loser. It tends to build animosities and deeper divisions when people have

to work together on an ongoing process.

The Negotiation Process :- Negotiation is made up of five steps:- preparation and planning,

Definition of ground rules, Clarification and justification, bargaining and problem solving andclosure and implementation.

a) Preparation and planning:- Before the start of negations one must be aware of conflictthe history leading to the negotiation the people involved and their perception of the

conflict expectations from the negotiations etc.

b) Definition of ground rules:- Once the planning and strategy is development one has tobegin defining the ground rules and procedures with the other party over the negotiation

itself that will do the negotiation. Where will it take place? What time constrains, if anywill apply? To what issues will negotiations be limited? Will there be a specific procedure

to follow in an impasse is reached? During this phase the parties will also exchange their

initial proposals or demands.

c) Clarification and justification:- When initial positions have been exchanged both theparties will explain amplify, clarify, bolster and justify their original demands. This need

not be confrontational. Rather it is an opportunity for educating and informing each otheron the issues why they are important and how each arrived at their initial demands. This is

the point where one party might want to provide the other party with any documentation

that helps support its position.

d) Bargaining and problem solving :- The essence of the negotiation process is the actualgive and take in trying to hash out an agreement. It is here where concessions will

undoubtedly need to be made by both parties.

e) Closure and Implementation:- The final step in the negotiation process is formalizationthe agreement that has been worked out and developing and procedures that are necessary

for implementation and monitoring. For major negotiations this will require hammering

out the specifics in a formal contract.

Third Party Negotiations:-


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If the group or parties reach a stalemate and are unable to resolve their differences through

direct negotiation they may turn to a third party to help them find a solution. The different thirdparty roles are:-

a) Mediator:- Mediator is a neutral third party who facilitates a negotiated solution by usingreasoning and persuasion, suggesting alternatives and like. Mediators are widely used in

labor-management negotiations and in civil court disputes. To be effective the mediatormust be perceived as neutral and non-coercive.

b) Arbitrator:- An arbitrator is a third party with the authority to dictate an agreement.Arbitration can be voluntary (requested) or compulsory. The authority of the arbitrator

varies according to the rules set by the negotiators. The big plus of arbitration over

medication is that it always results in a settlement. If one party is left feeling overwhelming defeated, that party is certain to be dissatisfied and unlikely to graciously accept

the..

EMPOWERMENT

Empowerment is putting employees in charge of what they do. Decision making is

pushed down to the operating level, where workers are given the freedom to makechoices about schedules and procedures and to solve work related problems.Employees are allowed full control and their work. An increasing numbers oforganizations are using self managed teams, in which workers operate largelywithout bosses. Empowerment is necessary component of a customer responsiveculture because it allows service employees to make on the post decisions to satisfycustomer completely.In empowering employees managers have to learn how to give up control andemployees have to learn how to take responsibility for their work and makeappropriate decisions.

There are several barriers to empowerment. Some managers are very reluctant todelegate authority and many sub-ordinates avoid taking on the responsibility andauthority. The causes for such reluctance are based upon certain beliefs and attitudeswhich are personal and behavioral in nature.

A. Reluctance of executive.a. A manager may believe that he can do this work better than his

subordinate. He subordinates are not capable enough. Delegation may takea lot of time in explaining the responsibility to the subordinate and themanagers may not have the patience to explain supervise and correct any

mistake.b. Lack of confidence and trust in subordinate: since the manager is

responsible for the action of his subordinates he may not be wiling to takechances with the subordinates in case the job is not done right.


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c. Sense of in security .: some managers feel very insecure in delegatingauthority specially when the subordinate is capable of doing the job. Themanager in such a situation may feel his loss or power and competitionfrom the subordinates.

B. Reluctance of subordinates.a. Many subordinates are reluctance to accept authority and make decisionsfor fear that they would be criticized or dismissed for making wrong

decisions. This is especially true in situations where subordinates had makea mistake earlier.

b. The subordinates may not be given sufficient incentives for assuming extraresponsibility which could mean working harder under pressure.Accordingly I the absence of adequate compensation in the form of highersalary or promotional opportunities a subordinate may avoid additionalresponsibility.

c. The subordinate may lock self confidence in doing the job and may fear thesupervisor will not be available for guidance once the delegation is madeand this makes them feel uncomfortable with additional responsibility.

d. Some subordinates hesitate to accept new and added assignment whenthere is lack of necessary information and when the available resources arenit adequate or proper.

Facilitators of empowerment.Since empowerment results in several organizational advantage, it becomesnecessary for the management any barriers to effective empowerment.

Arbitrators decision. Therefore, the conflict might surface at a later time.C) CONCILIATOR: A conciliator is a third party who provides an informal

communication link between the negotiator and the opponent. In practice,conciliator typically acts as more than mere communication conduits. They alsoengage in fact finding, interpreting message and persuading disputants to developagreements.

D) CONSULTANT: A consultant is a skilled and impartial third party who attemptto facilitate problem solving through communication and analysis, aided by his orher knowledge of conflict management. The consultants role is not to settle theissues but, rather, to improve relations between the conflicting parties so that theycan reach a settlement themselves. Instead of putting forward specific solutions,

the consultant tries to help the parties learn to understand and work with eachother.

CHANGEChange is making things different. It is an intentional goal oriented activity.


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Change can be planned or unplanned. Planned change seeksto improve the ability of the organization to adapt to the changes in its environment.Second, it seeks to change employees behavior.

If an organization is to survive, it must respond to change inits environment. When competitors introduce new products, government enact new lawsor similar environmental changes take place, the organizations need to adapt. Because an

organizations success or failure is essentially due to things that it employees do or fail todo, planned change also is concerned with changing the behavior of individuals andgroups within the organization.CHANGE AGENTS: People who are responsible to bring/introduce change in theorganization. They act as catalysts and assume the responsibility for managing changeactivities. Change agents can be managers or outside consultants who provide advice andassistance. The outside consultants, because they are from outside, can offer an objectiveperspective often unavailable to insiders. Outside consultant, however, aredisadvantaged because they usually have an inadequate understanding of theorganizations history, culture, operating procedures etc.

FORCES FOR CHANGE1) Nature of the workforce:- Almost every organization is having to adjust to a

multicultural environment. Human resource policies and practices have to changein order to attract and keep this more diverse workforce.

2) TECHNOLOGY:- Faster and cheaper computers, new mobile communicationdevices etc have forced the companies to take adaptive steps to survive in themarket place.

3) COMPETITION:- Companies no longer face competition from local players butfrom international giants, Change or die is the rallying cry among todaysmanagers. It is neither the strongest who will survive nor the fittest but one who isreceptive to change.

4) WORLD POLITICS:- Companies have to change taking into account the politicalchanges taking around the world. The opening up of China, breaking up of SovietUnion, the terrorist attack on World Trade Tower has led to changes in businesspractices related to the creation of back up systems, employee security and post-terrorist attack anxiety.

Resistance to change

Organizations and their members resist change. Resistance to changehinders adapt ion and progress. Resistance can be overt, implicit, immediate or deferred.It is easiest for management to deal with resistance when it is overt and immediate. Forinstance, a change is proposed and employees quickly respond by voicing complaints,engaging in a work slowdown, threatening to go on strike that is implicit or deferred.


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Implicit resistance efforts are more subtle-loss of loyalty to the organization, loss ofmotivation to work, increased errors to work, increased absenteeism due to sickness-and hence more difficult to recognize.

Resistance may be at individual level or organization level.INDIVIDUAL RESISTANCE Individual Resistance to change reside in basic humancharacteristics. These are:

a) Habit: Human beings are creatures of habits. Life is complex and humans dontneed to consider the full range of options for the hundreds of decisions they haveto make everyday. To cope with this complexity human beings rely on habit orpre-programmed responses. But when confronted with change, this tendency torespond in their accustomed way becomes a source of resistance.

Security people with high need for security are likely to resist change because it threatens their

feeling of safety.

Economic Factors:- Changes in job tasks or established work routines also can arouseeconomic fears if people are concerned that they wont be able to perform the new tasks or

routines to their previous standards especially when pay is closely tied to productivity.

Fear of unknown:- changes substitute ambiguity and uncertainty for the known. Employees

in an organization hold dislike for uncertainty.

Organizational resistance:- major sources of organizational resistance include.

a) Structural Inertia:- Organizations have built-in- mechanism to produce stability. Thepeople who are hired into an organization are chosen for fit, they are then trained anddirected to behave in certain ways. When an organization is confronted with change, this

structural inertia acts as a counterbalance to sustain stability.

b) Limited Focus of change: - Organizations are made up of a number of interdependentsubsystems you cant change one without affecting the others. So limited changes in

subsystem tend to get nullified by the larger system.

c) Group inertia: - Even if individuals want to change their behavior, group norms may actas constrains. Any individual union member, for instance may be willing to accept changes

in his job suggested by management. But if union norms dictate resistance any unilateral

change made by management, he is likely to resist.

d) Threat to Established power Relationships:- Any redistribution of decision makingauthority can threaten long established power relationships within the organization. The

introduction of participative decision making or self-managed work teams is a kind of

change that is often seen as threatening by supervisors and middle managers.

e) Threat to Established resource allocation:- Groups in the organization that controlsizable resources often see change as a threat. Those who benefit the most from the current

allocation of resources often feel threatened by changes that may affect future allocation.

Overcoming resistance to change


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Several tactics have been suggested by change agents in dealing with resistance to change.a) Education and Communication:- Resistance can be reduced through communication with

employees to help them see the logic of the change. This tactic basically assumes that the

source of resistance lies in poor communication. If employees receive the full facts and get

any misunderstandings cleared up, resistance will subside.

b) Participation:- It is difficult for individuals to resist a change decision in which theyparticipated. Assuming that participants have the expertise to make a meaningfulcontribution, their involvement can reduce resistance obtain commitment and increase the

quality of change decision.

c) Facilitation and support:- Change agents can offer a range of supportive efforts to reduceresistance. When employees fear and anxiety is high, employee counseling or new skills

training may facilitate adjustments.

d) Negotiation:- If the resistance is centered in a few powerful individuals, a specific rewardpackage can be negotiated that will meet their individual needs.

e) Manipulation and cooptation:- Manipulation refers to covert influence attempts. Twistingand distorting facts to make them appear more altercative, withholding undesirableinformation and creating false rumors to get employees to accept a change are all examples

of manipulation.Co-optation the other hand is a form of both manipulation and participation. It seeks to

buy off the leaders of a resistance group by giving them a key role in the change decision. Theleaders advice is rough, not to seek a better decision but to get their endorsement.

Coercion:- Coercion is the application of direct threat or force on the resisters. Examples of

coercision include threats of transfer, loss of promotion, negative performance evaluation and poorletter of recommendation.

Approaches to manage organizational change:-

There are three popular approaches to managing change:- lawins classic three step model; action

research and organizational development.Lawins three step model:- Kurt lawin argued that successful change in organization should

follow three steps.

Unfreezing:- is defined as change efforts to overcome the pressures of both individual resistance

and group conformity.The status quo can be considered to be an equilibrium state. To move from this equilibrium-to

overcome the pressures of both individual resistance and group conformity-unfreezing is

necessary. It can be achieved in any one of three ways-a) The driving force

Which directs behaviors away from status quo, can be increased (b) The restraing forces,which hinder movement from the existing equilibrium can be decreased. A thirdalternative is to combine the first two approaches.

To deal with resistance,management could use positive incentives to encourage employees to accept the change.For instance, increases in pay can be offered to those who accept the transfer.


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Management might also consider unfreezing acceptance of the status quo by removingrestraining forces. Employees concerns and apprehensions could be heard andspecifically clarified.B) REFREEZING: refers to stabilizing a change intervention by balancing driving andrestraining forces.

Once the consolidation change has been implemented, if it is to be

successful, the new situation needs to be refrozen so that it can be sustained over time.Unless this last step is taken, there is a very high chance that the change will be short-lived and that employees will attempt to revert to the previous equilibrium state.II ACTION RESEARCH

Action research refers to a change process based on the systematic collection of data andthen selection of a change action based on what the analyzed data indicate. Theirimportance lies in providing a scientific methodology for managing planned change.

The process of action research consists of five steps: diagnosis,analysis, feedback, action and evaluation.

Diagnosis is analogous to the physician search to

find specifically what ails a patient. The change agent begins by gathering informationabout problems, concerns and needed changes from members of the organization. Thechange agent asks question, interviews employees, reviews records and listens to theconcerns of employees.

Diagnosis is followed by analysis. What are themajor problems people face? What patterns do these problems seem to take? The changeagent synthesizes this information into primary concerns, problem areas and possibleactions.

Feedback requires sharing with employees what has beenfound from steps one and two. Action research includes extensive involvement of thechange targets. That is, the people who will be involved in any change programmed mustbe actively involved in determining what the problem is and participating in creating thesolution.

The employees with the help of the change agent,develop action plans for bringing about any needed change. Now the action part of actionreaction is set in motion. The employees and the change agent carry out the specificactions to correct the problem that have been identified.

The final step, consistent with the scientific underpinnings of action research is evaluationof the action plans effectiveness. Using the initial data gathered as a benchmark, anysubsequent changes can be compared and evaluated.

Action research provides at least two specific benefitsfor an organization. First, it is the problem focused. The change agent objectively looksfor problems and the type of problem determines the type of the change action. Second,because action research so heavily involves employees in the process, resistance tochange is reduced.


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III ORGANISATIONAL DEVELOPMENT (OD) OD is a method aimed at changingthe attitudes, values and beliefs of employees so that employees can improve theorganization. The following briefly identifies the underlying values in most OD efforts.

1) Respect for people:- Individuals are perceived as being responsible, conscientiousand caring. They should be treated with dignity and respect.

2) Trust and support:- The effective and healthy organization is characterized bytrust, authenticity, openness and a supportive climate.

3) Power equalization:- Effective organization deemphasize hierarchal authority andcontrol.

CONFRONTATION:- Problems shouldnt be swept under the rug. They should beopenly confronted.PARTICIPATION:- The more that people who will be affected by a change areinvolved in the decisions surrounding that change, the more they will be committedto implementing those decisions.

OD TECHNIQUES OR INTERVENTIONS

1)

Sensitivity Training:- It involves training groups that seek to change behaviorthrough unstructured group interaction.Members are brought in a free and open environment in which participantsdiscuss themselves and their interactive processes, loosely directed by aprofessional behavioral scientist. The group is process oriented, which means thatindividuals learn through observing and participating rather than being told.

2) Survey Feedback:- It involves the use of questionnaires to identify discrep

Organizatonal Behaviour

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