Option 4: Improving Performance - · Web viewWhat ethical issues are related to improving...

Option 4: Improving Performance

Student - What ethical issues are related to improving performance?

Introduction

To compete in the modern Olympic Games, to win gold, to stand on the rostrum as the flag is raised and the national anthem played is the dream of many. But it will come true for only a few. Only the gifted, only the dedicated, only the best will win.

And maybe a few drug cheats? The use of drugs to enhance performance has occurred throughout the history of sport. Success and fame have brought rich rewards from a variety of sources, and competition for a portion of these is intense. The intrinsic desire to win and the lure of millions of dollars in prize money, and more than this again in sponsorships and endorsements, cause some athletes to take any measure to improve their performance.

Modern sport is plagued by suspicions that many top athletes resort to drug-taking – doping – to enhance their performance. They use anabolic steroids, human growth hormone, erythropoietin (EPO), beta-blockers, stimulants or diuretics. While drugs such as these get a lot of publicity, they are perhaps not well understood. What do they do? What are the health risks in the short or long term? Can the drugs be detected?

What ethical issues are related to improving performance? Page 1

NSW, Department of Education and Training

September 2, 2015Authored by: Cooper, Mary

Activity: Watch the video, ‘Performance Enhancing Substances in Sport’ and provide responses that will satisfy syllabus content:

Use of drugs The dangers of performance enhancing drug use:

As indicated from the video, ‘Performance enhancing Substances in Sport’, prohibited substances are a temptation to athletes for a variety of reasons e.g. winning at all costs, fame and the sponsorship and lifestyle that goes along with it; the fact that some penalties are minor; only major competitors are tested in some countries.At risk, however, is not only the health and general well-being of the athlete but also the true spirit of sport, the rights of hard-working athletes and the perception of certain sports by the general public. Athletes from many sports succumb to the temptation and may then suffer devastating consequences.

Physiological Consequences Social, Mental and Emotional Consequences

Financial Consequences


For strength ( human growth hormone, anabolic steroids)

Human Growth Hormone (HGH)

Definition Performance enhancing effect Side effects

Anabolic Steroids


For aerobic performance (EPO)

Blood Doping – EPO (Erythropoietin



To mask other drugs (diuretics, alcohol)

Blood Doping – EPO (Erythropoietin


Benefits and limitations of drug testing

Benefits of Drug Testing Limitations of Drug Testing


Justify, (find evidence for), the reasons drugs are considered to be unethical and carry a range of risks for the athlete.

To assist you writing an extended response, use the table below to identify the unethical reasons and range of risks factors to the athlete who may use performance enhancing substances:

Unethical reasons for taking performance enhancing drugs

Risks of taking performance enhancing drugs.

Conclusion to the above: i.e. is there enough evidence to make the judgement that performance enhancing drug use by athletes is unethical and carry a range of risks for the athlete?


Argue the issues related to drug testing such as: (RHS SYLLABUS) At what level of competition should drug testing be introduced?

Which drugs should be tested for?

What are the pros and cons of drug testing?

What should be the consequences for drug use?


Use of Technology

Watch video: http://www.abc.net.au/lateline/content/2012/s3436359.htm

Ethical implications of technology on Olympic dream: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=aoZeczoAXlA

AIS Netball tracking technology: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=VPII2g5rzwM

Sport is undergoing a global technological revolution. Each year, records are being broken, equipment gets more sophisticated, and facilities improve. These changes are impacting on all areas of sport, from shoes to cycles and stadia. Is this making sport more exciting for participants and spectators? Or are talent and determination becoming secondary to money and technology, devaluing honest competition? Oscar Pistorius of South Africa was born without a fibula bone in his legs resulting in both legs being amputated below the knee when he was 11 months old. Today, at age twenty, he is setting the track on fire with his specially made prosthetics. After easily winning the Paralympics World Cup 100 and 200-metre dashes, Oscar now dreams of running in the Olympics.

Does Oscar’s dream come true?

training innovation, eg lactate threshold testing, biomechanical analysis

New training innovations develop every year, with what is regarded as the latest innovation becoming out dated in a very short period of time. Most innovations can all be linked to computer technology. Coaches research, or in the case of elite athletes, have support staff to investigate the latest training methods and vices to improve athletic performance in power, distance and accuracy, and to prevent injury or aid in rehabilitation.Some examples of innovative training aids to improve performance include: clothing, compression garments—scientifically designed materials to improve aero • dynamics, buoyancy,

absorption and water resistance• playing surfaces—synthetic grass pitches, ‘drop-in’ cricket pitch, synthetic athletic tracks• testing procedures—wind tunnels, sprint gates, climatic chambers• simulated competition environments—stationary cycling with computerised video simulation of competition terrain or altitude tents• team and individual performance analysis sheets for objective data• equipment—heart rate monitors, GPS systems, treadmills, tacklesuits and lactate testing devices• equipment modifications—graphite shafts for more flexibility in golf clubs, lighter carbon frames for cycles, and streamlining surfboards• computerised video analysis and photographic equipment for biomechanical analysis.

Lactate Threshold testing

Lactate analysis has been used by many athletes and physiologists over the last decade as a tool for predicting endurance performance. Specifically, the higher the percentage of max VO2, or the higher the pace at which the lactate threshold occurs, the fitter the athlete.

The maximal lactate steady state (or lactate threshold) is the best indicator of endurance performance as, generally, the athlete who achieves this at the higher eff ort level will be faster in an endurance event. Increases in the maximal lactate steady state are almost always accompanied by improvements in race performance for endurance events.

Frequent lactate threshold testing is an effective measure of improvements due to training. With proper protocols a portable lactate analyser enables the coach to measure both the aerobic and anaerobic conditioning of an athlete.


https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=VPII2g5rzwM

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=aoZeczoAXlA

http://www.abc.net.au/lateline/content/2012/s3436359.htm

With information the coach can plan, control and monitor the training of athletes with a precision not available before. Lactate testing provides the important information that enables the coach to individualise the intensity of each athlete’s workout and control the training so the athlete is able to reach performance objectives.Biomechanical analysis

Biomechanical analysis is used to improve sporting performance. It explores the various techniques applied to skills such as throwing, catching, bowling, jumping and manipulating objects. Measures such as video analysis, photography, use of comparative images and slow motion replays allows performance of skills to be subjected to a high degree of scrutiny. Movements are explored in detail, problems identified and ways of making them more biomechanically efficient recommended. Biomechanical analysis aims to make execution of any movement more skilful, efficient and safe.

Video analysis, for example, is now used in a range of coaching, viewing and performance appraisal situations. Video allows analysis of player movements, strategies and techniques, with a view to:

• improving technique. The way a player executes a movement such as a tennis serve or swimming stroke can be observed repeatedly in slow motion to locate error.

• improving visualisation. By observing a skill performed repeatedly or in slow motion, a player’s conceptualisation of what is required for proper execution is enhanced.

• establishing biomechanical efficiency. By observing the movements of skilful players, coaches can gain an insight into how movements can be performed more efficiently and demonstrate these to their players.

• analysing strategies. Coaches (particularly in team sports where there are numerous movements occurring with the ball and away from the ball) find video replays useful for analysing the effectiveness of strategies used both by their team and their opponents.

equipment advances, eg swimsuits, golf ball

Where the sporting achievement can be gauged in absolute terms, such as in world records, tremendous improvements have been made in those sports where equipment is critical. However, the use of advanced materials in sports equipment presents some ethical questions and how behaviour is enhanced by allowing the use of advanced materials. But where should the line be drawn or should there be no restrictions? To maintain an ‘even playing field’, how much money is spent on these technological advancements and who can afford them?

Swimsuits

What happened at the Beijing Olympics with the introduction of the new ‘fast swim suit’?

The technology of racing swimsuits advanced considerably from 2000. Manufacturers competed to produce suits with the most performance-enhancing features while staying within the competition rules of not improving buoyancy. For example, the features of the Speedo LZR Racer, approved and worn by the medal-winning swimmers at the Beijing Olympics in 2008, included:• fabric that had the lowest possible level of friction drag in the water, developed using NASA’s wind tunnel technology• a streamlined shape with a corset-like support around the lower torso to help swimmers hold the best position in the water• fully bonded seams to reduce drag while allowing full movement and flexibility.Issues of fairness and equity were raised. Some suggested that swimmers who wore the fast suits had a significant advantage over other swimmers who could not afford them. Others saw the technology as a natural progression in the sport and used the example of the cyclists’ aerodynamic helmet shape, which was launched controversially at the 1984 Olympics but is now standard equipment worn by all racing cyclists.


The debate escalated in mid-2009 when a new range of suits was introduced, made from all-polyurethane fabric that significantly improved buoyancy. Swimming’s governing body, FINA, acknowledged that the technologyhad gone too far and imposed a ban from 2010 on ‘any device or swimsuit that may aid speed, buoyancy or endurance’. This was not before a large number of world records were broken at the 2009 World Championships by some swimmers wearing the all-polyurethane full-body suits.

New rules from 2010 specify the type of textile and the shape of the suits for men and women.

New equipment advances e.g. golf balls can be seen in Table 12.11

Activity: Is there an ethical difference between using performance enhancing drugs and using performing enhancing technologies in nutrition, training, and equipment?


Argue ethical issues related to technology use in sport such as: (RHS syllabus) has technology gone too far?

has the access to technology created an unfair competition?


Appendix:

Video: Performance enhancing substances in sport – questions & answers

What are ergogenic aids?– An external influence that can enhance performance.

What are examples of ergogenic aids?– Nutritional supplements– Mechanical aids e.g. high tech swim suits– Training at altitude – Clothing– Different training techniques

What are examples of legal nutritional supplements?– Vitamins/minerals– Sports drinks– Sports bars and gels– Protein powders– Ribose supplement– B-vitamins

For what reasons do athletes use nutritional supplements?– A belief that they will improve performance– A belief in advertising claims– Sport demands cannot be met by normal food intake.

What are the dangers of taking supplements?– Accidental & inadvertent doping.

What is highly recommended to all athletes to decrease the risk of accidentally taking a banned substance?– To be well-educated and advised– Use supplements from credible manufactures– Encourage athletes to relate to the WADA (World Anti-Doping Agency) prohibited list.– Clear labelling– Not to take another’s medication– Not to drink from another’s drink bottle– Use fresh food.

Summary Ergogenic Aids Ergogenic aids:

o Improve performanceo Legal and illegalo Variety of supplements

Inadvertent dopingo Athlete’s responsibility


Illegal drug use in sport

No sport is immune from getting a winning edge because of this, there is a number of restricted substances are banned or restricted.

Reasons for concern of using illegal substances in sport are:

Health

Ethical

I llegal

What are the motivating factors for athletes taking the ri9sk of using illegal or banned substances?– Gain an advantage – not as talented or as fast.– For results, money and fame– Effect of the drug itself – addicted, quality of feeling, aggressive, feelings of power.– Pressure to win – parents, coaches, public, media, and sponsors.

What important role does the coach have in educating the athlete in relation to drug use?– Being good role models– Getting good advice from nutritionists– Keep checking on the prohibited list– Do not provide medications and supplements to their athletes.

Classification of Banned substances.

How are banned substances classified?– Chemical similarities or how they affect the body e.g. steroids, B-Blockers, diuretics, Blood Doping, Narcotics What is a prohibited substance?– A drug that has no approval by govt health agencies

Anabolic Steroids are a synthetic testosterone.

What effect do they have on the body?– Muscle building– Promotes changes in sexual characteristics– Typically used in strength and power events

What are some of the side-effects?– Liver and kidney damage – Heart problems– Infertility– Cancer– Excessive hair growth– Shrinking testes– Menstrual dysfunction– Acne

Growth Hormone is used to develop strength


What are some of the side-effects?– Joint and muscle problems– Reduce sporting performance– Diabetes– Acromegaly

Beta Blockers are used to decrease the heart rate – used where a steady hand is needed e.g. shooting, archery. What are some of the side effects?

Decreased heart rate Decreased blood pressure Increased drowsiness

Diuretics are used to mask the usage of other drugs by increasing the amount fluid loss through urination. What are some of the side-effects?

Dehydration Electrolyte loss Kidney damage

Prohibited methods include oxygen transfer enhancement e.g. blood doping, where blood is drawn, stored and infused just before competition or the use of someone else’s blood is infused.

What advantage has blood doping on performance? Greater O2 uptake – more suited to endurance events.

What are the side-effects of blood doping? Blood infection Blood clot Air embolism Blood incompatibilities

What is gene doping? Get their genes to work harder or insert those genes in the body to produce more muscle…

Prohibited substances in competition are: Stimulants e.g. coffee Amphetamines, cocaine Narcotics Heroin, morphine Cannabinoids – marijuana, hashish Glucocorticosteroids Cortisone injections

Summary:

Illegal drugs in sport: Health, ethical and illegal reasons Motivation for taking illegal drugs

Classifications Prohibited substances Prohibited methods Prohibited substances in competition

Drug Testing

What are the advantages for drug testing?


– Equal the playing field for all athletes– Looking after the health of the athlete– Trust that people have in the sport that it is clean.

Strict protocols are involved in administering drug testing.

What are the limitations of drug testing?

Access to the athlete – sample is not taken or is tampered with New drugs are made available that do not yet have a corresponding test ie there is a lag between new drugs and

new drug tests.

When is the WADA list updated?– January 1st each year.

What are the arguments against drug testing?– Invasion of privacy– Treats athletes like criminals– Testing for recreational drug use is controversial.

Penalties differ across the different codes and associations.– Differ across different codes and associations

Summary Benefits of drug testing – clean, fair, healthy athletes and sport Limitations – athletes access, new drugs Penalties – vary by codes, associations

Consequences of doping

For some using performance enhancing drugs is worthwhile because the ban could be as short as 6 months and new drugs increasingly harder to detect. Testing outside of the main competitors is low. What is at stake when athletes take performance enhancing drugs?

– Drastic changes to the body– Serious side a\effects e.g. heart failiure– Sport itself suffers – athletes in sport are tarred with same brush e.g. cycling– Millions of dollars of sponsorship and funds are withdrawn which might cause other atheltes to lose their income.

What is the argument for legalising performance enhancing drugs?– The health of the athlete is better monitored and regulated– Equal the playing field.

Summary of consequences of doping. Damages health Damages reputation Loss of sponsorship or incomes

Olympics & Drugs In what year did the International Olympic Committee first ban certain substances? 1967


When was the WADA established? 1999

How long are the data and samples from the 2012 Olympic Games kept for? Why? 8 years – to allow new tests to catch up to the new drugs, methods that enhance performance.

The 2012 Olympic Games has best technology to detect banned substances and the processes used have been updated i.e. the number of samples are near the number the number of samples taken in a whole year and the speed of results is very quick.

Summary for Olympics & Drugs 1967 IOC banned substances and methods WADA est 1999 2012 Olympics new tech technology and the largest number of test scheduled.


Benefits and limitations of drug testing – additional information.


Exam Style Questions and Possible Responses

What ethical issues are related to improving performance?

1 Discuss the issues arising from the suggestion to allow the use of performance enhancing drugs in sport. (8 marks)

Success in sport can bring an athlete many rich rewards. From increased fame to the money earned from winning, sponsorships and various endorsements the athlete can be spurred on by more than just an intrinsic desire to win. All these added incentives to win can lead athletes to take any measures to gain success, which in turn can lead to various ethical issues.

For professional athletes, being out of their sport for a length of time can stand in the way of maintaining a position in a team, and can mean the loss of earning opportunity and the potential for further advancement. This is likely to have them turn to drugs to assist them to return to play as quickly as possible. Various performance enhancing drugs, such as steroids and human growth hormone, can speed up the recovery process. Their use raises ethical questions over whether the athlete is gaining any additional advantage other than hastening the healing process. These drugs may assist the athlete in returning stronger and more powerful than before the injury due to their muscle-building capabilities. Athletes may also feign injury to allow the continued use of the ‘healing’ drugs. Their use also raises questions as to whether such drug use contravenes the ethics of medical science as these drugs, if not used correctly, can cause the user various long-term harms. It can also be argued that injuries are a part of sport and should be allowed to heal naturally. Those with good financial backing and access to advanced medical techniques can gain an unfair advantage over those who are unable to afford the treatments. This can lead the poorer athlete to seek assistance from less reputable sources, with the consequences of receiving unqualified advice and products of dubious medical quality.

Other athletes who are attempting to achieve a high level of success, and the rewards that come with this, may be tempted to not only use the substances that are allowed but to use them in greater quantities or seek out other substances that they feel may give them additional benefit over their competitors. The reason athletes take illegal substances is to gain an advantage and this desire will remain even if various performance enhancing substances are allowed. While it could be argued that legalising drugs and having them taken under medical supervision will lessen the harms there is no guarantee that athletes will be happy to use just the legal drugs and only in controlled amounts.

While the issue of possible harm to the athlete is of significance, the issue of what sport is about should also be examined. It can be argued that sport is about the challenge to train hard to achieve the best you are capable of with your genetically inherited characteristics and ability to push yourself mentally. This should be free of any external enhancements, particularly those that may cause health problems in the long term. Sport is all about the spirit of hard work—anything else is cheating. Against this, however, it is argued that already some athletes have an unfair advantage through better access to nutrition, training facilities, equipment, coaching and other support. Performance enhancing drugs would assist in levelling the playing field. However, athletes from more affluent backgrounds would have an advantage over their opponents as they would be able to afford the most up-to-date drugs and drugs of a better quality than athletes of a less affluent background. They would also be able to afford more drugs and perhaps be assisted in their use by medical practitioners.

Another issue with allowing the use of drugs to enhance performance is that coaches and sponsors may encourage athletes to use drugs for their own gain and not show due concern for the athlete.


2 Critically analyse the ethical issues raised by the use of drugs in sport. (12 marks)

The use of drugs to enhance sporting performance has taken place throughout the history of sport as people are attracted to the fame and rich rewards available to those who are successful. While drug taking is against the spirit of ‘fair play’ there are those who are willing to cheat in order to win at all costs.

The use of drugs in sport is considered a form of cheating and many drugs are prohibited by sporting bodies. Some bodies have had to re-think their policies in light of protests by other competitors and advice from medical bodies. Professional baseball in the United States has recently banned previously allowed forms of steroids due to pressure from players, fans and medical practitioners. It was viewed that players who had used these substances were achieving results that would not have been possible without the drugs, which effectively was cheating, and there was concern over the long-term health of players using these substances. As sport is associated with the concept of being healthy the notion that it would cause ill-health and possible death is hardly in its interests.

Despite the health risks involved some athletes still attempt to use drugs to enhance performance and gain a vital edge over competitors. The rewards are considered to be worth the risk and regardless of the penalties put in place these too are often not a concern to the athlete. These penalties can be as little as a suspension of six to 12 months when caught, which for young athletes seems worth the risk against the multimillion dollar lifestyle possible from success.

The health of the athlete is of significant interest to all involved in sport. The drug taking creates damage from both short- or long-term use. Many athletes will not just use drugs but are likely to abuse them with the perception that more is better, hence increasing the risk of potential damage. For example, cyclists in races such as the Tour de France may use EPO to provide greater endurance but in large amounts this substance can thicken blood and cause death while long-term use can restrict the body’s own ability to produce this naturally.

Sometimes it is not the athletes themselves who are at the root of the problem. Sport is considered to be an important part of life and countries have built their reputations on sporting success. Coaches and sponsors have much to gain from the success of an athlete. For these reasons an athlete may be pressured into taking substances they would not willingly take. An example of this occurred when the East German Government systematically doped many of their athletes in order to promote their communist regime. When discovered, drug use can damage the reputation of the athlete’s country and/or the athlete’s sport, as can be seen with sports such as cycling and weightlifting where even innocent athletes are tarnished by the reputation gained from fellow athletes who have been caught.

An individual may also suffer significantly when caught cheating. The drug user may lose prize money and sponsorships, status may be affected and they may lose the respect of peers, spectators and by vilified by the media. This may have a devastating psychological effect on the athlete.

The IOC believes that drug taking is against the ethics of sport and medical science. Sport is considered to be enjoyable and fair. When the aim is only to win, certain practices to support this may be unethical.


3 Justify the use of drug testing in sport. (8 marks)

Athletes are always seeking to gain an advantage over their competitors by some means, whether it be by using new training methods, improved equipment and training facilities, different coaches, better nutrition, psychological strategies or performance enhancing drugs. Most of these strategies are considered to be an acceptable part of sport, but the use of drugs causes concern.

The purpose of drug testing is to make every attempt to ensure that competition remains as fair as possible for all competitors. It cannot be considered an invasion of privacy as the athlete is putting on a performance and should have nothing to hide. Testing will also dissuade athletes from using drugs, thereby ensuring they remain free from the potential harms that various drugs may pose while used and in later life.

While drug testing may create problems for athletes in terms of convenience, privacy and the time taken, it is essential that it occur. As many athletes will attempt to plan their training and possible use of drugs throughout the year it is important that drug testing occur randomly. This will ensure that athletes are not taking drugs during training but then appear to be ‘clean’ when they reach competition. With up and coming athletes seeking an advantage early in their careers it is also justified to do random testing at various lower-level competitions to reinforce the message that drug taking is not a part of sport.

Some athletes will attempt to pass testing by using masking drugs and so testing should be carried out for a broad spectrum of drugs and penalties should be put in place for the use of these masking drugs. As sport is about health it is also appropriate to test for recreational drugs, such as cocaine and marijuana, because use of these drugs can lead to health problems and because athletes, as role models, have the ability to influence the behavior of young people.

4 Evaluate the use of technology by coaches in order to improve performance. (12 marks)

The increasing advances in technology have been of particular importance in the improvement of skills and techniques. Modern technology has greatly increased the ability of coaches to vary training programs while remaining sport specific. The introduction of training innovations such as wind tunnels, isokinetic resistance machines, elastic resistance forms of training and training aids (such as parachutes and pitching machines) allows for variation and consistency in training practices. An example of this is the training of sprinters. New drills can be increased in intensity through the use of parachutes, sleds and weight vests. Use of tackle suits and hit shields has allowed coaches to lift the intensity of training sessions. While some of these methods are not recent, their use with video analysis and data gathering has increased their effectiveness in improving results.

The introduction of the use of a variety of specialists (such as biomechanists, psychologists, nutritionists and exercise physiologists) to collect and review data has been of immense benefit to coaches through the multifaceted approach to training it provides. Coaches have also been able to access the most current information and resources though the Internet, which is proving to be of great benefit in improving their ability to keep up to date with advances in training methods. It also provides coaches with a vast array of methods from which to choose.

The use of indoor centres with variable climate control and altitude tents has been valuable in allowing coaches to simulate drills and conditions that are specific to game conditions. Performance simulators (for example, the introduction of indoor rock-climbing walls) have allowed coaches to create an environment where training can be carried out similar to the competition environment, and indoor snow facilities have allowed skiers to prepare for competition without the need to travel vast distances.

Improved medical technology has allowed for the testing of blood lactate levels using a portable lactate threshold tester during a training session, which does not interfere with the athlete’s training time and provides valuable feedback for the coach. This is very effective as it allows optimisation of the intensity of training sessions by using the information to plan, control and monitor sessions with precision. Heart rate monitors and GPS tracking devices allow for heart rates and distance travelled to be monitored throughout training and/or games. The benefit of the use of this technology has been demonstrated by television stations, as evidenced throughout coverage of the cricket one-day series.


Data gathering allows training sessions to be planned to work on problem areas; for example, where players in certain positions have missed tackles. Electronic touch pads and timing devices have ensured the precision of data collection. Beep tests and yo-yo tests allow for accurate testing procedures and data collection. Timing gates allow for the accurate breakdown of times over distances. This accuracy is vital for coaches as it allows for the correction of technique or tactics and preparation for races. Use of match performance analysis sheets when combined with video analysis allows for coaches to obtain a better picture of what is required.

Computer simulations and footage of previous performances greatly benefit coaches through improved access to data to perform analysis and comparison of technique and correction of technique; for example, foot placement while sprinting, follow-through in tennis, contact with the ball in golf, body position when tackling in rugby or place in a team’s defensive line or attacking move. Use of ultra-slow motion footage has greatly improved the ability of coaches to analyse performance. Video analysis can be important in assisting a coach to have the athlete visualise an aspect of performance or mentally rehearse a skill. Of particular benefit to a coach is the improved ability to analyse the strategies of opponents and set game plans.

All these types of data collection and analysis are highly effective for coaches as they allow them to evaluate performances, isolate weaknesses and strengths and improve future performances. When used together, the visual recordings and other data analysis are valuable coaching tools.

Hence, the use of technology in training sessions designed to improve skill has resulted in a wider range of training practices that a coach can choose to adopt. The techniques and drills that are now available allow coaches to progressively overload their athletes while retaining a specific focus on improving skills and techniques.

5 Discuss how the use of technology in providing training innovations, improved equipment and performance analysis has created an uneven playing field in sport. (8 marks)

Technology has created huge advances in sports performance but generally this comes at great financial cost as there is a need to cover the research involved and the production of new products. In order to compete on a similar level to their peers, athletes must be able to find the funds to make use of the techonological advances assisting all aspects of performance or be left behind.

Clothing would once have been considered a low priority for athletes wanting to improve their performance, but advances in the technology related to the design and use of clothing, particularly in some sports, gives those athletes who are able to make use of these a significant advantage. Swimming is a great example as advances in the style of swimmers and the material used has seen records fall at a rate not achieved in the past. The cost of these suits is such that less affluent swimmers are unable to afford them, meaning competition does not occur on an even playing field. The advantage given by the latest styles of full body suits was such that the controlling bodies for swimming around the world have banned the use of certain styles and established swimsuit regulations in order to return the emphasis to the swimmer’s ability.

The use of computer programs for performance analysis, simulation, data gathering and planning has allowed athletes with access to these significant advantages in their performances. More affluent athletes, clubs and countries with advanced research are better able to analyse their own and opponents’ performances and plan appropriate training programs to gain an advantage. This technology links with other training and testing procedures (such as wind tunnels, sprint gates and ergometers) to further improve athlete performance. The instant feedback this technology provides creates a huge advantage as training programs can be adapted to best meet the needs of the athlete.

Even the use of various training equipment can provide a distinct advantage for the athlete or team with access to the most up-to-date equipment and facilities. Wearing tackle suits for football training allows the training to be performed at greater intensity with less chance of injury. The same applies for helmets, pads and other protective equipment worn in other sports. While this equipment is simple, a sufficient number of the latest equipment of the highest standard is not available to all. Other training equipment (such as weight training machines and training sleds) and the use of specialised training surfaces (such as artificial grass or temperature-controlled pools with no-wave lane ropes) allow improved training for those who can afford it.

The increasing advances in technology have been of particular importance in the improvement of skills and techniques. Modern technology has greatly increased the ability of coaches to vary training programs while remaining sport specific. While some advances are accessible to most athletes, many advances are expensive and beyond the reach of many, thus creating an uneven playing field in sport.


6 Assess the impact that the use of technology has had on training methods and performance in sport. (12 marks)

Technology has had a significant impact on training methods and performance in sport. Across many aspects of sport there have been invaluable improvements in the way coaches are able to get the best out of their athletes. These improvements have been provided by numerous means, including protective equipment, testing, computers and training facilities and equipment.

Advances in the range, type and style of protective equipment have allowed athletes to train with greater intensity and more closely replicate game situations. This has greatly improved their ability to respond better in competition and reduced the injuries sustained both in training and games. Examples include the use in football codes of lightweight tackle suits covering more of the body, which provide improved training drills; different-shaped ‘hit-shields’, which allow greater flexibility with high-impact drills; and lightweight pads, body armour and helmets for cricket, which give batters and fielders more confidence in various situations.

The use of technology has greatly improved testing procedures and allowed more accurate analysis of athletes’ performances. Equipment such as speed gates, wind tunnels and electronic touch pads have been significant factors in improving training methods and hence improving performance. With this equipment, a coach is able to make an accurate breakdown of various aspects of an athlete’s performance (for example, each 10 metres of a 100-metre sprinter’s run or each lap of a swimmer’s race) and examine possible weaknesses and then plan to work on specific aspects. Wind tunnels have significantly improved performance in sports such as cycling by providing precise information on body position to allow for adaptations.

When combined with computer programs for analysis and storage of data the impact on training and performance has been invaluable. Times can be recorded directly to computers, which store and compare them to previous performances of the athlete and/or competitors. This greatly increases the coach’s ability to make adjustments and reduces time spent mapping information. Other computer software, such as Dartfish performance analysis, has significantly enhanced the analysis of video footage of games or individual performance. Training methods have been changed from a focus on physical aspects to now include the athletes viewing components of their performance. Many tennis players and golfers, for example, are able to view their swings while training, make adjustments and note the changes as the computer provides overlay images of their performances. This has proved vital to improving performance.

Technology has also provided great changes in training facilities, which have significantly improved training methods and performance in competition. Retractable stadium roofs and better drainage and lighting on fields have allowed athletes to train in conditions when previously training may not have been possible. Specialised playing surfaces, such as artificial grass, have had major impacts on sports such as hockey where the game and training can be conducted in all weather conditions and the standard of performance has been greatly improved. No-wave lane ropes and flat-edged pools have been significant factors in improving swimming performance by reducing interference on swimmers. Advances in clothing design have also had a major impact on training methods and performance. Compression clothing has allowed athletes to train better and more often by assisting with muscle function and improving recovery. Advances in swimsuits have had a major impact by improving performance, but it has been necessary to place limitations on their use as they seemed to have more impact on performance than a swimmer’s own ability.

Technology has had a major impact on all aspects of sport and has significantly changed training methods and greatly improved performance. These impacts will continue as research continues to produce further advances, such as golf balls that fly further and straighter, tennis racquets that produce more power, video that can be slowed to ultra slow motion for better analysis and improvements in nutrition where foods are manufactured for specific needs of different athletes.


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