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Int. j. Adv. Lif. Sci., Available online on at www.Int. J. Adv. Lif. Sci., Available online on at www. ijals.com Page 125
International Journal of Advanced Life Sciences (IJALS) ISSN2277 – 758X
Shivi Bhasin et al., IJALS, Volume (8) Issue (2) May - 2015. RESEARCH ARTICLE
Introduction
The most important natural gift for mankind is
water, which plays an important role in different vital
and structural activities. It is well known that water
is a prime source for industrial development, irrigation,
hydroelectric generation, drinking purpose and
domestic uses for human survival. The quality of water
in Indian cities is deteriorating rapidly due to increase
in population, industrialisation, development and lack
of proper sanitary facilities and treatment of waste, all
of which put together a great pressure on the existing
water resources. It is felt that there is urgent need to
document the quality of water and to identify future
trends, particularly in developing towns. The causative
factors responsible for degradation of water quality
need to be evaluated so as to take the proper steps
before the situation becomes worse and uncontrollable.
The Kshipra river is one of the sacred Indian
rivers and treated as the soul of the city Ujjain. The
shape and structure of the river flank the city suggests
the intimacy and religious activities and tourism are
dependent on Kshipra river. In the “Avantika Khand”of “Skanda puran” the importance of Ujjain and itsenvironments and about Kshipra river is described in
AbstractAn attempt has been made to analyse water quality of the river Kshipra
in Ujjain and Dewas district of Madhya Pradesh (M.P). India. Kshipra is a lowflowing river subjected to varying degree of pollution caused by numerousuntreated or partially treated waste inputs from municipal effluents, differentworship rituals and anthropogenic activities. In the present study, water qualityof the river was analysed by collecting samples from November 2013 - October2014 covering all three seasons. Different physicochemical parameters includingair and water temperature, transparency, turbidity, pH, dissolved oxygen (DO),biological oxygen demand (BOD), chemical oxygen demand (COD), totalhardness, chloride, calcium, carbonate, bi-carbonate, total alkalinity, faecal andtotal coliform were analysed. Lower values of DO (3.8-8.4mg/lit), higher valuesof COD (24.4-180.6 mg/lit) and BOD (13.6-43.8 mg/lit) indicate a higher degreeof organic pollution rendering water to be unsuitable for drinking and bathingpurpose. Presence of faecal and total coliform indicates contamination of theriver water by faeces and certify the presence of pathogenic microbes. Ramghat,Mangalnath and Triveni were found to be the most impaired segment of the riverdue to performance of worship rituals and anthropogenic activities. However,water quality index and water quality of the entire stretch of Kshipra river wasfound to be bad at all five sites and water of the river is reported to be in D classwith respect to CPCB classification criteria. So, water quality monitoringprograms and public awareness are urgently required to achieve standardsdetermined by CPCB and WHO for the maintenance and conservation of thissacred river.Keywords : Physico-chemical, microbiological parameters, water quality,pollution and Kshipra river
Observations on physicochemical and microbiological parameters of Kshipra riverwith special reference to water quality
Shivi Bhasin, Arvind N. Shukla and Sharad ShrivastavaSchool of Studies in Zoology and Biotechnology, Vikram University, Ujjain (M.P.), India
E-mail: [email protected]
Corresponding AuthorShivi Bhasin
School of Studies in Zoologyand Biotechnology,Vikram University,Ujjain (M.P.), India
Email : [email protected] History
Received on 22 February, 2015;Received in revised form
23 March, 2015; Accepted20 April, 2015
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International Journal of Advanced Life Sciences (IJALS) ISSN2277 – 758X
Shivi Bhasin et al., IJALS, Volume (8) Issue (2) May - 2015. RESEARCH ARTICLE
“Avanti kshetra Mahatmya” (Chapter 40 - 47). The
main catchment areas of the river such as Indore,
Dewas and Ujjain are polluted due to intensive
urbanisation and industrialization. Besides this the
agriculture in their regions is another source of
pollution. During rainy season, the fertilizers and
pesticides used in crop field are drained into the
Kshipra river along with several other agricultural
waste. The domestic waste of Indore, Dewas and Ujjain
city are also source of pollution, some open drainages
at Ujjain contains dyes of Bhairavgarh prints are
numerous in number that they have to be considered as
a source of pollution. Further indiscriminate defecation,
littering of solid waste all around and into the river,
washing of vehicles and cloths, crimination and
dumping of ashes of dead bodies, mass bathing,
dumping of flowers and coconuts, cattle’s bathingand some other anthropogenic stresses are the main
source for disturbing the water quality and ecological
status of this river. It is essential to get timely,
information of the water quality status of this river to
take proper precautions before this water body is fully
destroyed. In view of the above the present study is
conducted to observe the detail water quality monitoring
of Kshipra river which will be useful for getting the
clean water and thus conservation of this holy river.
Materials and Methods
Study area
River Kshipra originates from a hill of Vindhya
range, one mile south of Kshipra village lying 12 km
southeast of Indore city (M.P.). It flows approximately
between latitude 22º49’ and 23º50’N, longitude of75º45’ and 75º35’S. River flows across the Malwa
plateau to join river Chambal which later joins Gangtic
system. In the present study, five study sites with high
anthropogenic activities were selected on the banks of
river Kshipra, they include Kshipra village (1), Triveni
(2), Ramghat (3), Mangalnath (4) and Mahidpur (5).
Water Sampling
Sampling was collected monthly from November
2013 to October 2014 for isolation of microorganisms.
Bacterial samples were collected aseptically using 500
ml sterile bottles and kept in an ice bucket, then they
were transported to the base laboratory within 24 hours.
For analysis of physicochemical parameters, samples
were collected in 2 lit. sterile bottles, which were kept
in ice bucket and transported to the base laboratory
within 24 hours.
Isolation and Identification of Total and Faecal
coliform
The microbiological parameters like total
coliform, faecal coliform were isolated by using
methods of APHA (2005). These samples were diluted
to 103 and were subjected to the membrane filtration
technique, after filtration membranes were placed on
different media and then incubated at 37 C for 24
hours. MaConkey Agar and Briliant Green media were
used for obtaining faecal and total coliform count.
Analysis of Physicochemical Parameters
Sampling and analysis of various physico-
chemical parameters were done by using standard
methods given in APHA (2005). Water Quality Index
was calculated according to Mr. Brain Orams WQI
Index, consumer support group online calculator
(Oram, 2007).
Results and Discussion
Seasonal physicochemical and bacteriological
variations of Kshipra river at five different sites from
October 2013-November 2014 are represented in
Table 1 - 5. About seventeen physicochemical and
microbiological parameters such as Air temperature,
water temperature, pH, turbidity, transparency, total
hardness, calcium, chloride, carbonate, bi-carbonate,
total alkalinity, dissolved oxygen, biological oxygen
demand, chemical oxygen demand, faecal coliform,
Int. j. Adv. Lif. Sci., Available online on at www.Int. J. Adv. Lif. Sci., Available online on at www. ijals.com Page 127
International Journal of Advanced Life Sciences (IJALS) ISSN2277 – 758X
Shivi Bhasin et al., IJALS, Volume (8) Issue (2) May - 2015. RESEARCH ARTICLE
total coliform and water quality index were estimated.
Variations registered in different parameters are
summed up as follows
Temperature
Air temperature values ranged between 12.2C-
44.0C at all five sites. Minimum value of 12.2Cwas observed at Ramghat in the month of December
2013 and maximum value of 44.4C was observed at
Kshipra village in the month of May. Surface water
temperature ranged between 18.1 - 31.2C, 18.2 -
32.7C, 14.6-27.2C, 10.9 - 31.9C and 16.8 - 30.2Cat one to five selected study sites respectively. The
minimum water temperature value 10.9C was reported
at Mangalnath in the month of December 2013,
whereas maximum temperature 32.7C was recorded
at the Triveni study site during the month of May.
Gangwar et.al (2012) reported water temperature
within a range of 20.4-21.7C, 33.4 - 35.9C and 30.1 -
31.9C in winter, summer and rainy seasons respecti-
vely from river Ramganga U. P. Krishna et.al (2012)
reported water temperature within range of 9.25 -
21.05C and 8.01-22.13C from river Kaveri, Tamil
Nadu. Temperature also affects chemical reactions and
reaction rates within the water thereby influencing its
suitability for use (Matcalf and Eddy, 2003).
Transparancy
Transparency of any water body is turbidity
dependent. Higher the turbidity lower is the trans-
parency. In the present study the maximum trans-
parency was observed at Kshipra village (86.0cm) in
the month of December and minimum was observed
at Ramghat (33.8 cm) in the month of August. Low
transparency was recorded during the summer due
to high turbidity and algal blooms while maximum
transparency was observed in winter which denotes
comparatively clean water. Similar trends were reported
by different researchers in various ranges 21 – 48 cm
in Mandakini river U.P. (Chaurasia and Rajkiran,
2014), 7.5 - 48.5 cm in the Manipur river system
(Singh et al., 2010) and 60 - 220 cm from Nile river
Egypt (Sabae and Rabeh, 2007).
Turbidity
The turbidity in water is the reduction of
transparency due to the presence of particulate matter
such as clay or silt finely divided organic matter,
plankton or other microscopic organism. Turbidity
values in the present study are exhibited between 12 -
40 NTU. The maximum value of 40 NTU was observed
at Ramghat and a minimum of 12 NTU was reported
in January at Kshipra village. Maximum values during
the summer are due to reduction in water volume and
higher concentration of organic matter, whereas vice-
versa minimum turbidity values were reported during
the winter season. Similar, trends were reported by
different researchers Kumar and Sharma (2002) at
Krishna river, Mishra and Joshi (2003) at Ganga
Haridwar, Begam et al. (2006) at Davangere reservoir
Karnatak and Chauhan and Singh (2010). Some
workers have reported higher turbidity values during
monsoon season due to runoff and inflow of water
(Ganwar et al., 2012). Turbidity is reported in different
ranges 5.6 - 5.9 NTU in Owena Dam, Nigeria (Irenosen
et al., 2012) and Ganga river (Kumar et al. 2010). The
turbidity values of Kshipra river show intermediate
position when compared to other rivers. However, it
was found to be above maximum permissible limits.
Hydrogen Ion Concentration (pH)
pH value is the logarithm of hydrogen ion
activity in moles / litre. In water solutions variations in
pH values from 7 are mainly due to hydrolyses of salt
of strong bases and weak acid or vice-versa. pH in the
Kshipra river system ranged from 7.7 - 8.9 at all five
sites respectively. Minimum values (7.7) were observed
at Triveni in the month of November and maximum
values were observed in the month of June (8.9) at
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Shivi Bhasin et al., IJALS, Volume (8) Issue (2) May - 2015. RESEARCH ARTICLE
Ramghat. The main reason for high pH in summer is
due to high pollution load in river during summer
which directly influences pH values. A higher value
of pH in summer is also attributed to the fact that in
summer an increase in photosynthetic activities in
the river is observed and natural water are alkaline
due to the presence of a large quantity of black ashes
of dead bodies and other organic materials which are
constantly added in Kshipra river. Bhagat et al. (2013)
has reported pH within the range of 9.2 - 11.7 in Sutlej
river Punjab. Gangwar (2012) recorded pH values
range between 8.1-8.8 from river Ramganga, U.P.
Dissolved Oxygen (DO)
Dissolved oxygen is one of the most important
and highly fluctuating factors in water (Solanki, 2007).
It reflects the physical and biological process prevailing
in water. Its presence is essential to maintain various
forms of biological life in water. The effects of a
waste discharge in a water body are largely determined
by the oxygen balance of the system. The organisms
become stressed when DO level drops to 4 - 2 mg/lit.
The present study reports DO within range of 3.8-8.4
mg/lit. Highest DO in Kshipra river system was
reported at Kshipra village during winter, whereas lowest
Table - 1. Physico-chemical and Microbiological parameters during November 2013 to October 2014 at Kshipravillage study site of Kshipra river
Parameters Nov.2013
Dec.2013
Jan.2014
Feb.2014
Mar.2014
Apr.2014
May.2014
Jun.2014
Jul.2014
Aug.2014
Sep.2014
Oct.2014
AtmosphericTemperature (ºC)
25 19 13.1 20 30 43 44 40 32.4 31.9 30.2 28.5
Water Temperature(ºC)
20.2 18.1 19.0 18.5 28.0 31.2 30.8 31.2 30.6 29.2 27.6 25.8
Transparency (cm) 79 86 84 60 54 52 47 43 40 40 56 70Turbidity (NTU) 16 15 12 13 18 23 27 32 28 26 21 23pH 7.9 8.0 7.9 8.0 8.2 8.4 8.4 8.5 8.4 8.3 8.2 8.2Carbonate (mg/l) 8 8 7 10 14 17 22 24 20 18 14 12Bicarbonate (mg/l) 180 176 164 166 182 184 188 190 186 186 184 182Total Alkalinity(mg/l)
188 184 171 176 196 201 210 214 206 204 198 294
Chloride (mg/l) 59.94 54.94 51.94 55.94 59.94 69.93 71.92 74.92 71.92 69.93 70.92 67.93Calcium (mg/l) 56.11 55.31 53.70 56.91 59.31 64.12 66.53 67.33 66.53 64.92 59.31 57.71Total Hardness(mg/l)
156 142 144 146 150 158 172 190 188 184 178 166
Dissolved Oxygen(mg/l)
7.6 7.8 8.4 7.6 7.4 7.2 6.8 6.6 6.8 7.2 7.4 7.4
Biological OxygenDemand (mg/l)
14.2 13.6 14.2 15.8 16.2 16.8 18.4 19.8 19.2 17.6 17.2 15.8
Chemical OxygenDemand (mg/l)
35.6 33.4 34.2 37.6 38.8 38.6 39.2 39.8 38.4 36.8 36.4 36.2
Faecal Coliform(X 103 CFU/100ml)
86 74 72 78 88 94 104 98 106 97 90 93
Total Coliform(X 103 CFU/100ml)
140 138 142 150 160 190 182 196 198 180 176 164
Water QualityIndex
30 29 30 29 27 25 23 24 24 25 26 26
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Shivi Bhasin et al., IJALS, Volume (8) Issue (2) May - 2015. RESEARCH ARTICLE
values were registered at Ramghat in summer, which
is reflection of continuous discharge of organic waste,
nutrient input, industrial discharge, agricultural and
urban runoff which results in decreased DO content.
Bhagat et al. (2013) observed DO within range of
3.0 - 9.3 mg/lit where highest values were observed
in summer season at Sutlej river Punjab. Zeb et al.
(2011) reported DO to lie in the range of 4.5-8.5 mg/ lit
where high values were reported in winter and lower in
summer season in Siran river Pakistan. Gangwar et al.
(2012) reported DO within range of 5.8-6.3 mg/lit on
Ramganga river U.P. Krishna et al. (2012) registered
DO ranged between 5.24-11.47 mg/lit in Kaveri river
Tamil Nadu. Solanki et al. (2012) recorded DO values
within range of 4 - 8 mg/lit in Sabarmati river Gujrat.
Chaurasia et al. (2015) reported DO within range of
5.98 - 7.88 mg/lit in Mandakni river M.P. Bhutiani
et al. (2014) reported DO values ranged between 9.50-
11.0 mg/lit in Ganga river. Singh et al. (2013) recorded
DO values were ranged between 0.9 - 6.9 mg/lit on
Gomti river which was found to be associated with
regions having high sewage drainage and maximum
turbidity. Comparatively, least DO concentration
pattern can be seen in the present study in Kshipra
river which may be due to disposal of domestic sewage,
other oxygen demanding waste and pilgrim activities.
Table - 2. Physico-chemical and Microbiological parameters during November 2013 to October 2014 at Trivenistudy site of Kshipra river
Parameters Nov.2013
Dec.2013
Jan.2014
Feb.2014
Mar.2014
Apr.2014
May.2014
Jun.2014
Jul.2014
Aug.2014
Sep.2014
Oct.2014
AtmosphericTemperature (ºC)
20.6 19.4 17.2 24.3 31.1 39.2 41.3 41.5 29.4 28.5 28.9 24.6
Water Temperature(ºC)
18.5 17.9 18.2 21.6 27.8 30.8 32.7 32.4 24.8 23.7 23.5 20.4
Transparency (cm) 72.2 82.4 81.3 68.6 50.4 49.3 44.4 41.5 36.6 36.8 50.6 65.4Turbidity (NTU) 20 18 19 24 25 26 28 35 38 39 35 26pH 7.7 8.0 7. 8.0 8.4 8.6 8.8 8.8 8.6 8.5 8.3 8.0Carbonate (mg/l) 12 10 10 12 17 24 26 28 26 22 18 14Bicarbonate (mg/l) 242 234 272 306 312 324 336 348 346 308 280 252Total Alkalinity(mg/l)
254 244 282 318 329 348 362 376 372 330 298 266
Chloride (mg/l) 84.91 83.91 84.91 89.91 99.9 103.89 109.8 118.88 115.88 108.89 99.9 89.91Calcium (mg/l) 67.33 66.53 68.13 71.34 76.95 78.55 81.76 84.96 81.76 80.16 76.95 72.94Total Hardness(mg/l)
362 420 394 360 420 492 420 432 440 380 372 366
Dissolved Oxygen(mg/l)
6.2 6.4 6.4 6.0 5.6 5.4 5.2 4.8 5.2 6.0 6.0 6.2
Biological OxygenDemand (mg/l)
23.2 22.8 22.4 24.4 29.2 34.4 39.6 40.8 40.2 34.2 28.6 26.2
Chemical OxygenDemand (mg/l)
65.4 64.2 65.8 69.4 90.4 112.8 124.2 130.8 129.2 102.4 80.6 72.6
Faecal Coliform(X 103 CFU/100ml)
162 158 164 170 198 256 268 290 274 270 196 172
Total Coliform(X 103 CFU/100ml)
312 309 306 346 372 382 560 600 572 482 344 328
Water QualityIndex
27 26 27 25 26 21 19 18 20 20 22 25
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Shivi Bhasin et al., IJALS, Volume (8) Issue (2) May - 2015. RESEARCH ARTICLE
Total Alkalinity
Alkalinity of water is a measure of weak acid
present in it and of the cations balanced against them.
Total alkalinity of water is due to the presence of the
mineral salt present in it. Likewise measuring alkalinity
is important in determining river’s ability to neutralize
acidic pollution. It is primarily caused by carbonate
and Bi-carbonate ions (Singh et al., 2010). The present
study reports alkalinity to lie within the range of
171-381mg/lit where maximum values of alkalinity
were reported at Mangalnath and lower values were
reported at Kshipra village respectively. Alkalinity is an
important parameter for assessment of water quality as
reported by researchers in different water bodies.
Kumar et al. (2011) reported alkalinity within 123 -
240 mg/lit from Yamuna river at Hamidpur. Bhor
et al. (2013) observed highest alkalinity (791.8 mg/lit)
in the month of June from Godavari river at Nasik.
Arora (2012) registered alkalinity values ranging
between 28 - 31 mg/lit from Ganga river. Similarly,
Raghuvanshi et al. (2014) recorded alkalinity ranged
between 150.7 - 189.3 mg/lit where higher values were
registered during summer. Values of alkalinity were
high during the summer this is due to low water level,
discharge of untreated waste, addition of sewage and
domestic waste, etc. The alkaline nature of water
could be attributed to the buffering capacities of
inorganic substances. Alkalinity itself is not harmful
to humans, still the water supply is less than 100 mg/lit
of alkalinity are desired for domestic use. In Kshipra
river total alkalinity value exceeded desirable limit at
all study sites throughout the study period.
Total hardness
Hardness in water comprises the determination of
Calcium and magnesium ions as they are the main
constituent of the earth crust and are responsible for
rock formation. This often leads to considerable
hardness level in surface water. Hardness values in the
present study were registered within the range of 142 -
524 mg/lit and maximum values were observed at
Ramghat whereas minimum were observed at Kshipra
village. Ramghat is one of the biggest mass bath
centres of Kshipra river, it also accounts for high
anthropogenic activities and worship rituals. The
accumulation of soap films, hair, dead skin, body oil,
dirt and body ashes at Ramghat make it to be the most
favourable centre for hardness. High values of hardness
in summer are mainly due to rising temperature,
increasing the solubility of calcium and magnesium
salts and due to reduced water volume. One of the
arbitrary classification of water by hardness include;
Soft up to 50 mg/lit, moderately soft 51-100 mg/lit,
slightly hard up to 101-150 mg/lit, moderately hard up
to 150-250 mg/lit, hard up to 251-350 mg/lit and
extensively hard over 350 mg/lit (IEPA, 2001).
According to the classification of IEPA with reference
to hardness, water of the river Kshipra was found to
vary from being moderately hard to being extensively
hard. Similar, trends have been reported by researchers
in different water bodies. Zeb et al. (2011) reported
mean hardness values of 56.9 mg/lit in the winter
and 67.7 mg/lit in summer at Siran river Pakistan,
Irenosen et al. (2012) reported hardness within range
of 62.27 - 97.00 mg/lit where higher values were
reported in the summer owena dam nigeria. Similarly,
many Limnologists have reported value of hardness
in different water bodies in India. Sharma et al. (2014)
reported high hardness values (850 mg/lit) from
Hindon river U.P. in summer and lower in monsoon
and winter. Bhor et al. (2013) reported maximum
hardness values (791 mg/lit) in June from Godavari
river at Nasik. Krishna et al. (2012) reported highest
values of hardness in the month of May and June and
low values in November in Kaveri river at Tamil Nadu.
Chloride
Chloride can take as one of the main ingredients
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Shivi Bhasin et al., IJALS, Volume (8) Issue (2) May - 2015. RESEARCH ARTICLE
of water pollution, which enters river water from
sewage drains of the city along with drainage basin
and discharge of domestic sewage. Man and other
animals excrete very high quantity of chloride together
with nitrogenous compound. Minimum (51.94 mg
/lit) and maximum values (209.97 mg/lit) of chloride
in Kshipra river water were obtained at Kshipra
village in the month of January and Ramghat in the
month of June respectively. Higher values of chloride
were observed during the summer and the onset of rain.
During summer water level was considerably low in
comparison to other two seasons due to evaporation
and the concentration of anion was raised. High chloride
concentration in water indicates the presence of
Table - 3. Physico-chemical and Microbiological parameters during November 2013 to October 2014 at Ramghatstudy site of Kshipra river
Parameters Nov.2013
Dec.2013
Jan.2014
Feb.2014
Mar.2014
Apr.2014
May.2014
Jun.2014
Jul.2014
Aug.2014
Sep.2014
Oct.2014
Atmospherictemperature (ºC)
18.0 12.2 24.0 23.2 35.1 35.8 31.0 30.6 28.0 27.2 26.6 24.5
Watertemperature (ºC)
17.0 14.6 19.1 20.2 25.2 26.3 27.2 25.8 25.2 23.9 22.2 20.2
Transparency(cm)
61.1 68.2 76.2 70.1 48.2 43.1 38.2 35.1 34.0 33.8 37.5 44.6
Turbidity (NTU) 25.0 21.0 19.0 23.0 29.0 34.0 40.0 39.0 40.0 36.0 37.0 30.0pH 8.2 8.0 8.0 8.2 8.3 8.6 8.8 8.9 8.8 8.7 8.5 8.4Carbonate (mg/l) 14 14 13 15 20 25 30 33 35 27 24 18Bicarbonate(mg/l)
248 242 260 293 318 330 344 348 346 322 290 258
Total Alkalinity(mg/l)
262 242 273 308 338 355 374 381 346 349 314 276
Chloride (mg/l) 110.88 108.89 105.89 122.87 134.86 145.85 198.80 208.79 209.79 159.84 139.86 121.87Calcium(mg/l)
74.54 72.14 72.94 78.55 82.56 88.17 89.77 92.18 91.38 86.57 82.56 78.55
Total Hardness(mg/l)
394 390 382 396 410 418 494 524 520 506 488 408
DissolvedOxygen (mg/l)
6.0 6.4 6.0 4.0 4.0 4.4 4.2 4.0 3.8 5.6 5.8 6.0
BiologicalOxygen Demand(mg/l)
26.6 25.2 24.4 27.2 33.8 37.2 41.6 43.8 42.6 38.4 34.6 30.8
ChemicalOxygen Demand(mg/l)
96.4 90.2 89.2 95.4 122.8 148.2 166.4 178.4 180.6 134.8 110.4 102.4
Faecal Coliform(X 103 CFU/100ml)
216 202 206 228 252 282 298 322 296 290 262 238
Total Coliform(X 103 CFU /100ml)
426 402 390 410 478 590 712 768 690 622 598 512
Water QualityIndex
24 25 25 24 22 20 18 17 18 19 20 22
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International Journal of Advanced Life Sciences (IJALS) ISSN2277 – 758X
Shivi Bhasin et al., IJALS, Volume (8) Issue (2) May - 2015. RESEARCH ARTICLE
organic waste, primarily of animal origin. However,
the permissible limits for chloride is <250 mg/lit, and
Kshipra river system was found to be near permissible
limits for chloride concentration. Ramghat shows
comparatively higher concentration (209.97 mg/lit) due
to sewage accumulation and activities like mass baths,
cloths washing and performance of different worship
rituals. Urination by humans and animals in river water
also tend to increase the chloride content of the water
body. Chloride has been reported by several workers in
different concentration in water bodies in India and
abroad. Semwal and Akolkar (2006) reported chloride
ranged between 8.8 - 20.0mg/lit from a sacred river of
Uttrakhand. Singh et al. (2010) reported chloride
within range of 20.66 - 142.66 mg/lit from Manipur
river system, they also reported higher chloride concen-
tration in summer and least in winter. Bhor et al.
(2013) observed chloride ranged between 172.0 - 903.3
mg/lit from Godavari river U.P. and reported maximum
chloride concentration in June. Krishna et al. (2012)
reported lower chloride range from Kaveri river in
Tamil Nadu. Ochuko (2014) recorded higher values of
chloride in the months of May and June (7.30 mg/lit)
from river Ash Nigeria. Through, chloride concentration
Table – 4. Physico-chemical and Microbiological parameters during November 2013 to October 2014 Mangalnathstudy site of Kshipra river
Parameters Nov.2013
Dec.2013
Jan.2014
Feb.2014
Mar.2014
Apr.2014
May.2014
Jun.2014
Jul.2014
Aug.2014
Sep.2014
Oct.2014
AtmosphericTemperature (ºC)
20.4 9.0 12.6 21.2 26.4 33.7 38.1 39.2 30.8 27.9 27.1 23.6
Water Temperature(ºC)
18.3 10.9 13.9 18.2 24.6 28.9 31.6 31.9 26.4 22.8 21.6 19.8
Transparency (cm) 68.2 72.4 83.3 65.2 50.4 46.2 41.3 38.2 34.3 34.1 40.6 46.7Turbidity (NTU) 23 20 20 25 27 29 32 38 37 40 37 29pH 7.8 8.0 7.8 8.1 8.5 8.7 8.8 8.8 8.7 8.7 8.5 8.2Carbonate (mg/l) 13 12 11 13 19 26 28 30 28 25 22 16Bicarbonate (mg/l) 244 240 264 290 320 328 340 350 348 318 285 256Total Alkalinity(mg/l)
257 252 275 303 339 354 368 380 376 343 307 272
Chloride (mg/l) 109.89 106.92 99.9 119.88 122.87 126.87 180.87 190.88 189.81 175.62 139.86 128.87Calcium (mg/l) 72.14 70.54 73.74 76.95 78.55 82.56 86.57 87.37 85.77 83.36 78.55 76.77Total Hardness(mg/l)
282 256 294 320 390 410 480 518 514 504 484 342
Dissolved Oxygen(mg/l)
6.0 6.2 6.2 5.8 4.8 5.6 4.2 4.2 4.6 5.4 5.8 6.0
Biological OxygenDemand (mg/l)
25.4 24.6 23.2 26.8 31.4 36.8 40.8 41.4 41.2 36.6 30.4 29.2
Chemical OxygenDemand (mg/l)
78.6 74.2 72.8 80.2 96.2 118.2 126.2 138.2 112.6 88.2 82.6 80.08
Faecal Coliform (X103 CFU/100ml)
189 182 185 194 210 266 274 298 270 226 207 197
Total Coliform (X103 CFU/100ml)
364 358 362 388 448 506 678 694 614 538 446 390
Water quality index 26 25 27 24 21 20 19 18 19 19 20 22
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International Journal of Advanced Life Sciences (IJALS) ISSN2277 – 758X
Shivi Bhasin et al., IJALS, Volume (8) Issue (2) May - 2015. RESEARCH ARTICLE
in Kshipra river was high, it was reported to be near to
the permissible limit.
[[CalciumCalcium is a major constituent of various types
of rocks and is present abundantly in natural water.
Calcium is leached from rocks and is responsible for
contaminating water. Disposal of sewage and industrial
waste are an important source of calcium. In the present
study higher values of calcium were registered with a
minimum (50.73 mg/lit) and maximum (92.18 mg/lit)
in water of the Kshipra river at Kshipra village in the
month of January and Ramghat in the month of June.
Irenosen et al. (2012) reported low calcium level
from Owena dam Nigeria. 2.52 - 15.90 mg/lit. Bhor
et al. (2013) reported calcium ranged between 2-14.6
mg/lit from Godavari river Nasik. Singh et al. (2010)
reported calcium concentration range between 6.01-
17.63 mg/lit from the Manipur river system. Higher
concentration was reported during the summer and
minimum during rainy season. However, among Indian
rivers Kshipra shows highest value of Calcium. This
variation is attributed to geographical differences
and soil composition of the river bed and the degree
of weathering of terrains through this river.
Table – 5. Physico-chemical and Microbiological parameters during November 2013 to October 2014 at Mahidpurstudy site of Kshipra river
ParametersNov.2013
Dec.2013
Jan.2014
Feb.2014
Mar.2014
Apr.2014
May.2014
Jun.2014
Jul.2014
Aug.2014
Sep.2014
Oct.2014
AtmosphericTemperature (ºC)
24.2 21.0 13.0 20.0 32.0 34.0 36.2 37.5 30.5 31.0 25.8 25.2
WaterTemperature (ºC)
19.6 17.9 16.8 19.2 25.2 27.6 28.3 30.2 28.2 27.6 28 23.1
Transparency (cm) 76.0 84.0 82.0 71.0 52.0 52.0 46.0 42.0 40.0 39.0 54.0 67.0Turbidity (NTU) 17 16 14 15 19 24 36 33 24 25 33 24pH 8.0 8.1 8.0 8.1 8.3 8.5 8.6 8.7 8.6 8.4 8.3 8.2Carbonate (mg/l) 10 9 8 10 15 16 24 26 24 20 18 17Bicarbonate (mg/l) 184 180 166 170 184 190 194 196 194 194 190 188Total Alkalinity(mg/l)
194 189 174 180 199 206 218 222 218 214 208 205
Chloride (mg/l) 6o.93 56.94 53.94 55.94 61.93 71.92 73.92 75.92 74.92 71.92 71.92 70.92Calcium (mg/l) 64.12 63.32 61.72 65.73 70.54 73.74 79.35 81.76 80.16 78.55 73.14 67.33Total Hardness(mg/l)
156 142 144 146 150 158 172 190 188 184 178 166
Dissolved Oxygen(mg/l)
7.2 7.4 8.0 7.8 7.2 6.8 6.0 5.8 6.0 6.2 6.4 6.8
Biological OxygenDemand (mg/l)
15.2 14.4 14.2 16.2 16.8 17.4 19.6 20.4 19.8 19.2 17.8 17.2
Chemical OxygenDemand (mg/l)
48.2 45.8 45.4 46.2 58.4 52.6 86.4 88.6 86.2 74.6 62.4 54.8
Faecal Coliform(X 103 CFU/100ml)
98 92 89 95 103 106 108 112 104 102 101 98
Total Coliform(X 103 CFU/100ml)
168 160 158 164 186 194 198 212 210 198 194 186
Water QualityIndex
29 28 29 28 26 23 21 21 22 23 24 25
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International Journal of Advanced Life Sciences (IJALS) ISSN2277 – 758X
Shivi Bhasin et al., IJALS, Volume (8) Issue (2) May - 2015. RESEARCH ARTICLE
Biological Oxygen Demand (BOD)
Biological oxygen demand values indicate
organic enrichment and show the decay of plants
and animal matter in a water body. It is an important
parameter to assess pollution of surface and ground
water, where contamination accused due to disposal
of domestic and industrial effluents. The BOD
recorded from all five sites range between 13.6 - 43.8
mg/lit. Highest BOD value was observed at Ramghat
in summer, and lowest in winter at Kshipra village.
In summer BOD value increases due to increased
biological activities at elevated temperature, high
input of organic pollutants and reduced flow of
water. Lower BOD values in winter indicate reduction
of biological activities of microorganisms at lower
temperature. Similar trends were recorded by
Raghuvanshi et al. (2014) observed high BOD (7 - 12.6
mg/lit) during summer season at Ganga river Allahabad.
Sharma et al. (2010) 11.6 - 23.7 mg/lit from Noyyal
river Perur at Tamil Nadu, India. Behmanesh and
Feizabadi (2013) 0.4 - 3 mg/lit from Babolrood river
Bangladesh, Zeb et al. (2011) 0.92 - 23.98 mg/lit from
Siran river Pakistan, Ochuka et al. (2014) 3.5 - 12.8
mg/lit from river Ase Nigeria. In the present study
values of BOD were always recorded much above
from permissible limits indicating the presence of
decomposable organic matter in the river.
Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD)
Chemical oxygen demand (COD) is the amount
of oxygen required by the organic substances in the
waste to oxidise them by strong chemical oxidant. In
the present study, COD values, ranged between
34.4 mg/lit to 180.6 mg/lit. Minimum COD values were
obtained at Kshipra village in the month of January
while maximum at Ramghat in the month of June.
Higher values of COD were observed during summer
season due to reduction in water volume, enrichment
of organic substances and nutrients. Comparatively,
higher COD was observed at Ramghat due to perfor-
mance of worship rituals and abundance of anthro-
pogenic activities, whereas, lowest was reported at
Kshipra village due to less pollution load. Chaurasia
and Rajkiran (2014) reported COD within range of 12 -
48mg/lit on Mandakini river, Semwal and Akolkar
(2006) reported COD ranged between 11-18.33 mg/lit
in Ganga river. Zeb et al. (2011) reported COD 20.7-
28.2 mg/lit in Siran river Pakistan, Singh et al. (2013)
registered COD ranged between 37.6-60.8 mg/lit in
Gomti river U.P., Kumar et al. (2011) observed COD
between 13.6-14.0 mg/lit in Yamuna river. Krishna et
al. (2012) observed COD range between 16.0 - 35.0
mg/lit on the Kaveri river at Tamil Nadu. Irenosen et al.
(2012) registered COD between 13.4 - 14.4 mg/lit from
Owena dam Nigeria. In the present study COD values
wer comparatively higher than other Indian rivers,
which denotes more organic pollution in the river.
Faecal and Total Coliform
The biological character sticks of water and
wastewater are of fundamental importance to human
health, in controlling diseases caused by pathogenic
microbes of human origin and because of the role
they played in decomposition of waste (Metcaff and
Eddy, 2003). Faecal coliform (FC) is associated with
bacteria in the gut, because of their large number and
long survival in water they are easily detected. They
are also considered as an evidence of the presence
of interstitial pathogenic bacteria in water. FC has
shown to be an indicator of recent microbial pollution.
They represent 93-99% of coliform bacteria in faeces
from human, poultry, cats, dogs and rodents and total
coloform are also general indicators of contaminated
water which becomes contaminated from nature or
faeces. Monthly changes in FC and TC count were
registered where highest count was reported at
Ramghat (FC: 290x103 CFU/100ml, TC: 600x103 CFU
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International Journal of Advanced Life Sciences (IJALS) ISSN2277 – 758X
Shivi Bhasin et al., IJALS, Volume (8) Issue (2) May - 2015. RESEARCH ARTICLE
/100ml) in the month of June and lowest in the month
of December at Kshipra village study site (FC:72x103
CFU/100ml, TC: 138 x 103 CFU/100ml). Higher counts
in summer may be attributed to the fact that during
summer suitable environmental conditions prevail for
bacterial growth. Indiscriminate defecation along the
river banks by both humans and other animals that
graze along the river banks are major reasons for the
increased bacterial count and because of these facts
Ramghat shows maximum FC and TC counts
respectively. Shrivastava et al. (2011) reported higher
FC count during the monsoon season from Gomti
river. Shawky et al., (2007) observed FC count within
range of 21 - 7500 CFU/100 ml and TC count ranged
between 240-1,60,000 CFU /100 ml from Nile river
Egypt where highest count was reported during the
summer. Chaurasia and Raj Kiran (2014) registered FC
count ranged between 842 - 4834 CFU/100 ml from
Mandakini river U.P. Sati et al. (2011) reported FC
count ranged between 5 - 170 CFU/100 ml and TC
count within the range of 25 - 250 CFU/100 ml from
Alaknanda and Bhagirati rivers. Warqa et al. (2014)
recorded FC count between 100-2400 CFU/100 ml and
TC count 200-1700 CFU/100 ml from the Tigris river
Bagdad city. However, in present study river Kshipra
shows higher count then other rivers which certifies
contamination of the river water by faecal matter and
the presence of pathogenic organisms.
Water Quality Index (WQI)
WQI ranged from 20 - 30 throughout the study
period where highest value was registered at Kshipra
village and lowest at Ramghat indicating high pollution
load. According to Brain Oram online calculator water
quality index legend range between 90 - 100 indicates
excellent water quality, 70 - 90 indicates good water
quality, 60-70 indicates medium water quality, 25 - 50
refers bad water quality and 0 - 25 certifies very bad
water quality (Oram, 2007). The water quality index
was reported in the order as Ramghat> Mangalnath>
Triveni> Mahidpur> Kshipra village. Sharma et al.
(2014) recorded WQI values 32 - 42 in Hindon river
U.P. and categorized all locations of Hindon river to
have bad water quality. The study indicates positive
correlation between temperature, turbidity, total
alkalinity, total hardness, BOD,COD, FC and TC,
whereas DO and transparency showed negative
correlation with pH, total hardness, BOD, COD, FC
and TC. Similar findings were reported by Bhor et al.
(2013) in Godavari river at Maharastra and stated that
continuously pollution of water sources by human
activities may lead to some health problems to humans.
Ramghat is one of the most polluted sites on
Kshipra river. Presence of brick making activity was
observed between Triveni and Ramghat about 100
brick kilns have damaged the flood plains. These
pollutants were found to enter the river which
contribute to an increased pollution load at Ramghat.
In developing countries, the main source of river
pollution is mainly via faecal contamination, discharge
of untreated waste and sewage in the water body,
lack of proper sanitation facilities and agricultural
runoff. In developed countries, industrial effluents,
agricultural runoff and mixing of pesticides and
fertilizes with the river or tap water contributes as a
major source of water contamination. In such
industrialised countries, the success of applied control
strategies is confirmed a by small number of water-
born outbreak caused by various water born microbes.
In a resource constrained country like India, surface
water is used for drinking, bathing, recreational and
holy activities. However, factors like sewage and waste
discharge, industrial effluents, agricultural runoff
contribute to increase the level of pollution in Indian
river, but another factor which is a very important
reason for pollution of Indian river system is the
occurrence of religious festivals conducted on the
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International Journal of Advanced Life Sciences (IJALS) ISSN2277 – 758X
Shivi Bhasin et al., IJALS, Volume (8) Issue (2) May - 2015. RESEARCH ARTICLE
banks of major Indian holy rivers like Ganga, Yamuna,
Godavari, Kshipra, etc. The river water gets flooded
with many worship rituals and this water if used
without proper treatment can lead to various health
hazards. River Kshipra hosts the Mahakumbh mela
which is a religious festival organized in every twelve
years, attracting millions of tourists and devotees
from all around the world to take bath in this sacred
river, this gives rise to massive mass baths further
depleting water quality. Apart from washing with
detergents, piligrim offer milk, curd, ghee, flowers,
coconuts, coins, ashes and other religious material in
water. This material is brought in polythene bags which
are dumped by the devotees in the river . These are
non-biodegradable so they disturb the aquatic flora
and fauna (Bhasin et al. 2015). River Kshipra enjoys
the status of Goddess in Hindu mythology, so dumping
of body ashes and statues of Lord Ganesha, Durga
and other is an evident act observed at the banks of
this river. These activities certify that in holy rivers
of India mode and nature of pollution is different
from water bodies across the world. However, CPCB
(1995) recommended that total coliform should be less
than 500 in bathing water. DO of 5mg/lit. or more and
BOD 3mg/lit. or less. The water of Kshipra river does
not fit in the above mentioned criteria and was found to
be in D class of water with respect to CPCB
classification criteria.
ConclusionThe maintenance of aquatic life depends on
the interactions between physicochemical, biological
and microbiological parameters. Due, to increased
pollution levels river water is found to be in highly
stressed conditions. The study would help water quality
monitoring and management in order to improve the
quality of water with minimum sustaining manage-
ment. The present study shows high values of pollution
indicator parameters such as transparency, turbidity,
pH, total alkalinity, total hardness, DO, BOD,COD
chloride and calcium which confirms the extensive
pollution load on the river. Lower values of water
quality index indicate very bad state of the river
water. In order to save this holy river from further
deterioration effective pollution control measures must
be taken in near future. For this purpose, stringent
precautions should be formulated for this river system
so that anthropogenic activities in and around the river
may not exceed the tolerable limit. The disposal of city
sewage, industrial effluents and worship material
like coconut, flower and body ashes dumping should
be strictly prohibited in and around the river. Certain
other steps like maintenance of water volume and
minimum flow rates, preventing addition of factory,
industrial effluents and domestic waste discharge,
providing river water use for irrigation, industrial
and religious purpose, construction of research and
development wing, creation of river protection force
and conduction of regular water monitoring programs
should be undertaken, which would help to maintain
water quality status of this ancient, religious and holy
river.
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Corresponding Author : Shivi Bhasin, School of Studies in Zoology and Biotechnology, Vikram University, Ujjain (M.P.),India, Email : [email protected] © 2015, IJALS. All Rights Reserved.