Neoclassical architecture

This article is about the historical style. For the contem-porary style, see New Classical Architecture.Neoclassical architecture is an architectural style pro-

The Cathedral of Vilnius

duced by the neoclassical movement that began in themid-18th century. In its purest form it is a style princi-pally derived from the architecture of Classical antiquity,the Vitruvian principles and the architecture of the Italianarchitect Andrea Palladio.In form, Neoclassical architecture emphasizes the wallrather than chiaroscuro and maintains separate identitiesto each of its parts. The style is manifested both in itsdetails as a reaction against the Rococo style of natu-ralistic ornament, and in its architectural formulae as anoutgrowth of some classicising features of Late Baroque.Neoclassical architecture is still designed today, but maybe labelled New Classical Architecture for contemporarybuildings.

1 History

Intellectually, Neoclassicismwas symptomatic of a desireto return to the perceived “purity” of the arts of Rome,to the more vague perception (“ideal”) of Ancient Greekarts and, to a lesser extent, 16th-century RenaissanceClassicism, which was also a source for academic LateBaroque architecture.Many early 19th-century neoclassical architects were in-fluenced by the drawings and projects of Étienne-LouisBoullée and Claude Nicolas Ledoux. The many graphitedrawings of Boullée and his students depict spare geo-metrical architecture that emulates the eternality of the

universe. There are links between Boullée’s ideas andEdmund Burke's conception of the sublime. Ledoux ad-dressed the concept of architectural character, maintain-ing that a building should immediately communicate itsfunction to the viewer: taken literally such ideas give riseto "architecture parlante".

1.1 Palladianism

Main article: Palladian architectureA return to more classical architectural forms as a re-

Palladian revival: Stourhead House, designed by Colen Camp-bell and completed in 1720. The design is based on Palladio’sVilla Emo.

action to the Rococo style can be detected in some Euro-pean architecture of the earlier 18th century, most vividlyrepresented in the Palladian architecture of GeorgianBritain and Ireland.The baroque style had never truly been to the Englishtaste. Four influential books were published in the firstquarter of the 18th century which highlighted the sim-plicity and purity of classical architecture: Vitruvius Bri-tannicus (Colen Campbell 1715), Palladio’s Four Booksof Architecture (1715), De Re Aedificatoria (1726) andThe Designs of Inigo Jones... with Some Additional De-signs (1727). The most popular was the four-volume Vit-ruvius Britannicus by Colen Campbell. The book con-tained architectural prints of famous British buildings thathad been inspired by the great architects from Vitruviusto Palladio. At first the book mainly featured the workof Inigo Jones, but the later tomes contained drawingsand plans by Campbell and other 18th-century architects.Palladian architecture became well established in 18th-century Britain.At the forefront of the new school of design was thearistocratic “architect earl”, Richard Boyle, 3rd Earl of

1

2 1 HISTORY

Woburn Abbey, an excellent example of English Palladianism,designed by Burlington’s student Henry Flitcroft in 1746.

Burlington; in 1729, he and William Kent, designedChiswick House. This House was a reinterpretation ofPalladio’s Villa Capra, but purified of 16th century ele-ments and ornament. This severe lack of ornamentationwas to be a feature of the Palladianism. In 1734 WilliamKent and Lord Burlington designed one of England’sfinest examples of Palladian architecture with HolkhamHall in Norfolk. The main block of this house followedPalladio’s dictates quite closely, but Palladio’s low, oftendetached, wings of farm buildings were elevated in sig-nificance.This classicising vein was also detectable, to a lesser de-gree, in the Late Baroque architecture in Paris, such as inPerrault's east range of the Louvre. This shift was evenvisible in Rome at the redesigned façade for S. Giovanniin Laterano.

1.2 Neoclassicism

Altes Museum, built by Karl Friedrich Schinkel in Berlin.

By the mid 18th century, the movement broadened to in-corporate a greater range of Classical influences, includ-ing those from Ancient Greece. The shift to neoclassi-cal architecture is conventionally dated to the 1750s. Itfirst gained influence in England and France; in England,Sir William Hamilton's excavations at Pompeii and othersites, the influence of the Grand Tour and the work ofWilliam Chambers and Robert Adam, was pivotal in thisregard. In France, the movement was propelled by a gen-

eration of French art students trained in Rome, and wasinfluenced by the writings of Johann Joachim Winckel-mann. The style was also adopted by progressive circlesin other countries such as Sweden and Russia.International neoclassical architecture was exemplified inKarl Friedrich Schinkel's buildings, especially the OldMuseum in Berlin, Sir John Soane's Bank of England inLondon and the newly built White House and Capitol inWashington, DC of the nascent American Republic. Thestyle was international.A second neoclassic wave, more severe, more studied andmore consciously archaeological, is associated with theheight of the Napoleonic Empire. In France, the firstphase of neoclassicism was expressed in the “Louis XVIstyle”, and the second in the styles called “Directoire” orEmpire. The Rococo style remained popular in Italy un-til the Napoleonic regimes brought the new archaeolog-ical classicism, which was embraced as a political state-ment by young, progressive, urban Italians with republi-can leanings.In the decorative arts, neoclassicism is exemplified inFrench furniture of the Empire style; the English fur-niture of Chippendale, George Hepplewhite and RobertAdam, Wedgwood's bas reliefs and “black basaltes”vases, and the Biedermeier furniture of Austria. TheScottish architect Charles Cameron created palatial Ital-ianate interiors for the German-born Catherine II theGreat in St. Petersburg.

1.3 Interior design

Château de Malmaison, 1800, room for the Empress Joséphine,on the cusp between Directoire style and Empire style

Indoors, neoclassicism made a discovery of the genuineclassic interior, inspired by the rediscoveries at Pompeiiand Herculaneum. These had begun in the late 1740s,but only achieved a wide audience in the 1760s, with thefirst luxurious volumes of tightly controlled distributionof Le Antichità di Ercolano (The Antiquities of Hercu-laneum). The antiquities of Herculaneum showed thateven the most classicising interiors of the Baroque, orthe most “Roman” rooms of William Kent were based

1.4 Greek revival 3

on basilica and temple exterior architecture turned out-side in, hence their often bombastic appearance to mod-ern eyes: pedimented window frames turned into gildedmirrors, fireplaces topped with temple fronts.The new interiors sought to recreate an authentically Ro-man and genuinely interior vocabulary. Techniques em-ployed in the style included flatter, lightermotifs, sculptedin low frieze-like relief or painted in monotones en ca-maïeu (“like cameos”), isolated medallions or vases orbusts or bucrania or other motifs, suspended on swagsof laurel or ribbon, with slender arabesques against back-grounds, perhaps, of “Pompeiian red” or pale tints, orstone colours. The style in France was initially a Parisianstyle, the Goût grec (“Greek style”), not a court style;when Louis XVI acceded to the throne in 1774, MarieAntoinette, his fashion-loving Queen, brought the “LouisXVI” style to court.

Interior of Home House in London, designed by Robert Adam in1777 in the Adam style.

However, there was no real attempt to employ the basicforms of Roman furniture until around the turn of thecentury, and furniture-makers were more likely to borrowfrom ancient architecture, just as silversmiths were morelikely to take from ancient pottery and stone-carving thanmetalwork: “Designers and craftsmen ... seem to havetaken an almost perverse pleasure in transferring motifsfrom one medium to another”.[1]

A new phase in neoclassical design was inaugurated byRobert and James Adam, who travelled in Italy and Dal-matia in the 1750s, observing the ruins of the classi-cal world. On their return to Britain, they published abook entitled The Works in Architecture in installmentsbetween 1773 and 1779. This book of engraved designsmade the Adam repertory available throughout Europe.The Adam brothers aimed to simplify the rococo andbaroque styles which had been fashionable in the preced-ing decades, to bring what they felt to be a lighter andmore elegant feel to Georgian houses. The Works in Ar-chitecture illustrated the main buildings the Adam broth-ers had worked on and crucially documented the interiors,furniture and fittings, designed by the Adams.

1.4 Greek revival

From about 1800 a fresh influx of Greek architecturalexamples, seen through the medium of etchings and en-gravings, gave a new impetus to neoclassicism, the GreekRevival. There was little to no direct knowledge ofGreek civilization before the middle of the 18th cen-tury in Western Europe, when an expedition funded bythe Society of Dilettanti in 1751 and led by James Stu-art and Nicholas Revett began serious archaeological en-quiry. Stuart was commissioned after his return fromGreece by George Lyttelton to produce the first Greekbuilding in England, the garden temple at Hagley Hall(1758–59).[2] A number of British architects in the sec-ond half of the century took up the expressive challengeof the Doric from their aristocratic patrons, includingJoseph Bonomi and John Soane, but it was to remain theprivate enthusiasm of connoisseurs up to the first decadeof the 19th century.

Thomas Hamilton's design for the Royal High School, Edin-burgh, 1831.

Seen in its wider social context, Greek Revival archi-tecture sounded a new note of sobriety and restraintin public buildings in Britain around 1800 as an asser-tion of nationalism attendant on the Act of Union, theNapoleonicWars, and the clamour for political reform. Itwas to be William Wilkins's winning design for the pub-lic competition for Downing College, Cambridge that an-nounced the Greek style was to be the dominant idiom inarchitecture. Wilkins and Robert Smirke went on to buildsome of the most important buildings of the era, includ-ing the Theatre Royal, Covent Garden (1808–09), theGeneral Post Office (1824–29) and the British Museum(1823–48), Wilkins University College London (1826–30) and the National Gallery (1832–38). In Scotland,Thomas Hamilton (1784-1858), in collaboration with theartists Andrew Wilson (1780-1848) and Hugh WilliamWilliams (1773-1829) created monuments and buildingsof international significance; the Burns Monument at Al-loway (1818) and the (Royal) High School in Edinburgh(1823–29).At the same time the Empire style in France was amore grandiose wave of neoclassicism in architectureand the decorative arts. Mainly based on Imperial Ro-man styles, it originated in, and took its name from, the

4 3 REGIONAL TRENDS

rule of Napoleon I in the First French Empire, where itwas intended to idealize Napoleon’s leadership and theFrench state. The style corresponds to themore bourgeoisBiedermeier style in the German-speaking lands, Federalstyle in the United States, the Regency style in Britain,and the Napoleonstil in Sweden. According to the art his-torian Hugh Honour “so far from being, as is sometimessupposed, the culmination of the Neo-classical move-ment, the Empire marks its rapid decline and transforma-tion back once more into a mere antique revival, drainedof all the high-minded ideas and force of conviction thathad inspired its masterpieces”.[3]

Neoclassicism continued to be a major force in academicart through the 19th century and beyond—a constant an-tithesis to Romanticism or Gothic revivals— althoughfrom the late 19th century on it had often been consid-ered anti-modern, or even reactionary, in influential crit-ical circles. The centres of several European cities, no-tably St Petersburg and Munich, came to look much likemuseums of Neoclassical architecture.

2 Characteristics

A. Rinaldi. The White hall of the Gatchina palace. 1760s. Anearly example of the Italianate neoclassical interior design inRussian architecture.

High neoclassicism was an international movement.Though neoclassical architecture employed the sameclassical vocabulary as Late Baroque architecture, ittended to emphasize its planar qualities, rather than sculp-tural volumes. Projections and recessions and their ef-fects of light and shade were more flat; sculptural bas-reliefs were flatter and tended to be enframed in friezes,tablets or panels. Its clearly articulated individual featureswere isolated rather than interpenetrating, autonomousand complete in themselves.Neoclassicism also influenced city planning; the ancientRomans had used a consolidated scheme for city plan-ning for both defence and civil convenience, however, theroots of this scheme go back to even older civilizations.At its most basic, the grid system of streets, a central

The L'Enfant Plan for Washington, D.C., as revised by AndrewEllicott in 1792.

forum with city services, two main slightly wider boule-vards, and the occasional diagonal street were character-istic of the very logical and orderly Roman design. An-cient façades and building layouts were oriented to thesecity design patterns and they tended to work in proportionwith the importance of public buildings.Many of these urban planning patterns found their wayinto the first modern planned cities of the 18th century.Exceptional examples include Karlsruhe and WashingtonDC. Not all planned cities and planned neighbourhoodsare designed on neoclassical principles, however. Oppos-ing models may be found in Modernist designs exempli-fied by Brasilia, the Garden city movement, levittowns,and new urbanism.

3 Regional trends

3.1 Britain

The central courtyard of Sir William Chambers' Somerset Housein London.

From the middle of the 18th century, exploration andpublication changed the course of British architecture to-wards a purer vision of the Ancient Greco-Roman ideal.

3.3 Spain 5

James 'Athenian' Stuart's work The Antiquities of Athensand Other Monuments of Greece was very influential inthis regard, as were Robert Wood's Palmyra and Baal-bec. A combination of simple forms and high levels ofenrichment was adopted by the majority of contemporaryBritish architects and designers. The revolution begun byStuart was soon to be eclipsed by the work of the AdamBrothers, James Wyatt, Sir William Chambers, GeorgeDance, James Gandon and provincially based architectssuch as John Carr and Thomas Harrison of Chester.In the early 20th century, the writings of Albert Richard-son were responsible for a re-awakening of interest inpure neoclassical design. Vincent Harris (compare Har-ris’s colonnaded and domed interior of Manchester Cen-tral Reference Library to the colonnaded and domed inte-rior by John Carr and RRDuke), BradshawGass &Hopeand Percy Thomas were among those who designed pub-lic buildings in the neoclassical style in the interwar pe-riod. In the British Raj in India, Sir Edwin Lutyens' mon-umental city planning for New Delhi marked the sunsetof neoclassicism. In Scotland and the north of England,where the Gothic Revival was less strong, architects con-tinued to develop the neoclassical style of William HenryPlayfair. The works of Cuthbert Brodrick and AlexanderThomson show that by the end of the 19th century theresults could be powerful and eccentric.

3.2 France

The first phase of neoclassicism in France is expressedin the “Louis XVI style” of architects like Ange-JacquesGabriel (Petit Trianon, 1762–68); the second phase, inthe styles called Directoire and "Empire", might be char-acterized by Jean Chalgrin's severe astylar Arc de Triom-phe (designed in 1806). In England the two phases mightbe characterized first by the structures of Robert Adam,the second by those of Sir John Soane. The interior stylein France was initially a Parisian style, the "Goût grec"(“Greek style”) not a court style. Only when the youngking acceded to the throne in 1771 did Marie Antoinette,his fashion-loving Queen, bring the "Louis XVI" style tocourt.From about 1800 a fresh influx of Greek architectural ex-amples, seen through the medium of etchings and engrav-ings, gave a new impetus to neoclassicism that is calledthe Greek Revival. Although several European cities— notably St Petersburg, Athens, Berlin and Munich —were transformed into veritable museums of Greek re-vival architecture, the Greek revival in France was neverpopular with either the State or the public.What little there was, started with Charles de Wailly'scrypt in the church of St Leu-St Gilles (1773–80),and Claude Nicolas Ledoux's Barriere des Bonshommes(1785–89). First-hand evidence of Greek architecturewas of very little importance to the French, due to the in-fluence of Marc-Antoine Laugier's doctrines that sought

Château de Montmusard (1765), by Charles de Wailly.

to discern the principles of the Greeks instead of theirmere practices. It would take until Laboustre’s Neo-Grecof the second Empire for the Greek revival to flowerbriefly in France.

3.3 Spain

Prado Museum in Madrid, by Juan de Villanueva

Spanish Neoclassicism was exemplified by the work ofJuan de Villanueva, who adapted Burke's theories ofbeauty and the sublime to the requirements of Spanishclimate and history. He built the Prado Museum, thatcombined three functions — an academy, an auditoriumand a museum— in one building with three separate en-trances.This was part of the ambitious program of Charles III,who intended to make Madrid the Capital of the Artsand Sciences. Very close to the museum, Villanueva builtthe Astronomical Observatory. He also designed severalsummer houses for the kings in El Escorial and Aranjuezand reconstructed the Major Square of Madrid, amongother important works. Villanueva´s pupils expanded theNeoclassical style in Spain.

6 3 REGIONAL TRENDS

3.4 Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth

Main article: Neoclassical architecture in Poland

The center of Polish Neoclassicism was Warsaw underthe rule of the last Polish king Stanislaw August Ponia-towski. Vilnius University was another important centerof the Neoclassical architecture in Europe, led by notableprofessors of architecture Marcin Knackfus, LaurynasGucevicius and Karol Podczaszynski. The style was ex-pressed in the shape of main public buildings, such as theUniversity’s Observatory, Vilnius Cathedral and the townhall.The best-known architects and artists, who workedin Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth were DominikMerlini, Jan Chrystian Kamsetzer, Szymon BogumilZug, Jakub Kubicki, Antonio Corazzi, Efraim Szreger,Christian Piotr Aigner and Bertel Thorvaldsen.

3.5 Hungary

Cathedral of Vác by IsidorMarcellus Amandus Ganneval, 1762-1777

The earliest examples of neoclassical architecture inHungary may be found in Vác. In this town the tri-umphal arch and the neoclassical façade of the baroqueCathedral were designed by the French architect IsidorMarcellus Amandus Ganneval (Isidore Canevale) in the1760s. Also the work of a French architect CharlesMoreau is the garden façade of the Esterházy Palace(1797-1805) in Kismarton (today Eisenstadt in Austria).The two principal architect of Neoclassicism in Hungarywas Mihály Pollack and József Hild. Pollack’s majorwork is the Hungarian National Museum (1837-1844).

Hild is famous for his designs for the Cathedral of Egerand Esztergom.

3.6 United States

The Lincoln Memorial, an early 20th century example ofAmerican Renaissance neoclassical architecture.

In the new republic, Robert Adam's neoclassical man-ner was adapted for the local late 18th and early 19th-century style, called "Federal architecture". One of thepioneers of this style was English-born Benjamin HenryLatrobe, who is often noted as one of the first formallytrained America’s professional architects and the fatherof American architecture. The Baltimore Basilica, thefirst Roman Catholic Cathedral in the United States, isconsidered by many experts to be Latrobe’s masterpiece.The widespread use of neoclassicism in American ar-chitecture, as well as by French revolutionary regimes,and the general tenor of rationalism associated with themovement, all created a link between neoclassicism andrepublicanism and radicalism in much of Europe. TheGothic Revival can be seen as an attempt to present amonarchist and conservative alternative to neoclassicism.In later 19th-century American architecture, neoclassi-cism was one expression of the American Renaissancemovement, ca 1880-1917. Its last manifestation was inBeaux-Arts architecture (1885–1920), and its very last,large public projects in the United States were the LincolnMemorial (1922), the National Gallery in Washington,D.C. (1937), and the American Museum of Natural His-tory's Roosevelt Memorial (1936).Today, there is a small revival of Classical Architectureas evidenced by the groups such as The Institute of Classi-cal Architecture and Classical America.[4] The School ofArchitecture at the University of Notre Dame, currentlyteaches a fully Classical curriculum.[5]

3.7 USSR

Main article: Stalinist architectureIn the Soviet Union (1917–1991), neoclassical

architecture was very popular among the political elite,

7

The Red Army Theatre in Moscow, Russia

as it effectively expressed state power, and a vast arrayof neoclassical building was erected all over the country.Soviet neoclassical architecture was exported to other so-cialist countries of the Eastern Bloc, as a gift from theSoviet Union. Examples of this include the Palace ofCulture and Science, Warsaw, Poland and the ShanghaiInternational Convention Centre in Shanghai, China.

3.8 The Third Reich

Main article: Nazi architecture

Neoclassical architecture was the preferred style by theleaders of the National Socialist movement in the ThirdReich, especially admired by Adolf Hitler himself. Hitlercommissioned his favourite architect, Albert Speer, toplan a re-design of Berlin as a city comprising impos-ing neoclassical structures, which would be renamedas Welthauptstadt Germania, the centrepiece of Hitler’sThousand Year Reich.These plans never came to fruition due to the eventualdownfall of Nazi Germany and the suicide of its leader.[6]

4 Neoclassical architecture today

See also: New Classical ArchitectureAfter a lull during the period of modern architecturaldominance (roughly post-World War II until the mid-1980s), neoclassicism has seen somewhat of a resur-gence. This rebirth can be traced to the movement ofNew Urbanism and postmodern architecture's embraceof classical elements as ironic, especially in light of thedominance of Modernism. While some continued towork with classicism as ironic, some architects such asThomas Gordon Smith, began to consider classicism se-riously. While some schools had interest in classical ar-chitecture, such as the University of Virginia, no schoolwas purely dedicated to classical architecture. In the early

The Keating Millennium Centre at St. Francis Xavier University,Canada, completed in 2001

1990s a program in classical architecture was started bySmith andDuncan Stroik at theUniversity ofNotreDamethat continues successfully.[7] Programs at the Universityof Miami, Andrews University, Judson University andThe Prince’s Foundation for Building Community havetrained a number of new classical architects since thisresurgence. Today one can find numerous buildings em-bracing neoclassical style, since a generation of architectstrained in this discipline shapes urban planning.As of the first decade of the 21st century, contemporaryneoclassical architecture is usually classed under the um-brella term of New Classical Architecture. Sometimes itis also referred to as Neo-Historicism/Revivalism, Tradi-tionalism or simply neoclassical architecture like the his-torical style.[8] For sincere traditional-style architecturethat sticks to regional architecture, materials and crafts-manship, the term Traditional Architecture (or vernacu-lar) is mostly used. The Driehaus Architecture Prize isawarded to major contributors in the field of 21st cen-tury traditional or classical architecture, and comes witha prize money twice as high as that of the modernistPritzker Prize.[9]

Regional developments

In the United States various contemporary public build-ings are built in neoclassical style, with the 2006Schermerhorn Symphony Center in Nashville being anexample.In Britain a number of architects are active in the neo-classical style. Two new university Libraries, QuinlanTerry's Maitland Robinson Library at Downing Collegeand ADAM Architecture's Sackler Library illustrate thatthe approach taken can range from the traditional, in theformer case, to the unconventional, in the latter case. Re-cently, Prince Charles came under controversy for pro-moting a classically designed development on the landof the former Chelsea Barracks in London. Writing tothe Qatari Royal family (who were funding the develop-ment through the property development company QatariDiar) he condemned the accepted modernist plans, in-

8 8 EXTERNAL LINKS

stead advocating a classical approach. His appeal was metwith success and the plans were withdrawn. A new de-sign by architecture house Dixon Jones is currently beingdrafted.[10]

5 See also

• Neo-Historism

• New Urbanism

• Federal Period

• Nordic Classicism

• Neoclassical architecture in Milan

• John Carr

• Robert Adam

• Sir William Chambers

6 References

[1] Honour, 110-111, 110 quoted

[2] Though Giles Worsley detects the first Grecian influencedarchitectural element in the windows of Nuneham Parkfrom 1756, see Giles Worsley, “The First Greek RevivalArchitecture”, The Burlington Magazine, Vol. 127, No.985 (April 1985), pp. 226-229.

[3] Honour, 171-184, 171 quoted

[4] “The Institute of Classical Architecture & Art”. Classi-cist.org. Retrieved 11 June 2011.

[5] “University of Notre Dame School of Architecture at the”.Architecture.nd.edu. Retrieved 11 June 2011.

[6] “Welthauptstadt Germania – Hitler’s vision of a newBerlin”. Akin.blog-city.com. Retrieved 28 March 2011.

[7] School of Architecture at the University of Notre Dame“Twenty years ago the curriculum was reformed to focuson traditional and classical architecture and urbanism.”

[8] Neo-classicist Architecture. Traditionalism. Historicism.

[9] Driehaus Prize for New Classical Architecture at NotreDame SoA: “Together, the $200,000 Driehaus Prize andthe $50,000 Reed Award represent the most significantrecognition for classicism in the contemporary built envi-ronment"; retained 7 March 2014

[10] Booth, Robert (25 June 2010). “Prince Charles’s rolein Chelsea barrack planning row 'unwelcome'". London:Guardian. Retrieved 15 January 2011.

7 Further reading• Andrew Skurman, “Contemporary Classical: TheArchitecture of Andrew Skurman”, Princeton Ar-chitectural Press, 2012

• Elizabeth Meredith Dowling, “New Classicism”,Rizzoli, 2004

• Jean-Francois Gabriel, “Classical Architecture forthe Twenty-first Century”, Norton, 2004

• Hakan Groth. Neoclassicism in the North

• Hugh Honour, Neoclassicism

• David Irwin, Neoclassicism (in series Art and Ideas)(Phaidon, paperback 1997)

• Stanislaw Lorentz. Neoclassicism in Poland (SeriesHistory of art in Poland)

• Thomas McCormick, 1991. Charles-Louis Cléris-seau and the Genesis of Neoclassicism (ArchitecturalHistory Foundation)

• Mario Praz. On Neoclassicism

8 External links• Institute of Classical Architecture and Art

• Traditional Architecture Group

9

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• File:Home_House_05.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/35/Home_House_05.jpg License: CC BY 2.0Contributors: 39 Home House Original artist: Rictor Norton & David Allen from London, United Kingdom

• File:L'Enfant_plan.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/78/L%27Enfant_plan.jpg License: Public domainContributors: Library of Congress Original artist: Andrew Ellicott, revised from Pierre (Peter) Charles L'Enfant; Thackara & Vallance sc.,Philadelphia 1792

• File:Madrid-prado.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/7f/Madrid-prado.jpg License: CC-BY-SA-3.0Contributors: ? Original artist: ?

• File:MillenniumCenterStFX.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/3f/MillenniumCenterStFX.jpg License:CC0 Contributors: Brendan Riley Original artist: Brendan Riley

• File:P_parthenon.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f4/P_parthenon.svg License: CC-BY-SA-3.0Contrib-utors: ? Original artist: ?

• File:Question_book-new.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/9/99/Question_book-new.svg License: Cc-by-sa-3.0Contributors:Created from scratch in Adobe Illustrator. Based on Image:Question book.png created by User:Equazcion Original artist:Tkgd2007

• File:Somerset_House.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/12/Somerset_House.jpg License: CC BY-SA 2.0Contributors: ? Original artist: ?

• File:Stourhead_2.gif Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/57/Stourhead_2.gif License: Public domain Contribu-tors: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Stourhead_2.gif Original artist: Colen Campbell

• File:The_White_hall_of_the_Gatchina_palace.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/60/The_White_hall_of_the_Gatchina_palace.jpg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Disco76

• File:Vilnius_Cathedral_Facade.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/11/Vilnius_Cathedral_Facade.jpg Li-cense: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Juliux

10 9 TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES

• File:Wailly_-_Chateau_de_Montmusard_-_3.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/59/Wailly_-_Chateau_de_Montmusard_-_3.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: ? Original artist: ?

• File:Wiki_Red_Army_Theater_Moscow.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/10/Wiki_Red_Army_Theater_Moscow.jpg License: CC BY-SA 2.5 Contributors: Own work (own photo) Original artist: NVO

• File:WoburnAbbey02.JPG Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/6f/WoburnAbbey02.JPG License: CC-BY-SA-3.0 Contributors: ? Original artist: ?

9.3 Content license• Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 3.0