AP Human Geography Models & Theories (not necessarily comprehensive!

1. Demographic Transition Model

2. Gravity Model

Gravity model: (shown to the left) interaction is proportional to the multiplication of the two populations divided by the distance between them; this phenomenon is distance decay (the effect of distance on cultural or spatial interactions).

For decades, social scientists have been using a modified version of Isaac Newton's Law of Gravitation to predict movement of people, information, and commodities between cities and even continents.

The gravity model, as social scientists refer to the modified law of gravitation, takes into account the population size of two places and their distance. Since larger places attract people, ideas, and commodities more than smaller places and places closer together have a greater attraction, the gravity model incorporates these two features.The relative strength of a bond between two places is determined by multiplying the population of city A by the population of city B and then dividing the product by the distance between the two cities squared.

The Gravity Model

Thus, if we compare the bond between the New York and Los Angeles metropolitan areas, we first multiply their 1998 populations (20,124,377 and 15,781,273, respectively) to get 317,588,287,391,921 and then we divide that number by the distance (2462 miles) squared (6,061,444). The result is 52,394,823. We can shorten our math by reducing the numbers to the millions place - 20.12 times 15.78 equals 317.5 and then divide by 6 with a result of 52.9.Now, let's try two metropolitan areas a bit closer - El Paso (Texas) and Tucson (Arizona). We multiply their populations (703,127 and 790,755) to get 556,001,190,885 and then we divide that number by the distance (263 miles) squared (69,169) and the result is 8,038,300. Therefore, the bond between New York and Los Angeles is greater than that of El Paso and Tucson!How about El Paso and Los Angeles? They're 712 miles apart, 2.7 times farther than El Paso and Tucson! Well, Los Angeles is so large that it provides a huge gravitational force for El Paso. Their relative force is 21,888,491, a surprising 2.7 times greater than the gravitational force between El Paso and Tucson! (The repetition of 2.7 is simply a coincidence.)While the gravity model was created to anticipate migration between cities (and we can expect that more people migrate between LA and NYC than between El Paso and Tucson), it can also be used to anticipate the traffic between two places, the number of telephone calls, the transportation of goods and mail, and other types of movement between places. The gravity model can also be used to compare the gravitational attraction between two continents, two countries, two states, two counties, or even two neighborhoods within the same city.Some prefer to use the functional distance between cities instead of the actual distance. The functional distance can be the driving distance or can even be flight time between cities.The gravity model was expanded by William J. Reilly in 1931 into Reilly's law of retail gravitation to calculate the breaking point between two places where customers will be drawn to one or another of two competing commercial centers.Opponents of the gravity model explain that it can not be confirmed scientifically, that it's only based on observation. They also state that the gravity model is an unfair method of predicting movement because its biased toward historic ties and toward the largest population centers. Thus, it can be used to perpetuate the status quo.http://geography.about.com/library/weekly/aa031601a.htm

3. Urban Models:

--Concentric Circle (Burgess)

Concentric Zone Model (1925): structural model of the American central city (based on Chicago in the 1920s); the zones identified are 1) the CBD; 2) the transition zone of mixed residential, factory, and commercial use; 3) low-class residential homes (inner city); 4) better quality middle-class homes; and 5) upper-class commuters zone.  Burgess's work is based on bid rent … the amount that people will pay for the land (e.g., wealthier families tended to live much further away from the CBD; could afford automobiles). --Sector Model (Hoyt)

Sector Model (1939): improvements in transportation made the Burgess Model more obsolete.  Hoyt observed that zones expanded outward from the city center along electric trolley lines, railroads, highways, and other transportation arteries; wedge-shaped patterns -- or sectors -- emanating from the CBD and centered on major transportation routes.

--Multiple Nuclei Model (Harris & Ullman)

Multiple Nuclei Model (1945): based on the idea that people have greater movement due to increased car ownership. This increase of movement reduced the primacy of the CBD and allowed for the specialization of regional centers (e.g., nuclei such as light manufacturing or business parks).

_________________________________________________________________________________________________Harris Peripheral Model (a.k.a.) Galactic Model

North American urban areas follow what Chauncey Harris (creator of the multiple nuclei model) calls the peripheral model. According to the peripheral model, an urban area consists of an inner city surrounded by large suburban residential and business areas tied together by a beltway or ring road. -From 1960s to the 1990s

More recent idea and car dependent

So the area surrounding the city would be built at auto scale-and have parking lots around stores, office areas, etc.-areas would spread out and single use zones would separate each other.

Goes with the development of sprawlSo all of the traits of sprawl go with the outside of cities with this model (some examples of sprawl below - we do have a full article on it)-single-use zones-low density development of buildings (single story buildings more prevalent on the fringe)-edge cities would exist on the outside which are a more built up suburb-highways are used for travel and make the development of the periphery possible

Decentralization of the CBD-Shopping and businesses start to go out to the suburbs (edge cities)-Also indicates a movement of jobs to the periphery-City loses some of its middle class and has a prevalence of lower class giving it issues-Population grows on the outside of the city / Suburbs now a larger percentage of the population that people living in the cities.-Highway going around the city shows that interaction from one part of the periphery to another part of the periphery has gained in importance over interactions from the outside to the inside of the city.-Suburbs continue to grow and now have differing areas of activities and differ in lifestyle to a certain degree. 4. Central Place Theory (Christaller)

Central place theory (1933): designed to explain the spatial distribution of human settlements. Central places are settlements providing services to their surrounding “market areas”. The ordering of settlements based on the number and level of services they provide produces a hierarchy. Like the left-hand diagram, hierarchies are often complicated because market areas of different-order settlements overlap (shown as solid and broken lines).

5. Models of Industrial Location(A) (Least - Cost Theory= by Weber)

Least Cost Theory (1940s): owners of manufacturing plants seek to minimize three costs: 1) transportation, 2) labor, and 3) agglomeration (too much can lead to high rents & wages, circulation problems – and ultimately to deglomeration); in the weight-losing case, firms locate closer to the raw materials to reduce cost; in the weight-gaining case, firms locate closer to the market.

(B) Hotelling’s law- Hotelling's law predicts that a street with two shops will also find both shops right next to each other at the same halfway point. Each shop will serve half the market; one will draw customers from the north, the other all customers from the south.Another example of the law in action or practice is to think of two food push-carts at a beach. Assume one starts at the south end of the beach and one starts at the north. Again assuming a rational consumer and equal distribution along the beach, each cart will get 50% of the customers, divided along an invisible line equidistant from the carts. But, each cart owner will be tempted to push his cart slightly towards the other, in order to move the invisible line so that it encompasses more than 50% of the beach. Eventually, the push cart operators end up next to each other in the center of the beach.

6. Joel Garreau-- The Nine Nations of North America (1981)

The Nine Nations of North America (1981); Garreau argues that North America can be divided into nine regions, or "nations", which have distinctive economic and cultural features; he contends that conventional national and state borders are largely artificial and irrelevant, and that his "nations" provide a more accurate way of understanding the true nature of North American society.  In 1991, Garreau discussed the development of edge cities as autonomous locations of economic activity on the urban fringe of US cities away from the CBD.

7. von Thunen's Model (Agricultural)

Isolated State (1826): Discussed agricultural location as primarily a factor of transportation cost and profit maximization by farmers through his model. For the image to the left - the black dot represents a city; 1 (white) dairy and market gardening; 2 (green) forest for fuel and building materials; 3 (yellow) grains and field crops; 4 (red) ranching; the outer, dark green area represents wilderness where agriculture is not profitable.8. Epidemiologic Transition Model (based on health/welfare of a country)

9. World Systems Analysis a.k.a: Core Periphery Model (Wallerstein)

World Systems Theory (1974-89): proposed a three-tier structure to a “one-world” economic and political structure; the "core" (industrialized capitalist countries – US, UK, Japan) dominates other countries; the "semi-periphery" (industrializing – Brazil, China, India) as the countries which are dominated (usually by the core) while at the same time dominating others (usually in the periphery); and "periphery" (undeveloped or developing – Congo, Zambia, Haiti) are dominated since they are often dependent on the more powerful countries.10. Heartland (MacKinder) and Rimland (Spykman)Theories

Heartland Theory (1904): the resource-rich, land-based “pivot area” (Heartland) would be key to world dominance (controlled by Russia at that time; diametrically opposed to Mahan’s contention of sea power;"Who rules East Europe commands the Heartland; Who rules the Heartland commands the World-Island; Who rules the World-Island controls the world."Rimland Theory (1944): the Eurasian Rimland, not the Heartland would be key to global power; the Rimland would be important in containing the Heartland; Britain, US and USSR would be the main power players;Who controls the rimland rules Eurasia; Who rules Eurasia controls the destinies of the world. • *Spykman is known as the “godfather of containment”

11. NeocolonialismRefers to the economic control that MDCs are sometimes believed to have over LDCs. Through organizations such as the IMF, the MDCs are able to dictate precisely what LDCs economic policies are, or are able to use their economic subsidies to put LDCs industries out of business.

12. Thomas Malthus (Population)

Gave a dystopian (not Utopian) view of the future (1798); food production increases arithmetically, whereas human reproduction increases geometrically (doubling each generation); despite checks on population (e.g., plague, famine) there would continue to be starvation.Esther BoserupIn 1965, Boserup discussed that population growth stimulates intensification in agricultural development (stimulates technology) … rather than being increased by agricultural output (Malthus upside-down); the rate of food supply may vary but never reaches its carrying capacity because as it approaches the threshold, an invention or development increases food supply, however, the depletion of nutrients creates diminishing returns.

13. Modernization Model

a.k.a Stages of Development (Rostow: ladder of development)

Rostow’s Model is known as the Modernization Model (1960): a liberal model that postulates that economic modernization occurs in five basic stages:

1)   Traditional society2)   Precondition for takeoff3)   Takeoff4)   Drive to Maturity5)   Age of Mass Consumption

14. Organic Theory (Ratzel)

German geographer who discussed geopolitics (1901) and more specifically, lebensraum (“living space”).  Ratzel’s organic theory postulated that a country, which is an aggregate of organisms (people), would itself

function and behave like an organism … to survive, a state requires nourishment – in the global context, this means territory – to gain political power.

15. Bid-Rent Theory

16. Rank Size Rule• Rank-Size Rule

• When cities are rank-ordered from largest to smallest, the "rank-size rule" says that the r-th largest will be 1/r-th the size of the largest city, i.e., rank-times-size is a constant equal to the size of the largest city. The equation is

FIG. 9-3c. RANK-SIZE PLOT, U.S. CITIES OVER 100,000, 1980

17. Carl Sauer (cultural landscape & domestication)

Sauer discussed cultural geography; fierce critic of environmental determinism, his ideas supported cultural ecology.

In 1925, Sauer published The Morphology of Landscape. In this work, he sought to demonstrate that nature does not create culture, but instead, culture working with and on nature, creates ways-of-life. He considered human impacts on the landscape to be a manifestation of culture. Therefore he argued, in order to understand a culture, a geographer must learn to read the landscape.https://www.e-education.psu.edu/geog571/node/145

18. Ravenstein: laws of migration

19. Colin Renfrew Hypothesis (Diffusion of (P.I.E.) Proto Indo-European Language)

Renfrew’s Hypothesis is also known as the Anatolian Hypothesis (1987) or Agricultural theory it states the P-I-E language spread through the innovation of agriculture rather peacefully with Anatolia (modern day

Turkey) as the hearth.

Dispersal Theory - 20. Marija Gimbutas (1921-1994) Developed – The Kurgan Hypothesis (1950s)The Kurgan Hypotheses is also known as the Conquest theory: theory of the diffusion of the Proto-Indo-European language into Europe through the speakers’ overpowering of earlier inhabitants through warfare and technology (e.g., fighting on horseback).  Its hearth is around modern day Ukraine (Kurgan Hypothesis - Marija Gimbutas).

21. Global Urban Models:

--Latin American= Griffin-Ford

Latin American Model:General Definition: The Latin American City Model combines elements of Latin American Culture and globalization by combining radial sectors and concentric zones. Includes a thriving CBD with a commercial spine. The quality of houses decreases as one moves outward away from the CBD, and the areas of worse housing occurs in the disamenity sectors.

Different aspects of the model:Commercial / CBD: The focus of employment, entertainment, and economic activity; Roads, trains, and buses are fairly reliable here.Market: - informal economy - primitive form of capitalism; beyond control/taxation of gov't; unlicensed people sell homemade goods and services; may or may not be illegal.- formal economy - taxed and licensed by the governmentIndustrial

Elite residential sector: The elite sector forms on either side of a narrow spine that contains amenities attractive to the wealthy, such as water and electricity, as well as offices, shops, restaurants, etc.Zone of maturity: Residential area in which a stable population has gradually transformed the district into one that is fully serviced.Zone of in situ accretion: A mix of middle and low income housing, generally thought of as a transitional area (moving either up or down).Zone of peripheral squatter settlements/ periferico: Home for impoverished and unskilled; housing consists of mostly shantytowns. Lawless barrios / favelas and is usually behind a main ring highway known as a perifico.Gentrification: A process of converting an urban neighborhood from a predominantly low income renter-occupied area to a predominantly middle to upper-middle class owner-occupied area.Disamenity: Contains relatively unchanging slums (barrios or favelas) that may not be connected to regular city services.

Outside the CBD, the dominant component is a commercial spine surrounded by the elite residential sectorThese two zones are interrelated and called the spine/sectorEssentially an extension of the CBD down a major boulevardHere are the city’s important amenities — parks, theaters, restaurants, and even golf coursesStrict zoning and land controls ensure continuation of these activities, protecting elite from incursions by low-income squatters - Note: zoning does not usually occur in these cities excepting in the elite areas

Inner-city zone of maturityLess prestigious collection of traditional colonial homes and upgraded self-built homesHomes occupied by people unable to participate in the spine/sectorArea of upward mobility - parts of it may be gentrifying

Zone of accretionDiverse collection of housing types, sizes, and qualityTransition between zone of maturity and next zoneArea of ongoing construction and changeSome neighborhoods have city-provided utilitiesOther blocks must rely on water and butane delivery trucks for essential services

Zone of peripheral squatter settlementsWhere most recent migrants are foundFringe contrasts with affluent and comfortable suburbs that ring North American citiesHouses often built from scavenged materialsGives the appearance of a refugee campSurrounded by landscape bare of vegetation that was cut for fuel and building materials

Streets unpaved, open trenches carry wastes, residents carry water from long distances, electricity is often “pirated”Residents who work have a long commuteMany are transformed through time into permanent neighborhoods

Note:This model makes sense when you think about it.-The larger poor areas reflect the influx of intraregional migrants (rural moving to urban areas)-The industry in the city and even entering into the city to the core reflects the economic strength of many of these peripheral countries that now take on industrial work.-the gentrification and middle class areas as well as the elite reflect an economy that is improving or allowing some to rise up (not what we see in the African City Model).-Industry is on the opposite side of the elite-the middle class are next to the elite separating them from the poor-disamenity can reach all the way to the core but tends to stick to the outside-gentrification is more likely near the CBD and elite area-model created by Griffin and Ford and sometimes called that (Griffin-Ford Model)

-Physical geography could also influence the distribution of classes like in Rio, where residents were attracted to the neighborhoods that had nice views of the Atlantic Ocean and beaches.

—African City Model - Harm DeBlij

The Sub-Saharan? African City Model is also called the De Blij Model because De Blij, a famous geographer, created this. The tropics of Africa remain under forty percent urbanized and outside this area, the remaining regions are about fifty-seven percent urban. Africa has the world’s fastest growing cities, and the impact that European Colonialism has had is clearly evident. The Europeans created prominent urban centers including ports along the coast. Africa also has certain cities that are neither traditional nor colonial such as South Africa’s major urban centers that are mostly Western, with elements of European and American models, including high-rise central business districts and suburbs. Due to the diversity of its cities, it is complicated to develop an African City Model.

The central city is found to have three central business districts (CBDs): a remnant of the colonial CBD, an informal and periodic market zone, and a transitional business center where commerce happens from the curbside or storefronts. The former colonial CBD has vertical development, the traditional business center is usually a zone of single-story buildings with a touch of traditional architecture, and the market zone is open-air, informal (economically), and yet important. Sector development is the encircling zone of ethnic and mixed neighborhoods, in which people have strong ethnic identities. Mining and manufacturing zones are found next to some parts of these ethnic neighborhoods. On the outermost part of many African cities, there are informal satellite townships, which are squatter settlements. These squatter settlements consist of poor neighborhoods, or shantytowns, in which people make home anywhere that is possible or open, no matter if it is public or private.

Note:-this reflects the nature of Africa's development. Of the three CBDs, the colonial reflects the past-the mining and manufacturing areas reflect the nature ofthe types of jobs found in African cities-the lack of an mentioned areas of elite, middle-class and gentrification tells something as well-the small colonial CBD reflects a lack of development since that is the area of the formal economy and TNCs (transnatinal corps)-the ethnic hoods reflect the tribalism that exists

-the informal satellite townships means the poor who have moved in close to the city-the lack of any other class getting mentioned reflects the poverty of the area

--SE Asia= McGee

Background- Southeast Asia contains some of the most populous and fastest growing cities in the world. While they are still developing, many feature high-rise developments and several of the world’s tallest buildings.

-This model was developed in 1967 by T.G. McGee. It is sometimes called the McGee Model. McGee studied several cities in Southeast Asia and discovered that they shared certain aspects of land-use. Some similarities include:

Old colonial port zone surrounded by a commercial business districtWestern commercial zoneAlien Commercial Zone(dominated by Chinese merchants)No formal central business district (CBD)Hybrid sectors & zones growing rapidlyNew Industrial parks on the outskirts of the city

- As the model shows, no CBD is visible. However, several components of the CBD are present in separate areas in the city. Basically the components of the CBD are clustered around the port zone. The Western commercial zone for western businesses. The alien commercial zone is dominated by the Chinese who have migrated to other parts of Asia and live in the same buildings as their businesses. These are Chinese merchants. And then there is the mixed land-use zone that has miscellaneous activities including light industry. There is also a separate area known as the government zone near the center of the model. Also note the mixed- land use zone contains various economic uses which can include informal

business.-The focal point is the Port Zone reflecting a city oriented around exporting.

Key Concepts:

-The Southeast Asian City Model is similar to the Latin American (Griffin-Ford) City Model in that they each feature high-class residential zones that stem from the center, middle-class residential zones that occur in inner-city areas, and low-income squatter settlements that occur in the periphery.- The main difference between the two models is that the Southeast Asian City Model features middle-income housing in suburban areas. This reflects the larger percentage of middle-class citizens that reside in the peripheral regions than those of Latin America. This may reflect a smaller MC in Latin-American cities by comparison.-Due to the alien commercial zone these cities also experience a blended culture but also strong ethnic ties.

Where it applies:

Many of the medium-sized cities in Southeast Asia have the strongest similarities. Since these cities are developing rapidly, aspects of the city are subject to change. However, as the city continues to develop, it is likely that the middle-class region will expand.

• It is also important to note that the Southeast Asian City model does not explain why the areas were formed but rather points out trends and patterns.

Examples of the model:Kuala Lampur, MalaysiaJakarta, Indonesia

22.Koppen Climate System

Köppen system contains up to three levels of sorting based primarily on temperature and precipitation information.

 The first level recognizes six major climatic types with each group being designated by a capital letter. These major climate categories have the following broad characteristics:

A - Tropical Moist Climates: These are very warm climates found in the tropics that experience high quantities of precipitation. The primary distinguishing characteristic of these climates is all months have average temperatures above 18°C (64°F).

B - Dry Climates: These are climates that experience little precipitation during most of the year. Further, potential losses of water from evaporation and transpiration greatly exceed atmospheric input.

C - Moist Mid-latitude Climates with Mild Winters: In these climates, summer temperatures are warm to hot and winters are mild. The primary distinguishing characteristic of these climates is the coldest month has an average temperature between 18°C (64°F) and -3°C (27°F).

D - Moist Mid-Latitude Climates with Cold Winters: In these climates, summer temperatures are warm and winters are cold. The primary distinguishing characteristic of these climates is the average temperature of warmest month exceeds 10°C (50°F), and average temperature of coldest is below -3°C (27°F).

E - Polar Climates: These climates have very cold winters and summers, with no real summer season. The primary distinguishing characteristic of these climates is the warmest month has an average temperature below 10°C (50°F).

H - Highland Climates: These are climates that are strongly influenced by the effects of altitude.  As a result, the climate of such locations is rather different from places with low elevations at similar latitudes.

23. Jared Diamond’s “Geographic Luck”

• Guns, Germs, and Steel (1997); geographic luck (environmental determinism)

24. Language Tree and Indo-European Language Tree

24. Agricultural Hearths

25. World Religions

26. Economic Sectors