MOTIVATION. WHAT IS MOTIVATION? “The arousal, direction, and persistence of behavior” “A...
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Transcript of MOTIVATION. WHAT IS MOTIVATION? “The arousal, direction, and persistence of behavior” “A...
MOTIVATION
WHAT IS MOTIVATION?
“The arousal, direction, and persistence of behavior”
“A process that starts with a physiological or psychological deficiency or need or motive
that activates behavior or drive that is aimed at a goal or incentive or reward.”
JOB PERFORMANCE
Job PerformanceJob Performance Ability + Knowledge
Ability + Knowledge
Motivational Feelings
Motivational Feelings= X
Patrick Forsyth“How to Motivate People”
(Kogan Page, 2000)
JOB PERFORMANCE
=X
Aptitude is a person’s capacityto learn or acquire skills
Arthur Sherman, George Bohlander,& Scott Snell
“Managing Human Resources”(South-Western College Publishing, 1996)
“Will-Do” Factors
•Motivation•Interests•Personality Characteristics
Job Performance
“Can-Do” Factors
•Knowledge•Skills•Aptitudes
TEST OF MOTIVATION
Do they have a goal or purpose that is so important for them to attain
for which they are willing
to work harder?
to take risks?
to accept some inconvenience or discomfort?
Saul W.Gellerman“Motivating manager Performance”
(Productivity Press Inc.,1994)
FLOW AND MOTIVATION
• Flow or Optimal Experience:A period of intrinsically motivated behavior in which people’s performance seems to be effortless; people want to continue forever in their task and learn additional skills to master more demanding challenges.
• The experiences:– Fun and enjoyment of an activity– The sense of control generated by being able to
handle a particular challenge– The growth of self from a specific accomplishment
• Tough management control and overbearing structures and hierarchies interfere with people’s motivation and do not allow for flow
Mihaly Csikszentmihalyi“Flow: The Psychology of Optimal Experience”(Harper & Row, 1990)
Two Major Groups of
MOTIVATIONAL THEORIES
• Individual DifferencesNeeds Theory and Intrinsic Motivation Theory ask “What is there within humans that affects behavior and performance?”
• Situational DifferencesEquity, Expectancy, and Goal-Setting Theories, among others, attempt to determine the key situational or extrinsic factors that stimulate the will to work, and ways such factors can be manipulated
Robert B.Burns“Psychology for Effective Managers”
(Business and Professional Publishing, 1997)
MOTIVATIONAL THEORIES
Theory Source of Motivation Considerations
Need Theory(Maslow)
Workers are motivated by a drive towards self-
actualization but must fulfill needs at lower levels
first.
Has great intuitive appeal but little
empirical support. Limited applicability to
work situations.
AchievementMotivation
Theory(McClelland)
Workers are motivated by needs for achievement, affiliation and power.
Motivation established in childhood, but
training courses can modify needs.
Managers may have difficulty manipulating
drives that originated in childhood
Robert B.Burns“Psychology for Effective Managers”
(Business and Professional Publishing, 1997)
Theory Source of Motivation Considerations
Equity Theory
(Adams)
Worker motivation is based on employee perceptions about
fairness in the workplace
Managers need to understand how workers perceive their situations, which is difficult to do.
Workers can reduce feelings of inequity by
means other than motivation
Expectancy Theory(Vroom)
Motivation is based on the amount of efforts needed to accomplish a task, the possibility of success and
the value the worker places on the outcome
Expectancy Theory is well researched /supported, but
its application to the workplace is too complex
for most managers
Robert B.Burns“Psychology for Effective Managers”
(Business and Professional Publishing, 1997)
MOTIVATIONAL THEORIES
Theory Source of Motivation Considerations
Intrinsic Motivation
Theory
(Deci)
Workers are more motivated towards tasks that increase
feelings of competence,personal
satisfaction and autonomy
The manager must provide tasks that offer employees
opportunities for satisfaction, competence and autonomy—a difficult
objective to achieve in some employment contexts
Goal-SettingTheory
(Locke, Latham)
Workers work best when they are given progressive feedback
on specific time-limited goals to which they
have made a personal commitment
Goal-Setting is the motivation theory of
greatest interest currently-it appears to create strong
levels of motivation
MOTIVATIONAL THEORIES
Robert B.Burns“Psychology for Effective Managers”
(Business and Professional Publishing, 1997)
Theory Source of Motivation
Considerations
BehavioralApproaches
(Watson, Skinner)
Managers motivate workers by
manipulating the environment and by
providing appropriate reinforcements
according to carefully designed schedules
Behavioral Theories focus on observable
behavior rather on what a manager assumes an employee thinks about
the work environment; to be effective, the system needs careful planning and maintenance over time. Ethical problems
may arise.
Robert B.Burns“Psychology for Effective Managers”
(Business and Professional Publishing, 1997)
MOTIVATIONAL THEORIES
Motivation
Adolf Haasen and Gordon F.Shea“A Better Place to Work:A New Sense of Motivation Leading to High Productivity”
(AMA Management Briefing, 1997)
APPROACHES TO WORK MOTIVATION
CsikszentmihalyiBanduraDweckTrope
HackmanAmabile
Self-PerceptionLearning new Skills
Self-EsteemMastery Orientation
HeartEmotional Choice
Emotional PreferencesEnjoyment
Freedom and ControlPart of Team
IntrinsicMotivation
MaslowHerzberg
McClellandAdamLawler
Luthanset.al
Motives Needs
PhysiologicalPsychological:--Achievement
--Power--Affiliation
MindCognitive
ChoiceIncentives
ExpectationsStatus
SituationWorking Conditions
EnvironmentCulture
Job CharacteristicsExtrinsic
Motivation
• Company policy & administration• Supervision• Working conditions• Job security• Salary• Interpersonal relations
Their absence causes job dissatisfaction. Their presence does not generate job
satisfaction, but merely no dissatisfaction
Must be present for job satisfaction.Their absence does not generate job
dissatisfaction, but merely no satisfaction
Motivational Factors(Job’s Intrinsic
Content)
Hygiene Factors(Job’s Extrinsic
Context)
•Achievement•Recognition•The nature of the work itself•Responsibility•Advancement•A feeling of personal growth
HERZBERG’SHYGIENE
Motivational Theory
Achievement Recognition*The work itself Responsibility*Advancement Growth
Motivational Factors
*Company policy & administration*Supervision*Pay Interpersonal relations Working condition
Hygiene Factors
Job ContentJob Content
Job ContextJob Context
Dissatisfied
Neutral
SatisfiedHERZBERG’S HYGIENE
Motivational Theory
THEORY AND PRACTICE
In theorythere is no difference between theory and practice.
In practicethere is
-- Yogi Berra --
Motivation
A FRAMEWORK
The Individual
InterestNeeds/Desires/
Goals
Self-Efficacy
“Want to Do”Attitude
Signs ofMotivation
JobPerformanceKnowledge, Skills,
Aptitude
The Work/JobThe Work
Environment
FACTORS INFLUENCING MOTIVATION
• Early Environment
• Education
• Understanding
• Aesthetics
• Self-Esteem
• Heredity
• Experience
Tony Simmonds“Managing People and Activities”(Blackwell Publishers Ltd., 1995)
NEEDS GOVERNING HUMAN BEHAVIOR
• Need for achievement• Need for power• Need for affiliation• Need for autonomy• Need for esteem• Need for safety or security• Need for equity• Need for self actualization
Cynthia Berryman-Fink“The Manager’s Desk Reference”
(AMACOM, 1989)
Self-esteem is about your values and how you live up to them. Low self-esteem is a prejudice
against yourself.
SELF -EFFICACY
SELF -EFFICACY
SELF -ESTEEM
SELF -ESTEEM
Self-efficacy is concerned with how you feel about your abilities.
Even if you’re good at something, you may still not feel worthwhile.
Gillian Butler and Tony Hope“Managing Your Mind”
(Oxford University Press, 1995)
IF YOU THINK …
“If you think you can, you can and if you think you can’t,
you’re right.”-- Mary Kay Ash --
MAKING JOBS MOTIVATING
Build a new learning requirement into the job:
• Add tasks that previously preceded/followed the job in question
• Add tasks that were previously assigned to more skilled workers, or to professionals, or even to managers.
• Assign performance targets
• Give workers freedom to pursue those targets as they deem fit.
Saul W.Gellerman“Motivating manager Performance”
(Productivity Press, Inc.,1994)
INTRINSIC MOTIVATORS
• Enjoyment of the work itself for its own sake.• Desire to have a “piece of the action”, such as
sharing visions, missions,authority, and responsibility
• Pride in performing excellently• Need to provide some secret point to oneself• Achievement of a deep-seated value (such as
helping another person)• Having a deep and abiding belief in the
importance of the work one is doing• The excitement and pleasure of a challenge• Desire to exceed one’s previous level of job
performance (being self-competitive) Gerald Kushei“Reaching the Peak Performance Zone”
(Amacom, 1994)
INTRINSIC REWARDS
“Leaders make tremendous use of intrinsic rewards
--rewards that are built into the work itself--a sense of accomplishment,
a chance to be creative,and the challenge of the work”
James M.Kouzes and Barry Z.Posner“The Leadership Challenge”
(Jossey Bass Inc., 1987)
VERTICAL JOB
LOADING
Principle Motivators
Removing some controls while retaining accountability
ResponsibilityAchievement
Increasing the accountability of individuals for own work
ResponsibilityRecognition
Giving a person a complete unit of work (module, division, area, and so on)
ResponsibilityAchievementRecognition
Granting additional authority to employees in their activity; job freedom
ResponsibilityAchievementRecognition
Making periodic reports directly available to the workers themselves rather than to managers
Internal Recognition
Introducing new and more difficult tasks not previously handled
Growth Learning
Assigning individuals specific or specialized tasks,enabling them to become experts
ResponsibilityGrowthAdvancement
Frederick Herzberg“One More Time:
How Do You Motivate Employees?”(Harvard Business Review,Sep-Oct.,1987)
JOB DESIGN THEORIES
If jobs are well designed, containing all elements that workers require from their job
to satisfy physical and psychological needs, employees will be motivated.
The design of a job determines what kind of rewards are available and what the individual has to do to get the
rewards.
Employees value jobs that have achievable goals and provide rewards such as feeling of satisfaction and accomplishment
within the control of the employee.
Jobs need to be designed or redesign to produce these outcomes. Robert B.Burns
“Psychology for Effective Managers”(Business & Professional Publishing, 1997)
JOB DESIGN
Job EnrichmentMaking jobs meaningful,
interesting, and challenging
Socio-technical ApproachMaking teams responsible
for the job; balancing technical aspects of the job
Goal SettingBuilding goals, feedbackand incentives into the
structure of the job
Job EngineeringJob efficiency;time and
motion analysis,person-machine interfaces
Job EnlargementAdding more tasks to
the job for variety
Job RotationDoing different jobs
for variety
Links Between
JOB ENRICHMENT AND MOTIVATION
Robert B.Burns“Psychology for Effective Managers”
(Business & Professional Publishing, 1997)
Core Job Dimensions
Critical Psychological State
Personal & Work Outcomes
•Skill Variety•Task Identity•Task Significance
•Experienced meaningfulness of work
•High internal work motivation
•Autonomy •Experienced responsibility for outcomes of work
•High quality work performance•High satisfaction with work
•Feedback •Knowledge of the actual results of work activities
•Low absenteeism and turnover
REWARD vs. PERFORMANCE
Reward can improve performance when:• The employee values the reward
• The employee believes that extra effort will result in the desired performance level
• The employee trusts that the manager can deliver the reward
• The employee has the ability to achieve the performance that has been requested
• The employee believes that the performance is part of the job
• The employee perceives the reward as being fair for the effort needed Ken Matejka
“Why This Horse Won’t Drink”(AMACOM, 1991)
EXTRINSIC REWARDS That Motivate
• Employees must perceive the rewards as valuable
• The reward must be tied clearly to performance
• There must be objective criteria for evaluating performance
• Information about the allocation of rewards should be shared openly.
Cynthia Berryman-Fink“The Manager’s Desk Reference”
(AMACOM, 1989)
Guidelines for
SUCCESSFUL RECOGNITION & REWARD
1. Emphasize success rather than failure2. Deliver recognition & reward in an open and publicized
way3. Deliver recognition in a personal and honest manner4. Tailor your recognition & reward to the unique needs of the
people involved 5. Timing is crucial. Reward contribution close to the time an
achievement is realized6. Strive for a clear, unambiguous and well-communicated
connection between accomplishments and rewards7. Recognize reward. Recognize people who reward others for
doing what is best for the company. Bob Nelson“1001 Ways to Reward Employees”
(Workman Publishing, 1994)
RECOGNITION & REWARDS
• Praise• Public Recognition• Job Security• Money• Fringe Benefits• Employee Development Programs• Involvement in Decision Making• More Leisure Time• Opportunity for Achievement and
Advancement• Greater Freedom at Work• Feedback Itself is a Reward
Mark Karlins“The Human Use of Resources”
Job Worthwhile;challenging;contributes to organization
Work Conditions Safe;humane
Pay and Benefits Adequate; decent
Job Security Reasonable assurance that job will continue
Supervision Positive,supportive,competent treatment
Feedback Contributions recognized and appreciated
Growth Opportunities
Chances to develop work skills; increasing responsibilities
Advancement Opportunities
Chances for promotion based on merit performance;access to training;visibility to management
Social Climate Positive,stable,humane values and human interactions in the workplace
Justice managers treat everyone fairly and reasonably;no racist,sexist,or classiest treatment
Karl Albrecht “Organization Development” (Prentice Hall, 1983)
DESIRED CONDITIONDESIRED CONDITIONFACTORSFACTORS
DEMOTIVATORS• Office politics
• Unclear expectations
• Unnecessary rules
• Poorly designed work processes
• Unproductive meetings
• Lack of follow-up
• Constant change
• Internal competition
• Dishonesty
• Hypocrisy
• Withholding information
• Discouraging response
• Criticism
• Underutilization
• Tolerating poor performance
• Being taken for granted
• Over control
• Unfairness
• Being forced to do poor quality work
Dean R.Spitzer“Super Motivation”
(AMACOM Books, 1995)
DEMOTIVATORS