Theories of Emotion & Motivation Emotion zEmotion ya response of the whole organism xphysiological...

Theories of Emotion& Motivation

EmotionEmotion

a response of the whole organismphysiological arousal

expressive behaviors

conscious experience

Theories of Emotion

Does your heart pound because you are afraid... or are you afraid because you feel your heart pounding?

James-Lange Theory of EmotionExperience of emotion is awareness of

physiological responses to emotion-arousing stimuli

Fear(emotion)

Poundingheart

(arousal)

Sight of oncoming

car(perception of

stimulus)

Cannon-BardTheory of Emotion

Emotion-arousing stimuli simultaneously trigger: physiological

responses subjective

experience of emotion

Sight of oncoming

car(perception of

stimulus)

Poundingheart

(arousal)

Fear(emotion)

Schachter’s Two Factor Theory of Emotion

To experience emotion one must: be physically

aroused cognitively

label the arousal

Cognitivelabel

“I’m afraid”

Fear(emotion)

Sight of oncoming

car(perception of

stimulus)

Poundingheart

(arousal)

Cognition and EmotionThe brain’s shortcut for emotions

Two Routes to Emotion

Appraisal

Event

Emotionalresponse

Physiologicalactivation

Expressivebehavior

Subjectiveexperience

Two Dimensions of Emotion

Positivevalence

Negativevalence

Higharousal

Lowarousal

pleasantrelaxation joy

sadnessfear

anger

Emotional ArousalAutonomic nervous system controls

physiological arousal

Sympatheticdivision (arousing)

Pupils dilate

Decreases

Perspires

Increases

Accelerates

Inhibits

Secrete stresshormones

Parasympatheticdivision (calming)

Pupils contract

Increases

Dries

Decreases

Slows

Activates

Decreasessecretion of

stress hormones

EYES

SALIVATION

SKIN

RESPIRATION

HEART

DIGESTION

ADRENALGLANDS

Arousal and Performance

Performance peaks at lower levels of arousal for difficult tasks, and at higher levels for easy or well-learned tasks

Performancelevel

Low

Arousal

High

Difficult tasks Easy tasks

Emotion-Lie Detectors

Polygraph machine commonly used in

attempts to detect lies measures several of the

physiological responses accompanying emotionperspirationheart rateblood pressurebreathing changes

Emotion- A Polygraph Examination

Emotion- Lie Detectors

Control Question Up to age 18, did you ever

physically harm anyone?Relevant Question

Did the deceased threaten to harm you in any way?

Relevant > Control --> Lie


Control question

Relevantquestion

Control question

Relevantquestion(a) (b)

Respiration

Perspiration

Heart rate


50 Innocents50 Thieves

1/3 of innocent declared guilty

1/4 of guilty declared innocent (from Kleinmuntz & Szucko, 1984)

Percentage

Innocentpeople

Guiltypeople

80

70

60

50

40

30

20

10

0

Judged innocent by polygraphJudged guilty by polygraph


Is 70% accuracy good? Assume 5% of 1000 employees actually

guiltytest all employees285 will be wrongly accused

What about 95% accuracy? Assume 1 in 1000 employees actually

guiltytest all employees (including 999

innocents)50 wrongly declared guilty1 of 51 testing positive are guilty (2%)

Expressing EmotionGender and expressiveness

Men Women

Sad Happy ScaryFilm Type

16

14

12

10

8

6

4

2

0

Numberof

expressions

Expressing Emotion

Smiles can show different emotions:

A) Mask angerB) Overly politeC) Soften

criticismD) Reluctant

compliance

Expressing Emotion

Culturally universal expressions

Experiencing Emotion

The Amygdala-a neural key to fear learning


Catharsis emotional release catharsis hypothesis

“releasing” aggressive energy (through action or fantasy) relieves aggressive urges

Feel-good, do-good phenomenon people’s tendency to be helpful

when already in a good mood


Subjective Well-Being self-perceived happiness or satisfaction with life

used along with measures of objective well-beingphysical and economic indicators to evaluate people’s quality of life


Are today’s collegians materialistic?

Percentagerating goal

as veryimportant

oressential

90

80

70

60

50

40

30

20

10

01966 ‘68 ‘70 ‘72 ‘74 ‘76 ‘78 ‘80 ‘82 ‘84 ‘86 ‘88 ‘90 ‘92 ‘94 ‘96

Year

Developing a meaningful life philosophy

Being very well-off financially


Does money buy happiness?

Year

100%

90%

80%

70%

60%

50%

40%

30%

20%

10%

0%

Averageper-person

after-tax incomein 1995 dollars

Percentagedescribingthemselves asvery happy

$20,000$19,000$18,000$17,000$16,000$15,000$14,000$13,000$12,000$11,000$10,000

$9,000$8,000$7,000$6,000$5,000$4,000

1930 1940 1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 2000

Percentage very happy

Personal income

Experiencing EmotionValues and life satisfaction

MoneyLove

1.00 2.00 3.00 4.00 5.00 6.00 7.00Life satisfaction

0.6

0.4

0.2

0.0

-0.2

-0.4

Importancescores


Adaptation-Level Phenomenon tendency to form judgments relative to

a “neutral” level brightness of lights volume of sound level of income

defined by our prior experienceRelative Deprivation

perception that one is worse off relative to those with whom one compares oneself

Opponent-Process Theory of Emotion

Strong

Neutral

StrongFirst experience

(a)

Strong

Neutral

StrongAfter repeated experiences

(b)

Happiness is...Researchers Have Found ThatHappy People Tend to

Have high self-esteem (in individualistic countries)

Be optimistic, outgoing, and agreeable

Have close friendships or a satisfyingmarriage

Have work and leisure that engagetheir skills

Have a meaningful religious faith

Sleep well and exercise

However, Happiness Seems Not MuchRelated to Other Factors, Such as

Age

Gender (women are more often depressed, but also more often joyful)

Education levels

Parenthood (having children or not)

Physical attractiveness

Motivation

Motivation a need or desire that energizes

and directs behaviorInstinct

complex behavior that is rigidly patterned throughout a species and is unlearned

MotivationDrive-Reduction Theory

the idea that a physiological need creates an aroused tension state (a drive) that motivates an organism to satisfy the need

Drive-reducingbehaviors

(eating, drinking)

Need(e.g., for

food, water)

Drive(hunger, thirst)

Motivation

Homeostasis tendency to maintain a balanced or

constant internal state regulation of any aspect of body

chemistry around a particular levelIncentive

a positive or negative environmental stimulus that motivates behavior

Maslow’s Hierarchy of

Needs

begins at the base with physiological needs that must first be satisfied

then higher-level safety needs become active

then psychological needs become active

Self-actualization needsNeed to live up to one’s

fullest and unique potential

Esteem needsNeed for self-esteem,

achievement, competence,and independence; need for

recognition and respect from others

Safety needsNeed to feel that the world is organized and

predictable; need to feel safe, secure, and stable

Belongingness and love needsNeed to love and be loved, to belong

and be accepted; need to avoid loneliness and alienation

Physiological needsNeed to satisfy hunger and thirst

Motivation-Hunger

Stomach contractions accompany our feelings of hunger

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

Time in minutes

Subject swallowsballoon, which

measures stomachcontraction

Subject presseskey each timewhen hungry

Stomach contractions

Hunger pangs

Motivation-Hunger

Glucose the form of sugar that

circulates in the blood provides the major source of

energy for body tissues when its level is low, we feel

hunger

Motivation-Hunger

Set Point the point at which an individual’s

“weight thermostat” is supposedly set

when the body falls below this weight, an increase in hunger and a lowered metabolic rate may act to restore the lost weight

Basal Metabolic Rate body’s base rate of energy

expenditure

Motivation-Hunger

The hypothalamus controls eating and other body maintenance functions

Eating Disorders

Anorexia Nervosa when a normal-weight person diets and

becomes significantly (>15%) underweight, yet, still feeling fat, continues to starve

usually an adolescent femaleBulimia Nervosa

disorder characterized by episodes of overeating, usually of highly caloric foods, followed by vomiting, laxative use, fasting or excessive exercise

Eating Disorders- Anorexia Nervosa

when a person is less than 85% of their normal body weight

95% of sufferers are female most are between the ages of 18-3030% of persons diagnosed with

anorexia nervosa die

Women’s Body Images

Thinnest Women’sideal

What womenbelieved men

preferred

What menactually

preferred

Women’scurrent

body image

Fattest

Sexual Motivation

Sex is a physiologically based motive, like hunger, but it is more affected by learning and values

Sexual Motivation

Sexual Response Cyclethe four stages of sexual responding

described by Masters and Johnson excitementplateauorgasmresolution

Refractory Periodresting period after orgasm, during

which a man cannot achieve another orgasm

The Sexual Response Cycle

Males Females

Orgasm

Plateau

ExcitementResolution

Resolutionwith orgasm

Resolutionwithoutorgasm

Sexual Motivation

Estrogen a sex hormone,

secreted in greater amounts by females than by males

Forces Affecting Sexual Motivation

Physiologicalreadiness

Imaginativestimuli

Externalstimuli

Sexual motivation

Sexual Disorders

Problems that consistently impair sexual arousal or functioning In Men

premature ejaculation• ejaculation before they or their

partners wishimpotence

• inability to have or maintain erection

In Womenorgasmic disorder

• infrequent or absent orgasms

Sexual MotivationSame drives, different attitudes

Iceland Germany Great Canada Mexico United India Taiwan Singapore Britan States

Country

100%

90

80

70

60

50

40

30

20

10

0

Percentanswering

wrong

“Do you think it is, or is not, wrong for a couple to have a baby if they are not married?”

Sexual MotivationBirths to unwed parents

United States

Canada

Japan

Britain

1960 1970 1980 1990 2000Year

40%

35

30

25

20

15

10

5

0

Percentageof births

to unwedmothers

Sexual Motivation

Sexual Orientation an enduring sexual attraction

toward members of either one’s own gender (homosexual orientation) or the other gender (heterosexual orientation)

Sexual MotivationChanging attitudes

Extramarital sex is “always wrong”

Homosexual sex is “always wrong”

1987 1998Year

100%

80

60

40

20

0

Source: National Opinion Research Center(University of Chicago) General Social Survey

Motivation

Achievement Motivation a desire for significant

accomplishmentfor mastery of things, people, or

ideasfor attaining a high standard

McClelland and Atkinson believed fantasies would reflect achievement concerns

Motivation

Intrinsic Motivation desire to perform a behavior for its

own sake or to be effectiveExtrinsic Motivation

desire to perform a behavior due to promised rewards or threats of punishment

Rewards Affect Motivation

Mom: “I’ll give you $5 for every A.’’Controlling reward

Child: “As long as she pays, I’ll study.’’Extrinsic motivation

Mom: “Your grades were great! Let’s celebrate by going out for dinner.’’Informative reward

Child: “I love doing well.’’Intrinsic motivation

Motivation

Industrial/Organizational (I/O) Psychology sub-field of psychology that studies and

advises on workplace behavior I/O Psychologists

help organizations select and train employees, boost morale and productivity, and design products and assess responses to them

Motivation

Task Leadership goal-oriented leadership that sets

standards, organizes work, and focuses attention on goals

Social Leadership group-oriented leadership that

builds teamwork, mediates conflict, and offers support

Motivation

Theory X assumes that workers are basically lazy,

error-prone, and extrinsically motivated by money

should be directed from aboveTheory Y

assumes that, given challenge and freedom, workers are motivated to achieve self-esteem and to demonstrate their competence and creativity

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