Microcontroller based solar charger

Microcontroller Based Solar Charger

Electronics and Communication Engineering Department SNGIST

Microcontroller Based Solar ChargerA PROJECT REPORT

Submitted

In partial fulfillment of the requirements for the award of the degree of

BACHELOR OF TECHNOLOGY

in

ELECTRONICS AND COMMUNICATION ENGINEERING

of

Mahathma Gandhi University ,Kottayam

By

ATHIRA J - 11021431ASHLIN DAVID - 11021430ANVIN PS - 11021429ATHULDEEP N - 11021432

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRONICS & COMMUNICATION ENGINEERING

SREE NARAYANA GURU INSTITUTE OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY

MANJALY, MANNAM P.O, NORTH PARAVUR -683520.



DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRONICS & COMMUNICATION ENGINEERING

SREE NARAYANA GURU INSTITUTE OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY

MANJALY, MANNAM P.O, NORTH PARAVUR -683520.

CERTIFICATE

Certified that the mini project report entitled “Microcontroller

Based SolarCharger” is submitted by ATHIRAJ–Reg No:11021431,

ASHLIN DAVID–Reg No:11021430, ANVIN PS–Reg No:11021429 &

ATHULDEEP.N–Reg No:11021432 is the bonafide report of the mini project

done by her / him under the guidance of us, in partial fulfillment for the award

of Bachelor of Technology in Electronics and Communication Engineering of

M G University during the year 2014.

Submitted for the practical examination conducted on…………………

Guide HOD

Internal Examiner External Examiner

Date: Date:

iiiMicrocontroller Based Solar Charger


ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

I am grateful to the Management of SreeNarayana Guru Institute of Science and

Technology for providing me the facilities for the completion of my task. Firstly I extend my

gratitude to Dr K.S. Divakaran Nair, Director of SreeNarayana Guru Institute of Science

and Technology for his continuous support.

It is my privilege to thank Prof. V.Sureshkumar, Dean of Engineering, SreeNarayana

Guru Institute of Science and Technology for his blessings and encouragement.

I would also like to thank Mr. Rajan N, Head of the Department of Electronics and

Communication Engineering for his inspiration and guidance. May I express my heartfelt

thanks to my guide Mr. Sumesh A.S, for his / her valuable guidance and advice related to

this work.

I thank all the faculty members of Department of Electronics and Communication

Engineering for all the help extended to me and for motivating me. I also extend my gratitude

to technical staff in the Lab, for all their support and help.

I, on this occasion, remember the valuable support and prayers offered by my family

members and friends which were indispensable for the successful.

ivMicrocontroller Based Solar Charger


ABSTRACT

As the sources of conventional energy deplete day by day, resorting to alternative sources of

energy like solar and wind energy has become need of the hour.

Solar-powered lighting systems are already available in rural as well as urban areas. These

include solar lanterns, solar home lighting systems, solar streetlights, solar garden lights and

solar power packs. All of them consist of four components: solar photovoltaic module,

rechargeable battery, solar charge controller and load.

In the solar-powered lighting system, the solar charge controller plays an important role as

the system’s overall success depends mainly on it. It is considered as an indispensable link

between the solar panel, battery and load.

The microcontroller-based solar charge controller described here has the following features:

1. Automatic dusk-to-dawn operation of the load

2. Built-in digital voltmeter (0V-20V range)

3. Overcharge protection

4. System status display on LCD

5. Low current consumption

6. Highly efficient design based on microcontroller

vMicrocontroller Based Solar Charger


CONTENTS

SL NO. TOPIC NAME PAGE NO.

1 INTRODUCTION 9

2 BLOCK DIAGRAM 11

2.1 BLOCK DIAGRAM EXPLANATION 12

3 MICRO CONTROLLER 13

3.1 PIC 16F877A FEATURES 14

3.2 BLOCK DIAGRAM OF PIC MICRO CONTROLLER 16

3.3 PINOUT DIAGRAM OF PIC MICRO CONTROLLER 17

4 LCD DISPLAY 25

4.1 PIN DESCRIPTION 25

5 ELECTRO MECHANICAL RELAYS 27

6 SOLAR PANELS 30

7 RECHARGEABLE BATTERY 34

7.1 CHARGING&DISCHARGING 34

8 CIRCUIT DIAGRAM 36

8.1 CIRCUIT DIAGRAM EXPLANATION 37

9 PROGRAM CODING 38

10 PCB FABRICATION AND SOLDERING 41

11 SOFTWARES USED 47

12 APPENDICES 50

13 ADVANTAGES 72

14 CONCLUSION 73

15 REFERENCE 74

viMicrocontroller Based Solar Charger


LIST OF TABLES

TABLENO:

TABLE NAME PAGENO:

1 Pin out table of PIC 16F877A. 18

2 Ports in PIC 16F877A. 19

3 Specifications of the PIC 16F87X Series. 21

4 Register bank select. 22

5 Pin description table of LCD module. 26

viiMicrocontroller Based Solar Charger


LIST OF FIGURES

FIGNO:

FIGURE NAME PAGENO:

1 BLOCK DIAGRAM 11

2 BLOCKDIAGRAMOF PICMICROCONTROLLER 16

3 PINOUT DIAGRAM OF PIC 16F877 17

4 16 x 2 LCD PIN DIAGRAM 26

5 RELAY SCHEMATIC DIAGRAM 28

6 WORKING OF RELAY CIRCUIT 29

7 STRUTURE OF SOLAR CELL 33

8 SOLAR PANEL 33

9 DIAGRAM OF THE CHARGING OF A SECON DARYCELL BATTERY 34

10 LEAD ACID BATTERY 35

11 CIRCUIT DIAGRAM 36

12 PCB LAYOUT 46

13 PROTEUS INTERFACE WINDOW 48

viiiMicrocontroller Based Solar Charger


LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS

1. ROM - Read Only Memory

2. RAM - Random Access Memory

3. PIC - Peripheral Interface Controller

4. IC - Integrated Circuits

5. LCD - Liquid Crystal Display

6. PC - Program Counter

7. IEEE - Institute of Electronics & Electrical Engineers

8. ADC - Analog to Digital Converter

9. CPU - Central Processing Unit

10.I/O - Input/output

11.CMOS - Complementary MOSFET

12.N/C-Normally-closed

13.N/O-Normally-open

14.CMOS - Complementary MOSFET

15.EPROM- Erasable programmable read only memory

16.USART- Universal asynchronous receiver/transmitter


9


CHAPTER: 1

INTRODUCTION

As the sources of conventional energy deplete day by day, resorting to alternative sources of energy like

solar and wind energy has become need of the hour.

Solar-powered lighting systems are already available in rural as well as urban areas. These include solar

lanterns, solar home lighting systems, solar streetlights, solar garden lights and solar power packs. All of

them consist of four components: solar photovoltaic module, rechargeable battery, solar charge controller

and load.

In the solar-powered lighting system, the solar charge controller plays an important role as the system’s

overall success depends mainly on it. It is considered as an indispensable link between the solar panel,

battery and load.

The microcontroller-based solar charge controller described here has the following features:

1. Built-in digital voltmeter (0V-20V range)

2. Overcharge protection

3. System status display on LCD

4. Low current consumption

5. Highly efficient design based on microcontroller

LCD module: The system status and battery voltage are displayed on an LCD based on HD44780 controller.

The backlight feature of the LCD makes it readable even in low light conditions. The LCD is used here in 4-

bit mode to save the microcontroller’s port pins. Usually the 8-bitmode of interfacing with a microcontroller

requires eleven pins, but in 4-bit mode the LCD can be interfaced to the microcontroller using only

seven pins.


10


Solar panel: The solar panel used here is meant to charge a 12V battery and the wattage can range from 3 to

40 watts. The peak unloaded voltage output of the solar panel will be around 19 volts. Higher-wattage

panels can be used with some modifications to the controller unit.

Rechargeable battery: The solar energy is converted into electrical energy and stored in a 12V lead-acid

battery. The ampere-hour capacity ranges from 5 Ah to 100 Ah.

Charge control: Relay RL1 connects the solar panel to the battery through diode D1. Under normal

conditions, it allows the charging current from the panel to flow into the battery. When the battery is at full

charge (12.0V), the charging current becomes ‘pulsed.’ To keep the overall current consumption of the solar

controller low, normally-closed (N/C) contacts of the relay are used and the relay is normally in de-

energised state.

Load control: One terminal of the load is connected to the battery through a relay. This relay will control

the load providing. That is if the resistance of load is below 3ohms(high current) then the relay get energised

and cut off the load.


11


CHAPTER : 2

BLOCK DIAGRAM

Figure1:block diagram.


12


2.1) BLOCK DIAGRAM EXPLANATION

Here we are using PIC16F877A as the major component. Which will control all actions and provide basic

protection based on the program.

We have a 12V rechargeable battery and a 12V solar panel ,on day time the solar panel will provide 12V

,which will charge the battery and provide 12V constant load.The charging is controlled by the Relay 1.If

the battery is full then the relay get energized. So Relay 1 will provide over charge protection.

The relay switch RL2 is used to protect the battery from over load. When an overload is occurred, the relay

switch RL2 is energised and it disconnects load from battery. The relay will be de-energised when the

overload reset switch is pressed.

The voltage at the battery is continuously displayed on the LCD using the built-in ADC module in the PIC

16F877A. The voltage is divided by 3 by using 3 equal value resistors and 1/3 voltage is send to ADC input.


13


CHAPTER : 3

MICRO CONTROLLER

A microcontroller is a computer-on-a-chip, or, preferably, a single-chip computer. Micro

suggests that the device is small, and controller tells you that the device might be used to control

objects, processes, or events. Another term to describe a microcontroller is embedded controller,

because the microcontroller and its support circuits are often built into, or embedded in, the devices

they control.

Microcontrollers are found in all kinds of things these days. Any device that measures, stores,

controls, calculates, or displays information is a candidate for putting a microcontroller inside. The

largest single use for microcontrollers is in automobiles—just about every car manufactured today

includes at least one microcontroller for engine control, and often more to control additional systems in

the car. In desktop computers, you can find microcontrollers inside keyboards, modems, printers, and

other peripherals. In test equipment, microcontrollers make it easy to add features such as the ability to

store measurements, to create and store user routines, and to display messages and waveforms.

Consumer products that use microcontrollers include cameras, video recorders, compact-disk players,

and ovens. And these are just a few examples.

A micro controller is similar to the microprocessor inside a personal computer. Examples of

microprocessors include Intel’s 8086, Motorola’s 68000, and Zilog’s Z80, ATMEL 89c51. These

microprocessors and microcontrollers contain a central processing unit, or CPU. The CPU executes

instructions that perform the basic logic, math, and data-moving functions of a computer. To make a

complete computer, a microprocessor requires memory for storing data and programs, and input/output

(I/O) interfaces for connecting external devices like keyboards and displays.

In contrast, a micro controller is a single-chip computer because it contains memory and

I/O interfaces in addition to the CPU. Because the amount of memory and interfaces that can fit on a

single chip is limited, microcontrollers tend to be used in smaller systems that require little more than

the microcontroller and a few support components.


14


PIC micro controllers are low-cost computers-in-a-chip; they allow electronics designers

and hobbyists add intelligence and functions that mimic big computers for almost any electronic

product or project.

The programming of the system is done using a PIC micro controller 16F877. This powerful (200

nanosecond instruction execution) yet easy-to-program (only 35 single word instructions) CMOS

FLASH-based 8-bit micro controller packs Microchip's powerful PIC® architecture into a 40-pin

package and is upwards compatible with the PIC16C5X, PIC12CXXX and PIC16C7X devices. It is

has five ports. I.e. port A, port B, port C, port D, port E. The PIC 16F877 has flash memory of 8K and

Data memory of 368 bytes Data EEPROM of 256 bytes.The micro-controller used for our project

isMicrochip’s PIC16F877A.

3.1)PIC 16F877A- FEATURES

High Performance RISC CPU:

• High performance RISC CPU

• Only 35 single word instructions to learn

• All single cycle instructions except for program branches which are two-cycle

• Operating speed: DC - 20 MHz clock input

DC - 200 ns instruction cycle

• Up to 8K x 14 words of FLASH Program Memory,

Up to 368 x 8 bytes of Data Memory (RAM)

• Interrupt capability (up to 12 sources)

• Eight level deep hardware stack

• Direct, Indirect and Relative Addressing modes

• Processor read access to program memory.

Special Microcontroller Features:

• Power-on Reset (POR)

• Power-up Timer (PWRT) and


15


Oscillator Start-up Timer (OST)

• Watchdog Timer (WDT) with its own on-chip RC

oscillator for reliable operation

• Programmable code protection

• Power saving SLEEP mode

Selectable oscillator options

Peripheral Features:

• Timer0: 8-bit timer/counter with 8-bit prescaler

• Timer1: 16-bit timer/counter with prescaler,

can be incremented during SLEEP via external

crystal/clock

• Timer2: 8-bit timer/counter with 8-bit period

register, prescaler and postscaler

• Two Capture, Compare, PWM modules

- Capture is 16-bit, max. resolution is 12.5 ns

- Compare is 16-bit, max. resolution is 200 ns

- PWM max. resolution is 10-bit

• 8-bit, up to 8-channel Analog-to-Digital converter

• Synchronous Serial Port (SSP) with SPI (Master

mode) and I2C (Slave)

• Universal Synchronous Asynchronous Receiver

Transmitter (USART/SCI)

• Parallel Slave Port (PSP), 8-bits wide with

external RD, WR and CS controls (40/44-pin only)

• Brown-out detection circuitry for

Brown-out Reset (BOR)


16


WHY PIC IS USED?

Speed

High Performance RISC CPU

Instruction Set Simplicity

Integration Of Operation Features

Programmable Timer Options

Interrupt Control

EPROM /OTP/ROM options

Inbuilt Modules

Low Power Consumption

Wide Operation Voltage Range :2.5to 6.0 Volt

Programmable Code Protection Mode

Power Saving Sleep Mode

3.2)BlockDiagramof PICMicroController

Figure2: BLOCKDIAGRAMOF PICMICROCONTROLLER


17


3.3)PINOUT DIAGRAM OF PIC 16F877

Figure3:PINOUT DIAGRAM OF PIC 16F877


18


Tbl1:Pin out table of PIC 16F877A

PIN NAME DIPPIN #

PLCCPIN #

I/O/O

TYPE

BUFFERTYPE

DESCRIP-TION

QFP

Osc/clkin

Osc/clkout

13

14

14

15

1

0

St/cmos

-

Osc.crystali/p. osc.crystalo/p

30

31

MCLR/Vpp 1 2 i/p St Master cleari/p or programo/p.

18

RA0/AN0

RA1/AN1

RA2/AN2/VREF-

RA3/AN3/VREF+

RA4/TOCK1

RA5/SS/AN4

2

3

4

5

6

7

3

4

5

6

7

8

I/O

I/O

I/O

I/O

I/O

I/O

TTL

TTL

TTL

TTL

SL

TTL

Port A is bidirectional i/p.

19

20

21

22

23

24RB0/INT

RB1

RB2

RB3/PGM

RB4

RB5

RB6/PGC

RB7/PGD

33

34

35

36

37

38

39

40

36

37

38

39

41

42

43

44

I/O

I/O

I/O

I/O

I/O

I/O

I/O

I/O

TTL/ST1

TTL

TTL

TTL

TTL

TTL

TTL/ST2

TTL/ST2

Port B is a bidirectional i/oport. Port bcan be s/wpgmed forpull up on

8

9

10

11

14

15

16

17


19


Input/output ports

PIC16F877 has 5 basic input/output ports. They are usually denoted by PORT A (R A), PORT B (RB), PORT C

(RC), PORT D (RD), and PORT E (RE). These ports are used for input/ output interfacing. In this controller,

“PORT A” is only 6 bits wide (RA-0 to RA-7), ”PORT B” , “PORT C”,”PORT D” are only 8 bits wide (RB-0 to

RB-7,RC-0 to RC-7,RD-0 to RD-7), ”PORT E” has only 3 bit wide (RE-0 to RE-7).

PORT-A RA-0 to RA-5 6 bit wide

PORT-B RB-0 to RB-7 8 bit wide

PORT-C RC-0 to RC-7 8 bit wide

PORT-D RD-0 to RD-7 8 bit wide

PORT-E RE-0 to RE-2 3 bit wid

Tbl2 :Ports in PIC 16F877A

All these ports are bi-directional. The direction of the port is controlled by using TRIS(X) registers (TRIS A used

to set the direction of PORT-A, TRIS B used to set the direction for PORT-B, etc.). Setting a TRIS(X) bit ‘1’

will set the corresponding PORT(X) bit as input. Clearing a TRIS(X) bit ‘0’ will set the corresponding PORT(X)

bit as output.

(If we want to set PORT A as an input, just set TRIS(A) bit to logical ‘1’ and want to set PORT B as an output,

just set the PORT B bits to logical ‘0’.)

Other Pins:

o Analog input port (AN0 TO AN7) : these ports are used for interfacing analog inputs.

o TX and RX: These are the USART transmission and reception ports.

o SCK: these pins are used for giving synchronous serial clock input.

o SCL: these pins act as an output for both SPI and I2C modes.

o DT: these are synchronous data terminals.

o CK: synchronous clock input.

o SD0: SPI data output (SPI Mode).

o SD1: SPI Data input (SPI mode).


20


o SDA: data input/output in I2C Mode.

o CCP1 and CCP2: these are capture/compare/PWM modules.

o OSC1: oscillator input/external clock.

o OSC2: oscillator output/clock out.

o MCLR: master clear pin (Active low reset).

o Vpp: programming voltage input.

o THV: High voltage test mode controlling.

o Vref (+/-): reference voltage.

o SS: Slave select for the synchronous serial port.

o T0CK1: clock input to TIMER 0.

o T1OSO: Timer 1 oscillator output.

o T1OS1: Timer 1 oscillator input.

o T1CK1: clock input to Timer 1.

o PGD: Serial programming data.

o PGC: serial programming clock.

o PGM: Low Voltage Programming input.

o INT: external interrupt.

o RD: Read control for parallel slave port.

o CS: Select control for parallel slave.

o PSP0 to PSP7: Parallel slave port.

o VDD: positive supply for logic and input pins.

VSS: Ground reference for logic and input/output pins.


21


Tbl 4:specifications of the PIC 16F87X Series


22


DATA MEMORY &PROGRAM MEMORY

The PIC 16F87x devices have a 13-bit program counter, Capable of addressing

an 8K x 14 program memory space. The PIC 16F877 has 8Kx 14 words of FLASH

program memory. The RESET Vector is at 0000h and the interrupt vector is at 0004h.

Data memory is partition in to multiple banks which contain the general

purpose registers and special function registers. Bits RP1(status <6>) and

RP0(status<5>) are the banks bits.

Tbl3: Register bank select

Each bank extends up to 7Fh (128bits). The lower location of each banks are

Reserved for the special function registers. About the special function registers are

general purpose registers, implemented as the static RAM. All implemented banks

contain special function registers .Some frequently used special function register from 1

bank may be mirrored in another bank for code reduction and quicker access.

RP1:RP0BANK

00 001 110 211 3


23


ANALOG TO DIGITAL CONVERTER MODULE (ADC)

The analog to digital converter module has 8 inputs for the 40 pin PIC .The A/D

module has 4 register :

A/D results high register.

A/D results low register

A/D control register 0.

A/D control register 1.

The A/D conversion of the analog input signals in a corresponding 10-bit digital

number.

ADCON0 REGISTER.

R/W-0 R/W-0 R/W-0 R/W-0 R/W-0 R/W-0 U-0 R/W-0

ADCS1

ADCS0

CHS2

CHS1

CHS0

GO/DONE ------ ADCON

ADCON1 REGISTER

U-0 U-0 R/W-0 U-0 R/W-0 R/W-0 R/W-0 R/W-0

ADF

M- - -

PCF

G3

PCF

G2

PCF

G1

PCF

G0


24


USART

This mode is usually used to communicate in 8-bit ASCII code. It has two pins

for transmittion and reception.Transmittion begins whenever data is written to SBUF.

USART is an acronym for universal synchronous asynchronous receiver and

transmitter.

Control Register Of Transmittion (Txsta)

Control Register Of Reception (Rxsta)

SPEN

Rx9

SREN

CREN

ADDEN

FERR

OERR

Rx9D

CSRC

TX9

TxEN SYNC-

BRGH TRMT Tx9D


25


CHAPTER: 4

LCD DISPLAY

A liquid-crystal display (LCD) is a flat panel display, electronic visual display, or

video display that uses the light modulating properties of liquid crystals. Liquid crystals

do not emit light directly. LCDs are available to display arbitrary images (as in a

general-purpose computer display) or fixed images which can be displayed or hidden,

such as preset words, digits, and 7-segment displays as in a digital clock. They use the

same basic technology, except that arbitrary images are made up of a large number of

small pixels, while other displays have larger elements.

A 16x2 LCD means it can display 16 characters per line and there are 2 such lines. In

this LCD each character is displayed in 5x7 pixel matrix. This LCD has two registers,

namely, Command and Data.The command register stores the command instructions

given to the LCD. A command is an instruction given to LCD to do a predefined task

like initializing it, clearing its screen, setting the cursor position, controlling display etc.

The data register stores the data to be displayed on the LCD. The data is the ASCII

value of the character to be displayed on the LCD.

4.1)PINDESCRIPTION

The most commonly used LCDs found in the market today are 1Line,2Line or4 Line LCDs which

have only1 controller and support at most of 80 characters, where as LCD s supporting more than 80

characters make use of 2HD44780 controllers.

Most LCD swith 1 controller has 14 Pins and LCDs with 2 controller has16 Pins (two pinsare

extrainbothforback-lightLEDconnections).Pindescriptionis showninthe tablebelow.


26


Figure: 4 :16 x 2 LCD Pin diagram

Tbl 4: Pin description table of LCD module

PinNo:

Function Name

1 Ground (0V) Ground

2 Supply voltage; 5V (4.7V – 5.3V) Vcc

3 Contrast adjustment; through a variable resistor VEE

4 Selects command register when low; and data register when high Register Select

5 Low to write to the register; High to read from the register Read/write

6 Sends data to data pins when a high to low pulse is given Enable

7

8-bit data pins

DB0

8 DB1

9 DB2

10 DB3

11 DB4

12 DB5

13 DB6

14 DB7

15 Backlight VCC (5V) Led+

16 Backlight Ground (0V) Led-


27


CHAPTER: 5

ELECTRO MECHANICAL RELAYS

A relay is a switch worked by an electromagnet. It is useful if we want a small current in one

circuit to control another circuit containing a device such as a lamp or electric motor which requires a

large current, or if we wish several different switch contacts to be operated simultaneously.

When the controlling current flows through the coil, the soft iron core is magnetized and

attracts the L-shaped soft iron armature. This rocks on its pivot and opens, closes or changes over, the

electrical contacts in the circuit being controlled it closes the contacts.

The current needed to operate a relay is called the pull-in current and the dropout current in

the coil when the relay just stops working. If the coil resistance R of a relay is 185 and its

operating voltage V is 12V, the pull-in current I is given by:

I = V/R = 12/185 = 65 mA

Relays are electromagnetic switches, which provides contact between two mechanical elements.

Relays have a coil which works on 12V dc power supply and provides DPDT action as an output.

In general relays provide potential free contacts which can be used for universal function like

DC, AC voltage switching and to control bigger electrical switch gears.

The electromechanical relays are based on the comparison between operating torque/force

and restraining torque/force. The VA burden of such relays are high.

The characteristics of these relays have some limitations. Each relay can perform only one

protective function. Such relays are used for simple and less costly protection purposes. For

important and costly equipment installation static relays are

preferred.


28


Figure: 5: Relay schematic diagram

Protective relaying is necessary for almost every electrical plant and no part of the power system

is left unprotected.

The choice of protection depends upon several aspects such as

type and rating of the protected equipment.

its importance.

location and cost.

probable abnormal conditions between generators and final

load points.

There are several electrical equipments and machines of various ratings. Each needs

certain adequate protection .The protective relaying senses the abnormal conditions in a part of the

power system and isolates that part from the healthy part of system.The relays used in this project are

compact, self-contained devices which respond to abnormal conditions (relays can distinguish normal

and abnormal conditions).The Relay driver Circuit Works as follows. A Relay is connected as

shown in the figure 5(a).


29


Figure 6: Working Of Relay Circuit

The output of the controller decides Relay operation. The Relay works only if the Positive and

the Ground is connected to the appropriate terminals of the relay coil. We control the relay by

controlling the ground signal given to the relay using a transistor. The operation is as follows.

When the output of the controller is High, then the transistor conducts, allowing the low potential to

reach one end of the relay, which results in switching of the relay form NC to NO.

When the output is Low, the transistor will not conduct. So ground is not applied to the relay Coil. So

the relay remain in NC position.

Using this Normally open (NO) and Normally Closed (NC) contacts we can switch any supply AC

or DC. The supply to the operated device should be given to the Common of the relay and the

output from the NO is given to the Device. So that

when the relay is switched on the device gets supply and works.


30


CHAPTER: 6

SOLAR PANEL

6.1 )PHOTO VOLTAIC CELLS (PV CELLS)

There are two basic types of solid silicon, amorphous (having no long range order) and crystalline

(where the atoms are arranged in an ordered three dimensional array). There are various other terms

for the crystalline structure of silicon; poly-crystalline, micro-crystalline, nano-crystalline etc, and

these refer to the size of the crystal "grains" which make up the solid. Solar cells can be, and are

made from each of these types of silicon, the most common being poly-crystalline.

Silicon is a semiconductor. This means that in solid silicon, there are certain bands of energies which

the electrons are allowed to have, and other energies between these bands which are forbidden. These

forbidden energies are called the "band gap". The allowed and orbidden bands of energy are

explained by the theory of quantum mechanics.

At room temperature, pure silicon is a poor electrical conductor. In quantum mechanics, this is

explained by the fact that the Fermi level lies in the forbidden band- gap. To make silicon a better

conductor, it is "doped" with very small amounts of atoms from either group 13 (III) or group 15 (V)

of the periodic table. These "dopant" atoms take the place of the silicon atoms in the crystal lattice, and

bond with their neighboring Si atoms in almost the same way as other Si atoms do. However, because

group 13 atoms have only 3 valence electrons, and group 15 atoms have 5 valence electrons, there is

either one too few, or one too many electrons to satisfy the four covalent bonds around each atom.

Since these extra electrons, or lack of electrons (known as "holes") are not involved in the covalent

bonds of the crystal lattice, they are free to move around within the solid. Silicon which is doped with

group 13 atoms (aluminum, gallium) is known as p-type silicon because the majority charge carriers

(holes) carry a positive charge, whilst silicon doped with group 15 atoms (phosphorus, arsenic) is

known as n-type silicon because the majority charge carriers (electrons) are negative. It should be

noted that both n-type and p-type silicon are electrically neutral,

i.e. they have the same numbers of positive and negative charges, it is just that in n-type silicon,

some of the negative charges are free to move around, while the converse is true for p-type silicon.


31


A solar cell is a large-area semiconductor p-n junction. To understand the workings of a p-n junction it

is convenient to imagine what happens when a piece of n-type silicon is brought into contact with a

piece of p-type silicon. In practice, however, the p-n junctions of solar cells are not made in this way,

but rather, usually, by diffusing an n- type dopant into one side of a p-type wafer.

If we imagine what happens when a piece of p-type silicon is placed in intimate contact with a

piece of n-type silicon, then what occurs is a diffusion of electrons from the region of high

electron concentration - the n-type side of the junction, into the region of low electron concentration

- p-type side of the junction. When the electrons diffuse across the p-n junction, they recombine

with holes on the p-type side. This diffusion of carriers does not happen indefinitely however,

because of the electric field which is created by the imbalance of charge immediately either side of

the junction which this diffusion creates. Electrons from donor atoms on the n-type side of the junction

are crossing into the p-type side, leaving behind the (extra) positively charged nuclei of the group 15

donor atoms, leaving an excess of positive charge on the n-type side of the junction. At the same

time, these electrons are filling in holes on the p-type side of the junction, becoming involved in

covalent bonds around the group 13 acceptor atoms, making an excess of negative charge on the p-

type side of the junction. This imbalance of charge across the p-n junction sets up an electric field

which opposes further diffusion of charge carriers across the junction.

This region where electrons have diffused across the junction is called the depletion region because it

no longer contains any mobile charge carriers. It is also known as the "space charge region". The

electric field which is set up across the p-n junction creates a diode, allowing current to flow in only

one direction across the junction. Electrons may pass from the n-type side into the p-type side, and

holes may pass from the p-type side to the n-type side. But since the sign of the charge on

electrons and holes is opposite, conventional current may only flow in one direction.

Because solar cells are semiconductor devices, they share many of the same processing and

manufacturing techniques as other semiconductor devices such as computer and memory chips.

However, the stringent requirements for cleanliness and quality control of semiconductor fabrication

are a little more relaxed for solar cells. Most large-scale commercial solar cell factories today make

screen printed poly- crystalline silicon solar cells. Single crystalline wafers which are used in the

semiconductor industry can be made in to excellent high efficiency solar cells, but they are

generally considered to be too expensive for large-scale mass production. Poly-crystalline silicon


32


wafers are made by wire-sawing block-cast silicon ingots into very thin (250 to 350 micrometer) slices

or wafers

The wafers are usually lightly p-type doped. To make a solar cell from the wafer, an n-type diffusion

is performed on the front side of the wafer, forming a p-n junction a few hundred nanometres below

the surface. Antireflection coatings, which increase the amount of light coupled into the solar cell,

are typically applied next. Over the past decade, silicon nitride has gradually replaced

titanium dioxide as the antireflection coating of choice because of its excellent surface passivation

qualities (i.e., it prevents carrier recombination at the surface of the solar cell). It is typically applied in

a layer several hundred nanometers thick using plasma-enhanced chemical vapor deposition

(PECVD). The wafer is then metallised, whereby a full area metal contact is made on the back

surface, and a grid-like metal contact made up of fine "fingers" and larger "busbars" is screen-printed

onto the front surface using a silver paste. The rear contact is also formed by screen-printing a metal

paste, typically aluminum. Usually this contact covers the entire rear side of the cell, though in some

cell designs it is printed in a grid pattern. The metal electrodes will then require some kind of heat

treatment or "sintering" to make Ohmic contact with the silicon. After the metal contacts are

made, the solar cells are interconnected in series (and/or parallel) by flat wires or metal ribbons, and

assembled into modules or "solar panels".

Solar panels have a sheet of tempered glass on the front, and a polymer encapsulation on the back.

Some solar cells have textured front surfaces that, like antireflection coatings, serve to increase the

amount of light coupled into the cell. Such surfaces can usually only be formed on single-crystal

silicon, though in recent years methods of forming them on multicrystalline silicon have been

developed

These are also known as solar cells and their assembly is termed as solar panel, let us see the

individual discrete component of solar cell which is shown in below Fig


33


Figure 7: STRUTUREOF SOLAR CELL

PV cells were invented in 1953 by Charles Fariett. A PV cell is used for converting photon into

electron and with sun light incident, electrical energy is generated. The solar-based battery may be

used to directly feed electricity to electronic equipment or for domestic heating. Solar batteries can

also be used for satellites, communication equipment and domestic appliances.

A selenium-or silicon-based solar cell exhibits open-circuit voltage of only 0.5V and short-circuit cell

current of the order of 1milliampere for 6.4cm² area of the cell at6458 meter candles. Therefore a

large number of such silicon or selenium solar cells need to be connected in series and parallel to

provide any significant power. A telemetry system required to operate 24 hours a day requires a

solar panel providing 5 watts at 12 volts used for recharging corresponding storage batteries during

daylight hours.

Figure 8: solar panel


34


CHAPTER: 7

RECHARGEABLE BATTERY

A rechargeable battery, storage battery, or accumulator is a type of electrical battery. It comprises one or

more electrochemical cells, and is a type of energy accumulator. It is known as a secondary cell because

its electrochemical reactions are electrically reversible. Rechargeable batteries come in many different

shapes and sizes, ranging from button cells to megawatt systems connected to stabilize an electrical

distribution network. Several different combinations of chemicals are commonly used, including: lead–

acid, nickel cadmium (NiCd),nickel metal hydride (NiMH), lithium ion (Li-ion), and lithium ion

polymer (Li-ion polymer).

Rechargeable batteries have lower total cost of use and environmental impact than disposable batteries.

Some rechargeable battery types are available in the same sizes as disposable types. Rechargeable batteries

have higher initial cost but can be recharged very cheaply and used many times

7.1)Charging and discharging

During charging, the positive active material is oxidized, producing electrons, and the negative material

is reduced, consuming electrons. These electrons constitute the current flow in the external circuit.

The electrolyte may serve as a simple buffer for internal ion flow between the electrodes, as in lithium-

ion and nickel-cadmium cells, or it may be an active participant in the electrochemical reaction, as in lead–

acid cells.

Figure 9:Diagram of the charging of a secondary cell battery.


35


The energy used to charge rechargeable batteries usually comes from a battery charger using AC mains

electricity, although some are equipped to use a vehicle's 12-volt DC power outlet. Regardless, to store

energy in a secondary cell, it has to be connected to a DC voltage source. The negative terminal of the cell

has to be connected to the negative terminal of the voltage source and the positive terminal of the voltage

source with the positive terminal of the battery. Further, the voltage output of the source must be higher than

that of the battery, but not much higher: the greater the difference between the power source and the battery's

voltage capacity, the faster the charging process, but also the greater the risk of overcharging and damaging

the battery.

Chargers take from a few minutes to several hours to charge a battery. Slow "dumb" chargers without

voltage- or temperature-sensing capabilities will charge at a low rate, typically taking 14 hours or more to

reach a full charge. Rapid chargers can typically charge cells in two to five hours, depending on the model,

with the fastest taking as little as fifteen minutes. Fast chargers must have multiple ways of detecting when a

cell reaches full charge (change in terminal voltage, temperature, etc.) to stop charging before harmful

overcharging or overheating occurs. The fastest chargers often incorporate cooling fans to keep the cells

from overheating.

Battery charging and discharging rates are often discussed by referencing a "C" rate of current. The C rate is

that which would theoretically fully charge or discharge the battery in one hour. For example, trickle

charging might be performed at C/20 (or a "20 hour" rate), while typical charging and discharging may

occur at C/2 (two hours for full capacity). The available capacity of electrochemical cells varies depending

on the discharge rate.

Figure:10 lead acid battery


36


CHAPTER : 8

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM

Figure:CIRCUIT DIAGRAM


37


8.1)CIRCUIT DIAGRAM EXPLANATION

Here we are using PIC16F877Aas the major component. Which will control all actions and provide basic

protection based on the program.

The current produced by the solar panel is flowing to the battery through a relay switch RL1. When the

battery is fully charged RL1 will be energised and disconnects the solar panel from battery .The relay switch

RL2 is used to protect the battery from over load. When an overload is occurred, the relay switch RL2 is

energised and it disconnects load from battery.

The relay will be de-energised when the overload reset switch is pressed. The voltage at the battery is

continuously displayed on the LCD using the built-in ADC module in the PIC 16F877A. The voltage is

divided by 3 by using 3 equal value resistors and 1/3 voltage is send to ADC input. The analogue voltage is

converted into digital and it is displayed on LCD after multiplying with 3. The reference voltage for the

ADC conversion is taken from the VDD supply.

The rated current of the power supply is chosen as 3A. At full load, the load voltage will be 9.6V

(full load resistance = V/I = 12V/3A = 4Ohm. Therefore Load voltage = 12 x 4/5 = 9.6V using voltage

divider rule) it is divided by 3 using resistive network and given to ADC channel 2(AN2). The voltage is

continuously measured by the pic. If over load occurs, the voltage at load reduces. It is detected by the pic

and energises relay switch 2 and disconnects load from over current.


38


CHAPTER: 9

PROGRAM CODING

sbit LCD_RS at RB0_bit;

sbit LCD_EN at RB1_bit;

sbit LCD_D4 at RB2_bit;




sbit LCD_RS_Direction at TRISB0_bit;

sbit LCD_EN_Direction at TRISB1_bit;

sbit LCD_D4_Direction at TRISB2_bit;




float b;

float a;

char txt[10];

void main()

trisa=0xff;


39


trisc=0xff;

trisd=0x00;

Lcd_Init();

Lcd_Cmd(_LCD_CURSOR_OFF);

delay_ms(200);

ADC_Init();

delay_ms(200);

while(1)

a=.00488*ADC_Read(0)*3;

FloatToStr(a, txt);

strcat(txt,"V");

Lcd_Out(1,2,"SOLAR CHARGER");

Lcd_Out(2,4,txt);

//Lcd_Out(2,6,"v");

delay_ms(300);

if(a>12)

portd.f7=0;

else

portd.f7=1;

b=.0048*ADC_Read(1);

/*Lcd_Out(1,1,"load");

FloatToStr(b, txt);


40


Lcd_Out(2,1,txt);

delay_ms(1000);*/

if(b<3)

Lcd_Cmd(_LCD_CLEAR);

Lcd_Out(1,4,"OVER LOAD");

portd.f6=1;

while(portc.f0==1);

portd.f6=0;

else

portd.f6=0;


41


CHAPTER : 10

PCB FABRICATION AND SOLDERING

Printed Circuit Board (PCB) is piece of art. The performance of an electronic

circuit depends on the design and layout of the PCB. A PCB mechanically supports and

connects components by conductive pathways, etched from copper sheets laminated on to

insulated substrate. PCB are used to rotate electrical currents and signals through copper tracts

which are firmly bonded to an insulating base.

PCB fabrication involves following steps:

1. Drawing the layout of the PCB in the paper. The track layout of the electronic circuit

should be made in such manner that the paths are in easy routes. It is then transferred to a Mylar

sheet. The sheet is then touched with black ink.

2. The solder side of the Mylar sheet is placed on the shiny side of the five-star sheet and

is placed in a frame. Then it is exposed to sunlight with Mylar sheet facing the sunlight.

3. The exposed five-star sheet is put in hydrogen peroxide solution. Then it is put in hot

ater and shook till unexposed region becomes transparent.

4. This is put in cold water and then the rough side is stuck onto the silk screen. This is

then pressed and dried well.

5. The plastic sheet of the five-star sheet is removed leaving the pattern on the screen.

6. A copper clad sheet is cut to the size and cleaned. This is placed under screen.

7. As it resistant ink if spread on the screen so that a pattern of tracks and a pad is

obtained on a copper clad sheet. It is then dried.

8. The dried sheet is then etched using ferric chloride solution

9. (32Baume) till all the unwanted copper is etched away. Swish the board to keep the each

fluid moving. Lift the PCB and check whether all the unwanted copper is removed. Etching is

done by immersing the marked copper clad in ferric chloride solution. After that the etched


42


sheet is dried.The unwanted resist ink is removed using sodium hydroxide solution Holes are

then dried.

PCB PARAMETERS

Copper thickness- 72mil (1mm=39.37mils)

Track width- 60 mil

Clearance - 60 mil

Pad width- 86mil

Pad height - 86 mil

Pad shape- oval

Pad hole size- 25mil

On board- Through

Hole size- .9mm(36mil)

Base - paper phenolic, hylam

PCB Quality- FRC

SOLDERING

Soldering is the process of joining metals by using lower melting point to weld or alloy with

joining surface.

SOLDER:

Solder is the joining material that melts below 427 degree connections between

components.The popularly used solders are alloys of tin(Sn) and lead(Pb) that melts below the

melting point if tin.

Types:

1. Rosin core: - 60/40 Sn/Pb solders are the most common types used for electronics

assembly. These solders are available in various diameters and are most appropriate for small

electronics work(0.02”-0.05|| dia is recommended)


43


2. Lead free :- Lead free solders are used as more environmental-friendly substitutes for

leaded solder, but they are typically not as easy to use mainly because of their higher melting

point and poorer wetting properties.

3. Silver:- Silver solders are typically used for low resistance connections but they have

a higher melting point and are expensive than Sn/Pb solders.

4. Acid-core:- acid-core solders should not be used for electronics.They are intended for

plumbing of non-electronics assembly work. The acid-core flux will cause corrosion of circuitry

and can damage components.

5.Other special solders:- various melting point eutectics: these

6.special solders are typically used for non-electronic assembly of difficult to construct

mechanical items that must be assembled in a particular sequence .

FLUX

In order to make the surface accept the solder readily ,the components terminals should be free

oxides and other obstructing films .the lead should be cleaned chemically or by abrasion using

blades or knives. Small amount of lead coating can be done on the portion of the leads using

soldering iron .this process is called thinning. Zinc chloride or ammonium chloride separately or

in combination is mostly used as fluxes. These are available in petroleum jelly as paste flux. The

desirable properties of flux are:-

It should provide a liquid cover over the materials and exclude air gap up to the soldering

temperature. It should dissolve any oxide on the metal surface. It should be easily replaced from

the metal by the molten soldering operation.Residue should be removable after completing

soldering operation.The most common flux used in hand soldering of electronic components is

rosin, a combination of mild organic acids extracted from pine tree.


44


SOLDERING IRON

It is a tool used to melt the solder and apply it at the joints in the circuit. it

operates in 230V supply. The iron at the tip gets heated while few minutes. 50W and 25W

soldering irons are commonly used for soldering of electronics circuit.

SOLDERING STEPS

1. Make the layout of the component in the circuit. Plug in the chord of the soldering

irons the main to get heated.

2. Straighten and clean the component leads using a blade or knife.

3. Mount the components on the PCB by bending the leads of the components. Use nose

pliers.

4. Apply flux on the joints and solder the joints. Solder must be in minimum time to

avoid dry soldering and heating up of the components.

5.Wash the residue using water and brush.

6.Solder joints should be inspected when completed to determine if they have been properly

made.

CHARACTERISTICS OF A GOOD SOLDER JOINTS:

A. Shiny surface

B. Good, smooth fillet

CHARACTERISTICS OF A POOR SOLDER JOINTS:

1. Dull or crystallized surface: This is an indicator of a cold solder joint. Cold solder joint

result from moving the component after soldering has been removed, but before the solder has

hardened. Cold solder joints may work at first, but will eventually fail.

2. Air Pocket: Air pocket (voids) result from incomplete wetting of surface, allowing air

to be in contact with the connecting metals. This will cause oxidation of the joints & eventual


45


failure. Blow holes can occur due to vaporization of moisture on the surface of the board &

existing through the molten solder. Boards should be clean & dry, prior to soldering. Ethanol

(100%) can be used as a moisture chaser if boards are wet prior to soldering.

3. Dimples: Dimples in the surface do not always indicate a serious problem, but they should be

avoided since they are precursors to voids.

4. Floaters: Black spots-Floating in the soldering fillet should be avoided, because they indicate

contamination & potential for failure as in the case of voids. These black spots usually results

from overheated (burnt) Rosin or other contaminants such as burnt wire insulation. Maintaining

a clean tip will help to avoid these problems.

5.Balls:A solder balls instead of a fillet can occur if the trace was heated but the leads were

not(vice versa).This prevents proper wetting of both surfaces & result in solder being attached to

only one surface(component of trace).

6. Excess solder: Excess solder usage can cover up other potential problems & should be

avoided. It can lead to solder bridges. In addition, spherical solder joints can result from the

application of too much solder


46


PCB LAYOUT

Figure: PCB LAYOUT


47


CHAPTER : 11

SOFTWARES USED

PROTHEUS

Proteus is a software for microprocessor simulation, schematic capture, and printed circuit board (PCB)

design. It is developed by Labcenter Electronics.The XGameStation Micro Edition was designed using

Labcenter's Proteus schematic entry and PCB layout tools

Proteus PCB design combines the ISIS schematic capture and ARES PCB layout programs to provide a

powerful, integrated and easy to use suite of tools for professional PCB Design.All Proteus PCB design

products include an integrated shape based autorouter and a basic SPICE simulation capability as standard.

More advanced routing modes are included in Proteus PCB Design Level 2 and higher whilst simulation

capabilities can be enhanced by purchasing the Advanced Simulation option and/or micro-controller

simulation capabilities.

System components

ISIS Schematic Capture - a tool for entering designs.

PROSPICE Mixed mode SPICE simulation - industry standard SPICE3F5 simulator combined with a

digital simulator.

ARES PCB Layout - PCB design system with automatic component placer, rip-up and retry auto-router

and interactive design rule checking.

VSM - Virtual System Modelling lets cosimulate embedded software for popular micro-controllers

alongside hardware design.

System Benefits Integrated package with common user interface and fully context sensitive help.


48


Figure: PROTEUS INTERFACE WINDOW

MIKRO C

MikroC is a full-featured ANSI C compiler that is available for six different microcontroller architectures (in

this case, for PIC 12/16/18). It features an intuitive IDE, a powerful compiler with advanced SSA

optimizations, lots of hardware and software libraries, and additional tools that will help you in your work.

The compiler comes with a comprehensive Help file (700 pages) and lots of ready-to-use examples designed

to get you started in no time.

Each compiler license includes free upgrades and tech support for the lifetime of the product. The software

features a Live Update service so you can get new features and improvements instantly.

The mikroC PRO for PIC compiler supports 504 PIC microcontrollers. Newly released PIC microcontrollers

will be supported by new versions of the compiler software that is updated regularly.


49


The compiler is designed to be smart and efficient, so you can rely on it to do the hard work. It features four

levels of optimizations that can reduce your code size up to 20 percent. Standard header files are included

that make it easy to port your code from other C compilers.

MikroC PRO for PIC C Compiler Features

Single-click Debugging

mikroC PRO for PIC has native support for the mikroICD In-Circuit Debugger feature of the fast USB

2.0 mikroProg-PIC programmer (in both on-board and standalone versions). mikroICD is a separate DLL

module which supports Step-over, Step-Into, Step-Out, Run, and Run-to-Cursor debugging operations. Also,

the debugger supports standard and advanced breakpoints.

Faster, better, more productive

mikroC PRO for PIC comes equipped with fully functional software tools that can boost your efficiency and

do the job for you, so you can be more productive in your work: LCD Custom Character Tool, GLCD

Bitmap Editor, Seven-Segment Editor, UART Terminal, UDP Terminal, HID Terminal, ASCII Chart,

Active Comments Editor, Advanced Statistics and more.

28/40/44-Pin Enhanced FlashMicrocontrollers

APPENDICES

PIC16F87XAData Sheet

1)

50

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PIC16F87XA28/40/44-Pin Enhanced Flash Microcontrollers

Devices Included in this Data Sheet: Analog Features:• PIC16F873A• PIC16F874A

• PIC16F876A• PIC16F877A

• 10-bit, up to 8-channel Analog-to-DigitalConverter (A/D)

• Brown-out Reset (BOR)

High-Performance RISC CPU:• Only 35 single-word instructions to learn• All single-cycle instructions except for program

branches, which are two-cycle• Operating speed: DC – 20 MHz clock input

DC – 200 ns instruction cycle• Up to 8K x 14 words of Flash Program Memory,

Up to 368 x 8 bytes of Data Memory (RAM),Up to 256 x 8 bytes of EEPROM Data Memory

• Pinout compatible to other 28-pin or 40/44-pinPIC16CXXX and PIC16FXXX microcontrollers

Peripheral Features:• Timer0: 8-bit timer/counter with 8-bit prescaler• Timer1: 16-bit timer/counter with prescaler,

can be incremented during Sleep via externalcrystal/clock

• Timer2: 8-bit timer/counter with 8-bit periodregister, prescaler and postscaler

• Two Capture, Compare, PWM modules- Capture is 16-bit, max. resolution is 12.5 ns- Compare is 16-bit, max. resolution is 200 ns- PWM max. resolution is 10-bit

• Synchronous Serial Port (SSP) with SPI™(Master mode) and I2C™ (Master/Slave)

• Universal Synchronous Asynchronous ReceiverTransmitter (USART/SCI) with 9-bit addressdetection

• Parallel Slave Port (PSP) – 8 bits wide withexternal RD, WR and CS controls (40/44-pin only)

• Brown-out detection circuitry forBrown-out Reset (BOR)

• Analog Comparator module with:- Two analog comparators- Programmable on-chip voltage reference

(VREF) module- Programmable input multiplexing from device

inputs and internal voltage reference- Comparator outputs are externally accessible

Special Microcontroller Features:• 100,000 erase/write cycle Enhanced Flash

program memory typical• 1,000,000 erase/write cycle Data EEPROM

memory typical• Data EEPROM Retention > 40 years• Self-reprogrammable under software control• In-Circuit Serial Programming™ (ICSP™)

via two pins• Single-supply 5V In-Circuit Serial Programming• Watchdog Timer (WDT) with its own on-chip RC

oscillator for reliable operation• Programmable code protection• Power saving Sleep mode• Selectable oscillator options• In-Circuit Debug (ICD) via two pins

CMOS Technology:• Low-power, high-speed Flash/EEPROM

technology• Fully static design• Wide operating voltage range (2.0V to 5.5V)• Commercial and Industrial temperature ranges• Low-power consumption

DeviceProgram Memory Data

SRAM(Bytes)

EEPROM(Bytes) I/O 10-bit

A/D (ch)CCP

(PWM)

MSSPUSART Timers

8/16-bit ComparatorsBytes # Single Word

Instructions SPI MasterI2C

PIC16F873A 7.2K 4096 192 128 22 5 2 Yes Yes Yes 2/1 2PIC16F874A 7.2K 4096 192 128 33 8 2 Yes Yes Yes 2/1 2PIC16F876A 14.3K 8192 368 256 22 5 2 Yes Yes Yes 2/1 2PIC16F877A 14.3K 8192 368 256 33 8 2 Yes Yes Yes 2/1 2

51

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lUllIllll1 -..... ~.... ~----- -p •- -- ~-- .......- .....11I1111ll~

....... -....... ._

....... ............. -- ~- ....

PIC16F87XA

PIC

16F8

73A

/876

A

1 282 273 264 255 246 237 228 219 20

10 1911 1812 1713 1614 15

RA1

/AN

1R

A0/A

N0

MC

LR/V

PPR

B7/P

GD

RB6

/PG

CR

B5

RB

4

28 27 26 25 24 23 22

RC

0/T1

OSO

/T1C

KIR

C1/

T1O

SI/C

CP2

RC

2/C

CP1

RC

3/SC

K/SC

LR

C4/

SDI/S

DA

RC

5/SD

OR

C6/

TX/C

K

8 9 10 11 12 13 14

RC

6/TX

/CK

RC

5/SD

OR

C4/

SDI/S

DA

RD

3/PS

P3R

D2/

PSP2

RD

1/PS

P1R

D0/

PSP0

RC

3/SC

K/SC

LR

C2/

CC

P1R

C1/

T1O

SI/C

CP2

RC

0/T1

OSO

/T1C

KI

RC7/RX/DT 1 33 OSC2/CLKORD4/PSP4 2 32 OSC1/CLKIRD5/PSP5 3 31 VSSRD6/PSP6RD7/PSP7

45

30 VSSVDD

VSS 6 28 VDDVDD 7 PIC16F877A 27 RE2/CS/AN7VDD 8 26 RE1/WR/AN6

RB0/INT 9 25 RE0/RD/AN5RB1 10 24 RA5/AN4/SS/C2OUTRB2 11 23 RA4/T0CKI/C1OUT

RB3

/PG

M NC

RB4

RB5

RB6

/PG

CR

B7/P

GD

MC

LR/V

PPR

A0/A

N0

RA1

/AN

1R

A2/A

N2/

VREF

-/CVR

EFR

A3/A

N3/

VREF

+

12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22

44 43 42 41 40 39 38 37 36 35 34

Pin Diagrams

28-Pin PDIP, SOIC, SSOP

MCLR/VPPRA0/AN0RA1/AN1

RA2/AN2/VREF-/CVREF

RA3/AN3/VREF+RA4/T0CKI/C1OUT

RA5/AN4/SS/C2OUTVSS

OSC1/CLKIOSC2/CLKO

RC0/T1OSO/T1CKIRC1/T1OSI/CCP2

RC2/CCP1RC3/SCK/SCL

RB7/PGDRB6/PGCRB5RB4RB3/PGMRB2RB1RB0/INTVDD

VSSRC7/RX/DTRC6/TX/CKRC5/SDORC4/SDI/SDA

28-Pin QFN

RA2/AN2/VREF-/CVREF 1 21 RB3/PGMRA3/AN3/VREF+

RA4/T0CKI/C1OUTRA5/AN4/SS/C2OUT

VSSOSC1/CLKI

OSC2/CLKO

2 203 PIC16F873A 194 185 PIC16F876A 176 167 15

RB2RB1RB0/INTVDD

VSS

RC7/RX/DT

44-Pin QFN

PIC16F874A 29

52

www.nitropdf.com


'.,_----

-

PIC16F87XA

PIC

16F8

74A

/877

A

RC

6/TX

/CK

RC

5/SD

OR

C4/

SDI/S

DA

RD

3/P

SP3

RD

2/P

SP2

RD

1/P

SP1

RD

0/P

SP0

RC

3/S

CK

/SC

LR

C2/

CC

P1R

C1/

T1O

SI/C

CP2

NC

RA3

/AN

3/VR

EF+

RA2

/AN

2/VR

EF-/C

VREF

RA1

/AN

1R

A0/A

N0

MC

LR/V

PPN

CR

B7/P

GD

RB6

/PG

CR

B5

RB

4N

C

6 5 4 3 2 1 44 43 42 41 40

13 33R

C1/

T1O

SI/C

CP2

RC

2/C

CP1

RC

3/SC

K/SC

LR

D0/

PSP0

RD

1/PS

P1R

D2/

PSP2

RD

3/PS

P3R

C4/

SDI/S

DA

RC

5/SD

OR

C6/

TX/C

KN

C

18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28

44 43 42 41 40 39 38 37 36 35 34

NC

NC

RB4

RB5

RB6

/PG

CR

B7/P

GD

MC

LR/V

PPR

A0/A

N0

RA1

/AN

1R

A2/A

N2/

VREF

-/CVR

EFR

A3/A

N3/

VREF

+

12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22

Pin Diagrams (Continued)

40-Pin PDIP

MCLR/VPP 1 40 RB7/PGDRA0/AN0 2 39 RB6/PGCRA1/AN1 3 38 RB5

RA2/AN2/VREF-/CVREF 4 37 RB4RA3/AN3/VREF+ 5 36 RB3/PGM

RA4/T0CKI/C1OUT 6 35 RB2RA5/AN4/SS/C2OUT 7 34 RB1

RE0/RD/AN5 8 33 RB0/INTRE1/WR/AN6 9 32 VDD

RE2/CS/AN7 10 31 VSSVDD 11 30 RD7/PSP7VSS 12 29 RD6/PSP6

OSC1/CLKI 13 28 RD5/PSP5OSC2/CLKO 14 27 RD4/PSP4

RC0/T1OSO/T1CKI 15 26 RC7/RX/DTRC1/T1OSI/CCP2 16 25 RC6/TX/CK

RC2/CCP1 17 24 RC5/SDORC3/SCK/SCL 18 23 RC4/SDI/SDA

RD0/PSP0 19 22 RD3/PSP3RD1/PSP1 20 21 RD2/PSP2

44-Pin PLCC

RA4/T0CKI/C1OUTRA5/AN4/SS/C2OUT

RE0/RD/AN5RE1/WR/AN6RE2/CS/AN7

VDDVSS

OSC1/CLKIOSC2/CLKO

RC0/T1OSO/T1CK1NC

7 398 389 3710 3611 PIC16F874A 3512 PIC16F877A 34

14 3215 3116 3017 29

RB3/PGMRB2RB1RB0/INTVDDVSSRD7/PSP7RD6/PSP6RD5/PSP5RD4/PSP4RC7/RX/DT

44-Pin TQFP

RC7/RX/DT 1 33 NCRD4/PSP4 2 32 RC0/T1OSO/T1CKIRD5/PSP5 3 31 OSC2/CLKORD6/PSP6 4 30 OSC1/CLKIRD7/PSP7

VSS56

PIC16F874A 2928

VSSVDD

VDD 7 PIC16F877A 27 RE2/CS/AN7RB0/INT 8 26 RE1/WR/AN6

RB1 9 25 RE0/RD/AN5RB2 10 24 RA5/AN4/SS/C2OUT

RB3/PGM 11 23 RA4/T0CKI/C1OUT

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~-x-x-x-x

PIC16F87XA

FlashProgramMemory

14

Power-upTimer

OscillatorStart-up Timer

Power-onReset

WatchdogTimer

Brown-outReset

In-CircuitDebugger

Low-VoltageProgramming

8Indirec

Addr

FSR reg

FIGURE 1-2: PIC16F874A/877A BLOCK DIAGRAM13 Data Bus 8

Program CounterPORTA

RA0/AN0RA1/AN1RA2/AN2/VREF-/CVREF

ProgramBus

Instruction reg

8

8 Level Stack(13-bit)

Direct Addr 7

RAMFile

Registers

RAM Addr(1) 9

Addr MUX

t

Status reg

PORTB

PORTC

RA3/AN3/VREF+RA4/T0CKI/C1OUTRA5/AN4/SS/C2OUT

RB0/INTRB1RB2RB3/PGMRB4RB5RB6/PGCRB7/PGD

RC0/T1OSO/T1CKI

OSC1/CLKIOSC2/CLKO

InstructionDecode &

Control

TimingGeneration

3

ALU

8

W reg

MUX

PORTD

PORTE

RC1/T1OSI/CCP2RC2/CCP1RC3/SCK/SCLRC4/SDI/SDARC5/SDORC6/TX/CKRC7/RX/DT

RD0/PSP0RD1/PSP1RD2/PSP2RD3/PSP3RD4/PSP4RD5/PSP5RD6/PSP6RD7/PSP7

MCLR VDD, VSS RE0/RD/AN5

RE1/WR/AN6

RE2/CS/AN7

Timer0 Timer1 Timer2 10-bit A/D ParallelSlave Port

Data EEPROM SynchronousCCP1,2 Serial Port USART

VoltageComparator Reference

Device Program Flash Data Memory Data EEPROM

PIC16F874A 4K words 192 Bytes 128 BytesPIC16F877A 8K words 368 Bytes 256 Bytes

Note 1: Higher order bits are from the Status register.

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PIC16F87XA

Pin Name PDIPPin#

PLCCPin#

TQFPPin#

QFNPin#

I/O/PType

BufferType Description

OSC1/CLKIOSC1

CLKI

13 14 30 32I

I

ST/CMOS(4) Oscillator crystal or external clock input.Oscillator crystal input or external clock sourceinput. ST buffer when configured in RC mode;otherwise CMOS.External clock source input. Always associatedwith pin function OSC1 (see OSC1/CLKI,OSC2/CLKO pins).

OSC2/CLKOOSC2

CLKO

14 15 31 33O

O

— Oscillator crystal or clock output.Oscillator crystal output.Connects to crystal or resonator in CrystalOscillator mode.In RC mode, OSC2 pin outputs CLKO, whichhas 1/4 the frequency of OSC1 and denotes theinstruction cycle rate.

MCLR/VPPMCLR

VPP

1 2 18 18I

P

ST Master Clear (input) or programming voltage (output).Master Clear (Reset) input. This pin is an activelow Reset to the device.Programming voltage input.

RA0/AN0RA0AN0

RA1/AN1RA1AN1

RA2/AN2/VREF-/CVREFRA2AN2VREF-CVREF

RA3/AN3/VREF+RA3AN3VREF+

RA4/T0CKI/C1OUTRA4

T0CKIC1OUT

RA5/AN4/SS/C2OUTRA5AN4SSC2OUT

2

3

4

5

6

7

3

4

5

6

7

8

19

20

21

22

23

24

19

20

21

22

23

24

I/OI

I/OI

I/OIIO

I/OII

I/O

IO

I/OIIO

TTL

TTL

TTL

TTL

ST

TTL

PORTA is a bidirectional I/O port.

Digital I/O.Analog input 0.

Digital I/O.Analog input 1.

Digital I/O.Analog input 2.A/D reference voltage (Low) input.Comparator VREF output.

Digital I/O.Analog input 3.A/D reference voltage (High) input.

Digital I/O – Open-drain when configured asoutput.Timer0 external clock input.Comparator 1 output.

Digital I/O.Analog input 4.SPI slave select input.Comparator 2 output.

TABLE 1-3: PIC16F874A/877A PINOUT DESCRIPTION

Legend: I = input O = output I/O = input/output P = power— = Not used TTL = TTL input ST = Schmitt Trigger input

Note 1: This buffer is a Schmitt Trigger input when configured as the external interrupt.2: This buffer is a Schmitt Trigger input when used in Serial Programming mode.3: This buffer is a Schmitt Trigger input when configured in RC Oscillator mode and a CMOS input otherwise.

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PIC16F87XA

Pin Name PDIPPin#

PLCCPin#

TQFPPin#

QFNPin#

I/O/PType


RB0/INTRB0INT

RB1RB2RB3/PGM

RB3PGM

RB4RB5RB6/PGC

RB6PGC

RB7/PGDRB7PGD

33

343536

373839

40

36

373839

414243

44

8

91011

141516

17

9

101112

141516

17

I/OI

I/OI/O

I/OI

I/OI/O

I/OI

I/OI/O

TTL/ST(1)

TTLTTLTTL

TTL TTLTTL/ST(2)

TTL/ST(2)

PORTB is a bidirectional I/O port. PORTB can besoftware programmed for internal weak pull-up on allinputs.

Digital I/O.External interrupt.Digital I/O.Digital I/O.

Digital I/O.Low-voltage ICSP programming enable pin.Digital I/O.Digital I/O.

Digital I/O.In-circuit debugger and ICSP programming clock.

Digital I/O.In-circuit debugger and ICSP programming data.

TABLE 1-3: PIC16F874A/877A PINOUT DESCRIPTION (CONTINUED)



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PIC16F87XA

Pin Name PDIPPin#

PLCCPin#

TQFPPin#

QFNPin#

I/O/PType


RC0/T1OSO/T1CKIRC0T1OSOT1CKI

RC1/T1OSI/CCP2RC1T1OSICCP2

RC2/CCP1RC2CCP1

RC3/SCK/SCLRC3SCK

SCL

RC4/SDI/SDARC4SDISDA

RC5/SDORC5SDO

RC6/TX/CKRC6TXCK

RC7/RX/DTRC7RXDT

15

16

17

18

23

24

25

26

16

18

19

20

25

26

27

29

32

35

36

37

42

43

44

1

34

35

36

37

42

43

44

1

I/OOI

I/OI

I/O

I/OI/O

I/OI/O

I/O

I/OI

I/O

I/OO

I/OO

I/O

I/OI

I/O

ST

ST

ST

ST

ST

ST

ST

ST

PORTC is a bidirectional I/O port.

Digital I/O.Timer1 oscillator output.Timer1 external clock input.

Digital I/O.Timer1 oscillator input.Capture2 input, Compare2 output, PWM2 output.

Digital I/O.Capture1 input, Compare1 output, PWM1 output.

Digital I/O.Synchronous serial clock input/output for SPImode.Synchronous serial clock input/output for I2Cmode.

Digital I/O.SPI data in.I2C data I/O.

Digital I/O.SPI data out.

Digital I/O.USART asynchronous transmit.USART1 synchronous clock.

Digital I/O.USART asynchronous receive.USART synchronous data.




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PIC16F87XA

Pin Name PDIPPin#

PLCCPin#

TQFPPin#

QFNPin#

I/O/PType


RD0/PSP0RD0PSP0

RD1/PSP1RD1PSP1

RD2/PSP2RD2PSP2

RD3/PSP3RD3PSP3

RD4/PSP4RD4PSP4

RD5/PSP5RD5PSP5

RD6/PSP6RD6PSP6

RD7/PSP7RD7PSP7

19

20

21

22

27

28

29

30

21

22

23

24

30

31

32

33

38

39

40

41

2

3

4

5

38

39

40

41

2

3

4

5

I/OI/O

I/OI/O

I/OI/O

I/OI/O

I/OI/O

I/OI/O

I/OI/O

I/OI/O

ST/TTL(3)

ST/TTL(3)

ST/TTL(3)

ST/TTL(3)

ST/TTL(3)

ST/TTL(3)

ST/TTL(3)

ST/TTL(3)

PORTD is a bidirectional I/O port or Parallel SlavePort when interfacing to a microprocessor bus.

Digital I/O.Parallel Slave Port data.








RE0/RD/AN5RE0RDAN5

RE1/WR/AN6RE1WRAN6

RE2/CS/AN7RE2CSAN7

8

9

10

9

10

11

25

26

27

25

26

27

I/OII

I/OII

I/OII

ST/TTL(3)

ST/TTL(3)

ST/TTL(3)

PORTE is a bidirectional I/O port.

Digital I/O.Read control for Parallel Slave Port.Analog input 5.

Digital I/O.Write control for Parallel Slave Port.Analog input 6.

Digital I/O.Chip select control for Parallel Slave Port.Analog input 7.

VSS 12, 31 13, 34 6, 29 6, 30,31

P — Ground reference for logic and I/O pins.

VDD 11, 32 12, 35 7, 28 7, 8,28, 29

P — Positive supply for logic and I/O pins.

NC — 1, 17,28, 40

12,13,33, 34

13 — — These pins are not internally connected. These pinsshould be left unconnected.




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•••

PIC16F87XA

Stack Level 1

Stack Level 2

Stack Level 8

Reset Vector

Interrupt Vector

Page 0

Page 1

Reset Vector

Interrupt Vector

Page 0

Page 1

Page 2

Page 3

2.0 MEMORY ORGANIZATIONThere are three memory blocks in each of thePIC16F87XA devices. The program memory and datamemory have separate buses so that concurrentaccess can occur and is detailed in this section. TheEEPROM data memory block is detailed in Section 3.0“Data EEPROM and Flash Program Memory”.Additional information on device memory may be foundin the PICmicro® Mid-Range MCU Family ReferenceManual (DS33023).

FIGURE 2-1: PIC16F876A/877APROGRAM MEMORY MAPAND STACK

2.1 Program Memory OrganizationThe PIC16F87XA devices have a 13-bit programcounter capable of addressing an 8K word x 14 bitprogram memory space. The PIC16F876A/877Adevices have 8K words x 14 bits of Flash programmemory, while PIC16F873A/874A devices have4K words x 14 bits. Accessing a location above thephysically implemented address will cause awraparound.The Reset vector is at 0000h and the interrupt vector isat 0004h.

FIGURE 2-2: PIC16F873A/874APROGRAM MEMORY MAPAND STACK

CALL, RETURNRETFIE, RETLW

PC<12:0>

13 CALL, RETURNRETFIE, RETLW

PC<12:0>

13

Stack Level 1

Stack Level 2

Stack Level 8

0000h 0000h

On-ChipProgramMemory

0004h

0005h

07FFh

0800h

0FFFh

1000h

17FFh1800h

1FFFh

On-ChipProgramMemory

0004h

0005h

07FFh

0800h

0FFFh

1000h

1FFFh

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PIC16F87XA

RP1:RP0 Bank

00 001 110 211 3

2.2 Data Memory OrganizationThe data memory is partitioned into multiple bankswhich contain the General Purpose Registers and theSpecial Function Registers. Bits RP1 (Status<6>) andRP0 (Status<5>) are the bank select bits.

Each bank extends up to 7Fh (128 bytes). The lowerlocations of each bank are reserved for the SpecialFunction Registers. Above the Special Function Regis-ters are General Purpose Registers, implemented asstatic RAM. All implemented banks contain SpecialFunction Registers. Some frequently used SpecialFunction Registers from one bank may be mirrored inanother bank for code reduction and quicker access.

Note: The EEPROM data memory description canbe found in Section 3.0 “Data EEPROMand Flash Program Memory” of this datasheet.

2.2.1 GENERAL PURPOSE REGISTERFILE

The register file can be accessed either directly, orindirectly, through the File Select Register (FSR).

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PIC16F87XA

Address

00h

Address

80h

Address

100h

Address

180h01h02h03h04h05h06h07h08h09h0Ah0Bh0Ch0Dh0Eh0Fh10h11h12h13h14h15h16h17h18h19h1Ah1Bh1Ch1Dh1Eh1Fh

81h82h83h84h85h86h87h88h89h8Ah8Bh8Ch8Dh8Eh8Fh90h91h92h93h94h95h96h97h98h99h9Ah9Bh9Ch9Dh9Eh9Fh



20h A0h 120h 1A0h

Indirect addr.(*)

OPTION_REGPCL

STATUSFSR

TRISB

PCLATHINTCON

EECON1EECON2

Reserved(2)

Reserved(2)

GeneralPurposeRegister16 Bytes


accesses70h - 7Fh

Indirect addr.(*)

TMR0PCL

STATUSFSR

PORTAPORTBPORTC

PORTD(1)

PORTE(1)

PCLATHINTCON

PIR1PIR2

TMR1LTMR1HT1CONTMR2

T2CONSSPBUFSSPCONCCPR1LCCPR1H

CCP1CONRCSTATXREGRCREGCCPR2LCCPR2H

CCP2CONADRESHADCON0

GeneralPurposeRegister

96 Bytes

Indirect addr.(*)

OPTION_REGPCL

STATUSFSR

TRISATRISBTRISC

TRISD(1)

TRISE(1)

PCLATHINTCON

PIE1PIE2

PCON

SSPCON2PR2

SSPADDSSPSTAT

TXSTASPBRG

CMCONCVRCONADRESLADCON1


accesses70h-7Fh

Indirect addr.(*)

TMR0PCL

STATUSFSR

PORTB

PCLATHINTCONEEDATAEEADREEDATHEEADRH



accesses70h-7Fh

FIGURE 2-3: PIC16F876A/877A REGISTER FILE MAP

File File File File

EFhF0h

16Fh170h

1EFh1F0h

7Fh FFhBank 0 Bank 1

17Fh 1FFhBank 2 Bank 3

Unimplemented data memory locations, read as ‘0’.* Not a physical register.

Note 1: These registers are not implemented on the PIC16F876A.2: These registers are reserved; maintain these registers clear.

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2

D

PUTPUT SERIES OUT

1 IPASS

1 ELEMENT .3

CURRENT SOA A :-GENERATOR PROTECTION ..I

1STARTING REFERENCE ERRORCIRCUIT t--- VOLTAGE t-P- AMPLIFIER

THERMAL f---- :PROTECTION

1 GN-...

IN

©2001 Fairchild Semiconductor Corporation

www.fairchildsemi.com

Rev. 1.0.1

Features• Output Current up to 1A • Output Voltages of 5, 6, 8, 9, 10, 12, 15, 18, 24V • Thermal Overload Protection • Short Circuit Protection• Output Transistor Safe Operating Area Protection

DescriptionThe MC78XX/LM78XX/MC78XXA series of three terminal positive regulators are available in the TO-220/D-PAK package and with several fixed output voltages, making them useful in a wide range of applications. Each type employs internal current limiting,thermal shut down and safe operating area protection, making it essentially indestructible. If adequate heat sinkingis provided, they can deliver over 1A output current.Although designed primarily as fixed voltage regulators,these devices can be used with external components toobtain adjustable voltages and currents.

TO-220

D-PAK

1. Input 2. GND 3. Output

1

1

Internal Block Digram

MC78XX/LM78XX/MC78XXA3-Terminal 1A Positive Voltage Regulator

2)62

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MC78XX/LM78XX/MC78XXA

2

Absolute Maximum Ratings

Electrical Characteristics (MC7805/LM7805)(Refer to test circuit ,0°C < TJ < 125°C, IO = 500mA, VI = 10V, CI= 0.33µF, CO= 0.1µF, unless otherwise specified)

Note:1. Load and line regulation are specified at constant junction temperature. Changes in Vo due to heating effects must be taken

into account separately. Pulse testing with low duty is used.

Parameter Symbol Value UnitInput Voltage (for VO = 5V to 18V)(for VO = 24V)

VIVI

3540

VV

Thermal Resistance Junction-Cases (TO-220) RθJC 5 oC/WThermal Resistance Junction-Air (TO-220) RθJA 65 oC/WOperating Temperature Range TOPR 0 ~ +125 oCStorage Temperature Range TSTG -65 ~ +150 oC

Parameter Symbol ConditionsMC7805/LM7805

UnitMin. Typ. Max.

Output Voltage VOTJ =+25 oC 4.8 5.0 5.25.0mA ≤ Io ≤ 1.0A, PO ≤ 15WVI = 7V to 20V 4.75 5.0 5.25 V

Line Regulation (Note1) Regline TJ=+25 oCVO = 7V to 25V - 4.0 100

mVVI = 8V to 12V - 1.6 50

Load Regulation (Note1) Regload TJ=+25 oCIO = 5.0mA to1.5A - 9 100

mVIO =250mA to 750mA - 4 50

Quiescent Current IQ TJ =+25 oC - 5.0 8.0 mA

Quiescent Current Change ∆IQIO = 5mA to 1.0A - 0.03 0.5

mAVI= 7V to 25V - 0.3 1.3

Output Voltage Drift ∆VO/∆T IO= 5mA - -0.8 - mV/ oCOutput Noise Voltage VN f = 10Hz to 100KHz, TA=+25 oC - 42 - µV/Vo

Ripple Rejection RR f = 120HzVO = 8V to 18V 62 73 - dB

Dropout Voltage VDrop IO = 1A, TJ =+25 oC - 2 - VOutput Resistance rO f = 1KHz - 15 - mΩShort Circuit Current ISC VI = 35V, TA =+25 oC - 230 - mAPeak Current IPK TJ =+25 oC - 2.2 - A

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Co

KA78XX

Vo

C,

V,O-----r----1

V,5.10 1 3,... ...... KA78XX1 i~ RL

-r-O.33~F 2

"-470~F m+.

120Hz

~~~----------~Vo

v«

V, o---~---t KA78XX

V,1 3- KA78XX -

2

::=CI Co :~O.33~F O.l~F

(,7


21

Typical Applications

Figure 5. DC Parameters

Figure 6. Load Regulation

Figure 7. Ripple Rejection

Figure 8. Fixed Output Regulator

Input OutputMC78XX/LM78XX




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V,

V, KA78XXVO

2R1

1!Q

R2

10 = VXX +R1 10

KA78XXV, v;

1012Al Vxx

ll'o


22

Figure 9. Constant Current Regulator

Notes:(1) To specify an output voltage. substitute voltage value for "XX." A common ground is required between the input and the

Output voltage. The input voltage must remain typically 2.0V above the output voltage even during the low point on the inputripple voltage.

(2) CI is required if regulator is located an appreciable distance from power Supply filter.(3) CO improves stability and transient response.

VO = VXX(1+R2/R1)+IQR2Figure 10. Circuit for Increasing Output Voltage

IRI ≥5 IQVO = VXX(1+R2/R1)+IQR2

Figure 11. Adjustable Output Regulator (7 to 30V)


CI

Co


CICo

IRI 5IQ≥

Input OutputMC7805LM7805

LM741Co

CI

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25

Mechanical DimensionsPackage

4.50 ±0.209.90 ±0.20

1.52 ±0.10

0.80 ±0.102.40 ±0.20

10.00 ±0.20

1.27 ±0.10

ø3.60 ±0.10

(8.70)

2.80

±0.

1015

.90

±0.2

0

10.0

8 ±0

.30

18.9

5MA

X.

(1.7

0)

(3.7

0)(3

.00)

(1.4

6)

(1.0

0)

(45°)

9.20

±0.

2013

.08

±0.2

0

1.30

±0.

10

1.30+0.10–0.05

0.50+0.10–0.05

2.54TYP[2.54 ±0.20]

2.54TYP[2.54 ±0.20]

TO-220

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Mechancal Dimensions (Continued)

Package

6.60 ±0.20

2.30 ±0.10

0.50 ±0.10

5.34 ±0.30

0.70

±0.

20

0.60

±0.

200.

80 ±

0.20

9.50

±0.

30

6.10

±0.

20

2.70

±0.

209.

50 ±

0.30

6.10

±0.

20

2.70

±0.

20

MIN

0.55

0.76 ±0.10 0.50 ±0.10

1.02 ±0.20

2.30 ±0.20

6.60 ±0.20

0.76 ±0.10

(5.34)

(1.50)

(2XR0.25)

(5.04)

0.89

±0.

10

(0.1

0)(3

.05)

(1.0

0)

(0.9

0)

(0.7

0)

0.91

±0.

10

2.30TYP[2.30±0.20]

2.30TYP[2.30±0.20]

MAX0.96

(4.34)(0.50) (0.50)

D-PAK

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BC107BC108BC109

Semelab plc. Telephone +44(0)1455 556565. Fax +44(0)1455 552612. e-mail [email protected] http://www.semelab.co.uk

3/99

GENERAL PURPOSESMALL SIGNAL

NPN BIPOLAR TRANSISTOR

FEATURES

• SILICON NPN

• HERMETICALLY SEALED TO18

• SCREENING OPTIONS AVAILABLE

VCBO Collector – Base Continuous Voltage BC017

BC108, BC109

VCEO Collector – Emitter Continuous Voltage With Zero Base Current BC107

BC108, BC109

VCES Collector – Emitter Continuous Voltage With Base Shortcircuited to Emitter

BC107

BC108, BC109

VEBO Emitter – Base Continuous Voltage Reverse Voltage BC107

BC108, BC109

IC Continuous Collector Current

ICM Peak Collector Current

Ptot Power Dissipation @ Tamb = 25°C

Tamb Ambient Operating Temperature Range

Tstg Storage Temperature Range

50V

30V

45V

20V

50V

30V

6V

5V

100mA

200mA

300mW

-65 to +175°C

-65 to +175°C

MECHANICAL DATADimensions in mm (inches)

TO–18 METAL PACKAGE

ABSOLUTE MAXIMUM RATINGS (TA = 25°C unless otherwise stated)

PIN 1 – Emitter

Underside View

PIN 2 – Base PIN 3 – Collector

132

2.54 (0.100)Nom.

0.48 (0.019)0.41 (0.016)

dia.

5.84 (0.230)5.31 (0.209)

4.95 (0.195)4.52 (0.178)

5.33

(0.

210)

4.32

(0.

170)

12.7

(0.

500)

min

.

3)68

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Parameter Test Conditions Min. Typ. Max. Unit

BC107BC108BC109

Semelab plc. Telephone +44(0)1455 556565. Fax +44(0)1455 552612. e-mail [email protected] http://www.semelab.co.uk

3/99

VCB = 45V BC107

VCB = 25V BC108, BC109

VCB = 45V BC107

VCB = 25V BC108, BC109

VEB = 4V IC = 0

VCE = 5V IC = 2mA

Group A BC107, BC108

Group B All Types

Group C BC108, BC109

BC107

BC108

BC109

VCE = 5V IC = 2mA

IB = 0.5mA IC = 10mA

IB = 0.5mA IC = 10mA

VCE = 5V IC = 10mA

f = 100MHz

VCE = 5V IC = 0.2mA

R = 2kΩ f =1kHz ∆F=200Hz

BC109

BC107, BC108

VCE = 5V IC = 2mA f =100kHz


Group B All Types


BC107

BC108

BC109

VCE = 5V IC = 2mA f = 1kHz


Group B All Types


VCE = 5V IC = 2mA f = 1kHz


Group B All Types


VCB = 10V f = 1MHz

ELECTRICAL CHARACTERISTICS (TA = 25°C unless otherwise stated)

ICBO(1) Collector-Base Leakage Current

ICBO(1) Collector-Emitter Leakage Current

@Tamb =125°C

IEBO Emitter Cut-off Current

h21E Static Forward Current Transfer Ratio

VBE Base – Emitter Breakdown

VBE(sat)(1) Base – Emitter Saturation Voltage

VCE(sat)(1) Collector – Emitter Saturation Voltage

fT Transition Frequency

F Noise Factor

h21e Small Signal Forward Current Transfer

Ratio

h11e Common Emitter Input Impedance

h22e Common Emitter Output Admittance

C22b Common Base Output Capacitance

Rth(j-amb) Thermal Resistance: Junction to

Ambient

15

15

4

4

1

110 220

180 460

380 800

110 460

110 800

180 800

0.7

0.83

0.25

150

4

10

125 260

240 500

450 900

125 500

125 900

240 900

1.6 4.5

3.2 8.5

6.0 15

30

60

110

6

500

nA

µA

µA

V

V

V

MHz

dB

kΩ

µS

pF

°C/W

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I ~ C 0 ft P 0 RAT ~ D

DS28002 Rev. 8 - 2

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1N4001-1N4007© Diodes Incorporated

1N4001 - 1N4007 1.0A RECTIFIER

Features • Diffused Junction • High Current Capability and Low Forward Voltage Drop • Surge Overload Rating to 30A Peak • Low Reverse Leakage Current • Lead Free Finish, RoHS Compliant (Note 3)

Mechanical Data • Case: DO-41 • Case Material: Molded Plastic. UL Flammability Classification

Rating 94V-0 • Moisture Sensitivity: Level 1 per J-STD-020D • Terminals: Finish - Bright Tin. Plated Leads Solderable per

MIL-STD-202, Method 208 • Polarity: Cathode Band • Mounting Position: Any • Ordering Information: See Page 2 • Marking: Type Number • Weight: 0.30 grams (approximate)

Dim DO-41 Plastic Min Max

A 25.40 ⎯ B 4.06 5.21 C 0.71 0.864 D 2.00 2.72 All Dimensions in mm

Maximum Ratings and Electrical Characteristics @TA = 25°C unless otherwise specified

Single phase, half wave, 60Hz, resistive or inductive load. For capacitive load, derate current by 20%.

Characteristic Symbol 1N4001 1N4002 1N4003 1N4004 1N4005 1N4006 1N4007 Unit Peak Repetitive Reverse Voltage Working Peak Reverse Voltage DC Blocking Voltage

VRRM VRWM

VR 50 100 200 400 600 800 1000 V

RMS Reverse Voltage VR(RMS) 35 70 140 280 420 560 700 V Average Rectified Output Current (Note 1) @ TA = 75°C IO 1.0 A Non-Repetitive Peak Forward Surge Current 8.3ms single half sine-wave superimposed on rated load IFSM 30 A

Forward Voltage @ IF = 1.0A VFM 1.0 V Peak Reverse Current @TA = 25°C at Rated DC Blocking Voltage @ TA = 100°C IRM 5.0

50 μA

Typical Junction Capacitance (Note 2) Cj 15 8 pF Typical Thermal Resistance Junction to Ambient RθJA 100 K/W Maximum DC Blocking Voltage Temperature TA +150 °C Operating and Storage Temperature Range TJ, TSTG -65 to +150 °C

Notes: 1. Leads maintained at ambient temperature at a distance of 9.5mm from the case. 2. Measured at 1.0 MHz and applied reverse voltage of 4.0V DC. 3. EU Directive 2002/95/EC (RoHS). All applicable RoHS exemptions applied, see EU Directive 2002/95/EC Annex Notes.

4)70

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http://europa.eu.int/eur-lex/pri/en/oj/dat/2003/l_037/l_03720030213en00190023.pdf

http://www.diodes.com

http://www.diodes.com/products/spicemodels/index.php

I ~ C 0 ft P 0 RAT ~ D

DS28002 Rev. 8 - 2

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1N4001-1N4007© Diodes Incorporated

40 60 80 100 120 140 160 1800

0.2

0.4

0.6

0.8

1.0I

, AV

ERA

GE

FO

RW

AR

D R

EC

TIFI

ED

CU

RR

EN

T (A

)(A

V)

T , AMBIENT TEMPERATURE (ºC)Fig. 1 Forward Current Derating Curve

A

0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2 1.4 1.60.01

0.1

1.0

I, I

NS

TAN

TAN

EO

US

FO

RW

AR

D C

UR

RE

NT

(A)

F

V , INSTANTANEOUS FORWARD VOLTAGE (V)Fig. 2 Typical Forward Characteristics

F

10

T , = 25 CPulse Width = 300 s

2% Duty Cycle

jo

μ

1.0 10 100

I, P

EA

K F

OR

WA

RD

SU

RG

E C

UR

RE

NT

(A)

FSM

NUMBER OF CYCLES AT 60 HzFig. 3 Max Non-Repetitive Peak Fwd Surge Current

40

30

20

0

10

50

C, C

APA

CIT

AN

CE

(pF)

j

V , REVERSE VOLTAGE (V)Fig. 4 Typical Junction Capacitance

R

1.0 10 1001.0

10

100T = 25ºCj f = 1MHz

1N4001 - 1N4004

1N4005 - 1N4007

Ordering Information (Note 4)

Device Packaging Shipping 1N4001-B DO-41 Plastic 1K/Bulk 1N4001-T DO-41 Plastic 5K/Tape & Reel, 13-inch 1N4002-B DO-41 Plastic 1K/Bulk 1N4002-T DO-41 Plastic 5K/Tape & Reel, 13-inch 1N4003-B DO-41 Plastic 1K/Bulk 1N4003-T DO-41 Plastic 5K/Tape & Reel, 13-inch 1N4004-B DO-41 Plastic 1K/Bulk 1N4004-T DO-41 Plastic 5K/Tape & Reel, 13-inch 1N4005-B DO-41 Plastic 1K/Bulk 1N4005-T DO-41 Plastic 5K/Tape & Reel, 13-inch 1N4006-B DO-41 Plastic 1K/Bulk 1N4006-T DO-41 Plastic 5K/Tape & Reel, 13-inch 1N4007-B DO-41 Plastic 1K/Bulk 1N4007-T DO-41 Plastic 5K/Tape & Reel, 13-inch

Notes: 4. For packaging details, visit our website at http://www.diodes.com/datasheets/ap02008.pdf.

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72Microcontroller Based Solar Charger


ADVANTAGES

• No noise

• Easy to install

• Simple to operate

• Pollution free working

• Low maintenance cost

• Generating panel has a long life



CONCLUSION

In future, India will have to depend on renewable energy. The only source available around

us is sunlight, and we can easily convert sunlight energy into electrical energy by using PV

cells to meet our requirement.

However to extend use of solar power energy to industrial and commercial areas, the price

of PV cells need to be brought down through low-cost manufacturing techniques.

By using the solar energy power generation technology the usage of non-conventional

resources can be minimized which not only reduces the resource extinction but helps widely

in reducing the environmental pollution.

By Generating Power Through Solar Energy The Cost Of Electricity Can Be

Minimized And Occasionally Can Be Provided With Free Of Cost.

Electricity Can Be Supplied Even To Remote Areas With Out The usage Of

Transmission Lines.



REFERENCE

PIC Microcontroller Text by Muhammad Ali Mazidi.

www.electronicscomponents.com

http://www.electronicsforu.com/

http://www.alldatasheet.com/

Microcontroller based solar charger

Engineering

Transcript of Microcontroller based solar charger