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Microbiology
B.E Pruitt & Jane J. Stein
AN INTRODUCTION
TORTORA • FUNKE • CASE
Chapter 18
Practical Applications of Immunology
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Vaccine History• Variolation: Inoculation of smallpox into skin (18th century)
• Vaccination: Inoculation of cowpox into skin
• Herd immunity results when most of a population is immune to a disease.
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Jenner• On 14th May 1796, Edward Jenner used cowpox-infected material obtained from the hand of Sarah Nemes, a milkmaid from his home village of Berkley in Gloucestershire to successfully vaccinate 8 year old James Phipps. On 1st July 1796, Jenner challenged the boy by deliberately inoculating him with material from a real case of smallpox.He did not become infected!
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How Vaccines work• Trigger your own immune response– Artificially acquired active
immunity
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•Attenuated - no longer virulent
•Inactivated or Killed - formalin, phenol or heat destroyed
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Types of Vaccines• Attenuated whole agent vaccines:
– Live, attenuated (weakened) microbes - virus or bacteria
– Long term immunity
– May back mutate to virulent strain (rare)
• Inactivated (killed) vaccines:– Killed by formalin, phenol or heat
– Toxoids
– Not as long lasting
– Safe
• Subunit vaccine:– Uses fragments from virus or bacteria
• Produced by recombinant methods Recombinvac
– Safe
– Clean
• Conjugated vaccines:– Bind to larger particle or protein to enhance antigenicity
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• DTaP - Trivalent (three in one)– Diphtheria: Purified diphtheria toxoid– Pertussis: Acellular fragments of B. pertussis– Tetanus: Purified tetanus toxoid
• Meningococcal meningitis: Purified polysaccharide from N. meningitidis
• Haemophilus influenzae type b meningitis: Polysaccharides conjugated with protein
• Pneumococcal conjugate vaccine: S. pneumoniae antigens conjugated with protein
Principal Vaccines Used in the United States to Prevent Bacterial Diseases in
Humans
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Vaccine Schedule
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• Smallpox: Live vaccinia virus• Poliomyelitis: Inactivated virus• Rabies: Inactivated virus• Hepatitis A: Inactivated virus• Influenza: Inactivated or attenuated virus• Measles: Attenuated virus• Mumps: Attenuated virus• Rubella: Attenuated virus• Chickenpox: Attenuated virus• Hepatitis B: Antigenic fragments (recombinant vaccine)
Principal Vaccines Used in the United States to Prevent Viral Diseases in
Humans
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Other Diagnostic applications: Serological Tests
Diagnostic Immunological tests:• Direct tests detect antigens (from patient sample)• Indirect tests detect antibodies (in patient's serum)
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Diagnostic Immunology: Precipitation Reactions
Precipitation Reactions:• Involve soluble
antigens with antibodies
• Precipitin Ring test
Figure 18.3
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Agglutination Reactions• Involve particulate
antigens and antibodies
• Antigens may be:• On a cell (direct
agglutination) • Attached to latex
spheres (indirect or passive agglutination)
Figure 18.4
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Hemagglutination
• Hemagglutination involves agglutination of RBCs.
Figure 18.7
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Neutralization Reactions• Antibodies help eliminate the harmful effect of a virus or exotoxin
• Viral hemagglutination inhibition tests for the presence of antibodies in a patients serum by the antibodies' ability to prevent viruses from agglutinating RBCs.
Figure 18.8b
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Antibody Titer
• Is the concentration of antibodies against a particular antigen
Figure 18.5
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Complement Fixation
Figure 18.9.1
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Complement Fixation
Figure 18.9.2
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Fluorescent Antibody Techniques (Direct)
Figure 18.10a
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Fluorescent Antibody Techniques (Indirect)
Figure 18.10b
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Enzyme-Linked Immunosorbent Assay(Direct ELISA)
Figure 18.12a
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Enzyme-Linked Immunosorbent Assay (Indirect ELISA)
Figure 18.12b
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Serological Tests
Figure 18.13
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Serological Tests: Summary• Precipitation: Soluble antigens • Agglutination: Particulate antigens• Hemagglutination: Agglutination of RBCs• Neutralization (inhibition): Inactivates toxin or virus• Fluorescent-antibody technique: Antibodies linked to
fluorescent dye• Complement fixation: RBCs are indicator• ELISA: Enzyme linked to antibody amplifies results for
easier visibility and more sensitivity.