Memory Rozalia Ivady BME – Cognitive Science Department ImpLab Scientific Society Psychology...
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Transcript of Memory Rozalia Ivady BME – Cognitive Science Department ImpLab Scientific Society Psychology...
Memory
Rozalia IvadyBME – Cognitive Science Department
ImpLab Scientific SocietyPsychology Class, McDaniels College, 29th October 2007
Memory – an outline
Multiple stores Retention curves – serial position data Memory dysfunctions
Sensory memory Short term memory Long term memory
Three processes Forgetting Explicit and implicit memory Constructive memory
Psychology and the law
But before anything else
Provo is a picturesque region of France. Corman was a pretender to the throne of
Provo. He was tired of waiting. He thought arsenic might work.
Try to remember these!
Memory – an outline
Multiple stores Retention curves – serial position data Memory dysfunctions
Iconic memory Short term memory Long term memory
Three processes Explicit and implicit memory Constructive memory
Psychology and the law
Try to recall as many items as you can! Cat Apple Banana Hammer Toothpick Parrot Table Blackberry Fly
Chair Screw Pigeon Orange Knife Bed Dog Fork Rat
The Atkinson-Shiffrin Model
Long-term memory
Working orShort-term
Memory
Sensory
Input
Sensory Memory
Attention Encoding
Retrieval
Maintenance Rehearsal
Famous Anterograde Amnesiac: HM Severe epilepsy, treated with surgery to
bilaterally remove medial temporal lobes, including hippocampus
Operation 9/1953, 27 years old
Anterograde Amnesia
Inability to acquire new information
“memento”
Does not affect short-term memory and general knowledge from the past
But, it is difficult to learn new facts
Affects memory regardless of modality (visual, auditory, tactile, etc). Spares skilled performance
Hyper-specific memory for those skills that are learned after onset – learning is expressed only in context in which it was encoded
Memory – an outline
Multiple stores Retention curves – serial position data Memory dysfunctions
Sensory memory Short term memory Long term memory
Three processes Explicit and implicit memory Constructive memory
Psychology and the law
There is more than we can tell…
Eidetic pictures of children
How many stripes did you see on the cat?
Sensory Memory Store
Function - holds information long enough to be processed for basic physical characteristics
Capacity - large can hold many items at
once Duration - very brief
retention of images .3 sec for visual info 2 sec for auditory info
Sensory
InputSensory Memory
Sensory Memory Store
Divided into two subtypes: iconic memory - visual
information echoic memory -
auditory information Visual or iconic memory
was discovered by Sperling in 1960
Sensory
InputSensory Memory
Sperling’s Experiment
Presented matrix of letters for 1/20 seconds
Report as many letters as possible
Subjects recall only half of the letters
Was this because subjects didn’t have enough time to
view entire matrix? No How did Sperling know this?
Sperling’s Experiment
Sperling showed people can see and recall ALL the letters momentarily
Sounded low, medium or high tone immediately after matrix disappeared tone signaled 1 row to report recall was almost perfect
High
Medium
Low
Memory for image fades after 1/3 seconds or so, making report of entire display hard to do
Sensory Memory Store
Sensory memory forms automatically, without attention or interpretation
Attention is needed to transfer information to working memory
Sensory
InputSensory Memory
Memory – an outline
Multiple stores Retention curves – serial position data Memory dysfunctions
Sensory memory Short term memory Long term memory
Three processes Explicit and implicit memory Constructive memory
Psychology and the law
The Atkinson-Shiffrin Model
Long-term memory
Working orShort-term
Memory
Sensory
Input
Sensory Memory
Attention Encoding
Retrieval
Maintenance Rehearsal
Working Memory Store
Function - conscious processing of information where information is actively worked on
Capacity - limited (holds 7 +/- 2 items) Duration - brief storage (about 30 seconds) Code - often based on sound or speech even with
visual inputs
Working orShort-term
Memory
Sensory
Input
Sensory Memory
Attention
Working Memory Store
What happens if you need to keep information in working memory longer than 30 seconds?
To demonstrate, memorize the following phone number (presented one digit at a time)...
8 361975
Working Memory Store
What is the number?857-9163The number lasted in your working memory longer than 30 secondsSo, how were you able to remember the number?
Maintenance Rehearsal
Working orShort-term
Memory
Sensory
Input
Sensory Memory
Attention
Mental or verbal repetition of information
Allows information to remain in working memory longer than the usual 30 seconds
Maintenance rehearsal
Maintenance Rehearsal
What happens if you can’t use maintenance rehearsal? Memory decays quickly To demonstrate, again memorize a phone number
(presented one digit at a time) BUT, have to count backwards from 1,000 by sevens (i.e.,
1014, 1007, 1000 … etc.)
6 490582
Peterson’s STM Task
Test of memory for 3-letter nonsense syllables
Participants count backwards for a few seconds, then recall
Without rehearsal, memory fades
Working Memory Model
Baddeley (1992) 3 interacting components
Central Executive
Phonological Loop
Visuospatial Sketch Pad
Working Memory Model
Visuospatial sketch pad - holds visual and spatial info Phonological loop - holds verbal information Central executive - coordinates all activities of working memory; brings
new information into working memory from sensory and long-term memory
Central Executive
Phonological Loop
Visuospatial Sketch pad
Long-Term Memory Store
Once information passes from sensory to working memory, it can be encoded into long-term memory
Long-term memory
Working orShort-term
Memory
Sensory
Input
Sensory Memory
Attention Encoding
Retrieval
Maintenance Rehearsal
Long-Term Memory Store
Long-term memory
Working orShort-term
Memory
Sensory
Input
Sensory Memory
Attention Encoding
Retrieval
Maintenance Rehearsal
Function - organizes and stores information more passive form of storage than working memory
Unlimited capacity Duration - thought by some to be permanent
Review of Long-Term Memory
Organizes and stores information Capacity unlimited Thought by some to be permanent Encoding transfers info from STM to LTM
Long-term memory
Working orShort-term
Memory
Sensory
Input
Sensory Memory
Attention Encoding
Retrieval
Maintenance Rehearsal
Three processes and sins of memory
Encoding - process that controls movement from working to long-term memory store
Storage Retrieval - process that controls flow of
information from long-term to working memory store
Forgetting and the fight against it
Elaboration Chunking Thories of forgetting
Problems in encoding Problems of retention Problems of retrieval – interference ,inhibition
Elaboration
Focus on meaning of information to encode it into LTM don’t simply repeat items over and over tie item to other info in memory also called elaborative rehearsal
Ways to Use Elaboration
Actively question new information Think about its implications Relate information to things you already know Generate own examples of concepts Don’t highlight passage as you read
focus on the ideas in the text
Which Level is More Effective?
Elaboration leads to better recall than shallow processing
Typ
e of
P
roce
ssin
g
Shallow -Acoustic
Deep
Shallow - Visual
10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 1000Percent of words recalled
Positive correlation between grades and use of elaboration in 5th grade students
In an experiment, college students assigned to use elaboration received higher grades than students not taught elaboration
More Evidence for Elaboration
Chunking
Grouping small bits of information into larger units of information expands working memory load
Which is easier to remember? 4 8 3 7 9 2 5 1 6
483 792 516
Encoding Failure Demonstrations
What letters accompany the number 5 on your telephone?
Where is the number 0 on your calculator? According to this theory, objects seen
frequently, but information is never encoded into LTM
Forgetting as Retrieval Failure
Not all forgetting is due to encoding failures Sometimes information IS encoded into LTM, but we can’t retrieve it
X
Role of Time : Decay Theory
Memories fade away or decay gradually if unused
Time plays critical role Ability to retrieve info
declines with time after original encoding
Problem: Many things change with time. Something else may change and actually cause forgetting: Interference
Interference Theories
“Memories interfering with memories” Forgetting NOT caused by mere passage of time Caused by one memory competing with or replacing
another memory Two types of interference
Two Types of Interference
R etroac tiveIn te rfe ren ce
P roac tiveIn te rfe ren ce
Typ es o f in te rfe ren ce
Retroactive Interference
When a NEW memory interferes with remembering OLD information
Example: When new phone number interferes with ability to remember old phone number
Retroactive Interference
Example: Learning a new language interferes with ability to remember old language
F-
Proactive Interference
Opposite of retroactive interference
When an OLD memory interferes with remembering NEW information
Example: Memories of where you parked your car on campus the past week interferes with ability find car today
Proactive Interference
Example: Previously learned language interferes with ability to remember newly learned language
F-
Retrieval Cue Theories
Retrieval cue - a clue, prompt or hint that can help memory retrieval
Forgetting is the result of using improper retrieval cues
Encoding Specificity Principle
Learn word list generate ‘cue’ when
see word (jam - jelly) at recall cues given as
retrieval aid(jelly or traffic)
Cues generated during learning (jelly) more effective during retrieval than new cues (traffic)
Context-Dependent Memory
Improved ability to remember if tested in the same environment as the initial learning environment better recall if tested in classroom where you initially
learned info than if moved to a new classroom if learning room smells of chocolate or mothballs,
people will recall more info if tested in room with the same smell compared to different smell or no smell at all
Context-Dependent Effects
Compare words learned underwater vs on land Words heard underwater are best recalled underwater Words heard on land are best recalled on land
Context Dependent Effects
Time of day is also important
9
6
12
3
Learn at 3 pm Perform better at 3 pm
9
6
12
3 9
6
12
3
Than 9 pm
State-Dependent Memory
Recall improved if internal physiological or emotional state is the same during testing and initial encoding
Context vs State dependent Context-dependent - external, environmental factors
State-dependent - internal, physiological factors
State-Dependent Effects
Mood or emotions also a factor
Bipolar depressives information learned in manic state, recall more if
testing done during manic state information learned in depressed state, recall
more if testing done during depressed state
State Dependent Effects
If drink during learning
May recall better with drink
Than without
But not as well as sober all the way!
Memory – an outline
Multiple stores Retention curves – serial position data Memory dysfunctions
Sensory memory Short term memory Long term memory
Three processes Forgetting Explicit and implicit memory Constructive memory
Psychology and the law
Memory Construction
Recall not an exact replica of original events Recall a construction built and rebuilt from various
sources Often fit memories into existing beliefs
Time can be even shorter The War of the Ghosts
One night two young men from Egulacwent down to the river to hunt seals, and while they were there it became foggy and calm. Then they heard war-cries, and they thought: "Maybe this is a war-party". They escaped to the shore, and hid behind a log. Now canoes came up, and they heard the noise of paddles, and saw one canoe coming up to them. There were five men m the canoe, and they said:
"What do you think? We wish to take you along. We are going up the river to make war on the people". One of the young men said: "I have no arrows". "Arrows are in the canoe", they said. "I will not go along. I might be killed. My relatives do not know where I have gone. But you", he said, turning
to the other, "may go with them." So one of the young men went, but the other returned home. And the warriors went on up the river to a town on the other side of Kalama. The people came down to the
water, and they began to fight, and manywere killed. But presently the young man heard one of the warriors say: "Quick, let us go home:that Indian has been hit". Now he thought: "Oh, they are ghosts". He did not feel sick, but they said he had been shot.
So the canoes went back to Egulac, and the young man went ashore to his house, and made a fire. And he told everybody and said: " Behold I accompanied the ghosts, and we went to fight. Many of our fellows were killed, and many of those who attacked us were killed. They said I was hit, and I did not feel sick".
He told it all, and then he became quiet. When the sun rose he fell down. Something black came out of his mouth. His face became contorted. The people jumped up and cried.
He was dead.
Recall the story
3 months later Some warriors went to wage way against the ghosts. They
fought all day and one of their number was wounded. They returned home in the evening, bearing their sick comrade.
As the day drew to a close, he became rapidly worse and the villagers came round him. At sunset he sighed: something black came out of his mouth. He was dead.
Schema Theories
Schema - mental representation of an object, scene or event example: schema of a countryside may include green
grass, hills, farms, a barn, cows, etc. Scripts - type of schema
mental organization of events in time example of a classroom script: come into class, sit
down, talk to friends, bell rings, instructor begins to speak, take notes, bell rings again, leave class, etc.
Schemas & scripts provide framework for new information
Eyewitness Testimony
Memory can be distorted as people try to fit new info into existing schemas
Eyewitnesses usually see something complex just once then have to remember it
Sometimes new information is distorted by fitting into an existing schema subsequent information (famous experiment by Loftus)
Loftus Experiment
Subjects shown video of an accident between two cars
Some subjects asked: How fast were the cars going when they smashed into each other?
Others asked: How fast were the cars going when they hit each other?
Loftus’s Results
Speed estimates depended on how the question was phrased
Subjects memory for broken glass also depended on the phrasing of the speed question. But this was a false
memory: there was no broken glass
Memory – an outline
Multiple stores Retention curves – serial position data Memory dysfunctions
Sensory memory Short term memory Long term memory
Three processes Forgetting Explicit and implicit memory Constructive memory
Psychology and the law
EpisodicM em ory
Sem anticM em ory
E xp lic it M em ory
P roceduralM em ory
C lassicalConditioning
Prim ing
Im p lic it M em ory
Long-term M em ory
Long-term Memory Systems
Explicit Memory
Also known as declarative or conscious memory
Properties: memory consciously recalled or declared Can use to directly respond to a question
Two subtypes of explicit memory
Episodic Memory
Memory tied to your own personal experiences
Examples: what did you have for dinner? do you like to eat caramel apples?
Why are these explicit memories?
Because you can actively declare your answers to these questions
Semantic Memory
Memory not tied to personal events General facts and definitions about the world Examples:
who was George Washington? what is a cloud? what is the climate at the north pole?
These are explicit memories because you can describe what you know about them.
Unlike episodic memories, your knowledge does NOT include your personal experience i.e., You may never have been to the north pole but do know about it.
Implicit Memory
Also known as nondeclarative memory
Influences your thoughts or behavior, but does not enter consciousness
Three subtypes
Subtypes of Implicit Memory
C lassica lC ond ition ing
Procedura lM em ory
Prim ing
Im p lic it M em ory
Procedural Memory
Memory that enables you to perform specific learned skills or habitual responses
Examples: Riding a bike How to speak grammatically Tying your shoe laces
Why are these procedural memories implicit? Can’t readily describe their contents
try describing how to tie your shoes They are automatically retrieved when appropriate
Priming
Priming is influence of one memory on another
priming is implicit because it does not depend on awareness and is automatic
Here is a demonstration
Priming Demonstration
Unscramble the following words:
O R E S L T E P AK T A L S TSME L O B S O M SELAF
ROSE PETALSTALK STEMBLOSSOM
Priming Demonstration
ELAF = LEAF
Why not respond FLEA?
Because flower parts were primed (flower power)
Priming
Activation of one or more existing memories by a stimulus
Activation not a conscious decision BUT, can effect subsequent thoughts and actions Two types of priming
Conceptual Priming
The semantic meaning of priming stimulus influences your encoding or retrieval
Thought to involve activation of concepts stored in semantic memory
Example: Flower power priming demonstration
Does not depend on sense modality: pictures can conceptually prime sounds AS THE NEXT SLIDE SHOWS
Priming across modalities
Look at the picture . Then when the instructor says a word, write it down.
Perceptual Priming
Prime enhances ability to identify a test stimulus based on its physical features
Does not work across sense modalities
Evidence for Separate Implicit/Explicit Systems Neurophysiological evidence Patient H.M.
life-threatening seizures originating in temporal lobe surgically removed portions of temporal lobe
Patient H.M.
Surgery was effective in reducing seizures BUT, had other side effects as well Can remember explicit memories acquired before the
surgery e.g., old addresses, normal vocabulary
Cannot form NEW explicit memories e.g., remembering the name of someone he met 30
minutes prior cannot name new world leaders or performers can recognize a picture of himself from before his
surgery but not from after and doesn’t recognize himself in a mirror
Patient H.M.
H.M. has severe explicit / declarative memory disorder
H.M. is almost normal on procedural or implicit memory tasks including priming, classical conditioning, and learning motor skills
This shows that explicit memory depends upon the temporal lobes and implicit does not
Patient H.M. Summary
Temporal lobe damage led to deficits in explicit, but not implicit memory H.M. had both episodic and semantic memory deficits
Damage to the hippocampus alone produces episodic, but not semantic memory deficits
Why did H.M. show both types of explicit memory deficits? He had damage not only to hippocampus, but to other
structures as well
Memory – an outline
Multiple stores Retention curves – serial position data Memory dysfunctions
Sensory memory Short term memory Long term memory
Three processes Forgetting Explicit and implicit memory Constructive memory
Psychology and the law