International Journal Of Advancement In Engineering Technology, Management and Applied

Science (IJAETMAS)

ISSN: 2349-3224 || www.ijaetmas.com || Volume 03 - Issue 12 || December - 2016 || PP. 106-116

www.ijaetmas.com Page 106

Mechanical Engineering in Ancient Egypt, Part XXXVI:

Human Stone Statues in the 19th

and 20th

Dynasties

Galal Ali Hassaan

Emeritus Professor, Department of Mechanical Design Production,

Faculty of Engineering, Cairo University, Egypt

Abstract— The ancient Egyptians continued to produce human stone statues during the 19th and 20th Dynasties. The

types and design of those statues is investigated showing their characteristics and features. The stone type, statue

height and present location are all outlined if available. Colossal human statues in the 19th Dynasty are highlighted.

The dress and headdress types are outlined for each statue .

Keywords— Mechanical engineering; Ancient Egypt; Human stone statues, 19

th and 20

th Dynasties, colossal

statues .

I. INTRODUCTION

This is the 36th

paper in a scientific research aiming at presenting a deep insight into the

history of mechanical engineering during one of the greatest civilizations in the world, the

ancient Egyptians civilization. The paper handles one of important industries practiced by

ancient Egyptians during the Dynastic Periods of their history. The ancient Egyptian stone

statues are filling all the Museums in all around the world indicating the unbelieved

mechanical technology used in producing such statues.

Magdolen (2002) investigated two fragments of an ancient Egyptian statue in the City

Museum Bratislava. He compared the mouth of some 18th

Dynasty Pharaohs from their

statues and come to a conclusion that fragment VEIII indicates that perhaps it may be for

Pharaoh Thutmose III [1]. Sadikoglu (2007) in her book about ancient Egyptian art and its

influence on modern time through history presented some statues at the entrance of Karnak

Temple at Luxor, a Pharaoh bust, statues of Hatshepsut in Amun Temple, statues of Memnon

at Thebes, statue of Merytamun from the 19th

Dynasty, a colossal statue of Pinudjem, Priest

of Amun Temple at Thebes from the 21st Dynasty, a block statue of Amun-Re in Karnak,

statues of Ramses II and his wife Nefertari in Hathor Temple and Ramses II statues in his

temple at Abu-Simbel [2]. Olivier (2008) in her Master of Arts Thesis presented a number of

illustrations including stone statues for Pharaoh Ramses II of the 19th

Dynasty in his temple at

Abu-Simbel, statue of Priestess of Hathor Enehy from the 19th

Dynasty and a broken

colossal statue of Ramses II at Tanis. She presented also a statue for Queen Tuya wife of

Pharaoh Seti I of the 19th

Dynasty, a statue for Queen Nefertari wife of Ramses II, the

colossal statues of Ramses II and Nefertari in the small temple at Abu-Simbel, colossal statue

of Merytamun, daughter of Ramses II and Queen Nefertari at Akhmim [3].

Sullivan (2010) in an article about the development of the Karnak Temple presented some

stone statues in Pylon II of the temple and in Khonsu Temple of Ramses III of the 20th

Dynasty, a sphinx stattue on the road between Karnak and Luxor Temple and sphinx statues

in the way outside Pylon I of Karnak Temple [4]. Green (2012) discussed the results of

suthor's survey of representations of Queens and Goddesses of the 19th

Dynasty and

implications for the use of the double uraeus versus uraeus-vulture combination in certain

media and/or contexts [5]. Iskander (2012) presented the work undertaken during the 2011-

2012 season by the joint expedition to the Temple of Ramses II at Abydos. He included a

description of identifying, collecting and cataloguing fragments of the granite colossal statue

of Ramses II [6].

International Journal Of Advancement In Engineering Technology, Management and Applied

Science (IJAETMAS)

ISSN: 2349-3224 || www.ijaetmas.com || Volume 03 - Issue 12 || December - 2016 || PP. 106-116

www.ijaetmas.com Page 107

Dorman, Garnet and James (2016) studied the Egyptian art and architecture including

statues produced during the Dynastic Periods of the first three millennia BCE in Egypt and

Nubia. They presented some of the colossal statues of Ramses II in the entrance of Luxor

Temple, his colossal statues in his temple at Abu-Simbel and the colossi of Memnon at

Madinat Habu in Thebes [7]. Hassaan (2016) investigated the evolution of mechanical

engineering in ancient Egypt through his study of the human statues industry. He outlined

different aspects of this industry during the Predynastic to Old Kingdom [8], from the 11th

to

the 17th

Dynasties [9] and during the 18th

Dynasty [10].

II. THE 19TH

DYNASTY

The 19th

Dynasty of ancient Egypt expands over a time period from 1292 to 1189 BC rule

by eight Pharaohs starting by Ramses I and ending by Twosret [11]. The 19th

Dynasty is the

Dynasty of colossal statues as a feature of its stone statues. Here, I present examples of the

stone statues of this great dynasty:

- The first example is stone head of Pharaoh Ramses I (1292-1290 BC), the founder of

the 19th

Dynasty in display in the Museum of Fine Arts at Boston and shown in Fig.1

[12]. The Pharaoh is wearing a decorated Khat headdress.

- The second example is an alabaster statue for Seti I (1290-1279 BC), the second

Pharaoh of the 19th

Dynasty in display in the Egyptian Museum at Cairo and shown in

Fig.2 [13]. This is a striding statue of the Pharaoh, wearing a short Shenti with front

tail and holding an object in each hand. The headdress is missing and the nose is

broken.

Fig.1 Head of Ramses I [12]. Fig.2 Statue of Seti I [13].

- The third example is a granite statue for Queen Tuya, the wife of Pharaoh Seti I

(1290-1279 BC) in display in the Vatican Museum and shown in Fig.3 [14]. The

designer showed the Queen wearing a decorated headdress, crown, wide pectoral and

putting her left hand on her chest and holding an object. The decorations of her

headdress and crown are shown in the zoomed view in Fig.3. The carver could

generate those complex decorations using of the hardest stones, granite with an

accuracy may be possible now using CNC machines.

International Journal Of Advancement In Engineering Technology, Management and Applied

Science (IJAETMAS)

ISSN: 2349-3224 || www.ijaetmas.com || Volume 03 - Issue 12 || December - 2016 || PP. 106-116

www.ijaetmas.com Page 108

- The fourth example is a 2-coloured granite upper-part of Ramses II state, the 3rd

Pharaoh of the 19th

Dynasty in display in the British Museum, weighing 7.25 ton and

shown in Fig.4 [15]. The designer showed the Pharaoh wearing a Nemes headdress

with Cobra on its front and a Crown above it with a thin long beard. The details of the

face are wonderful as if it was generated by a computer showing the beauty of the

Pharaoh when he was young.

Fig.3 Statue of Queen Tuya [14]. Fig.4 Statue of Ramses II [15].

- The fifth example is a 2.44 m setting statue for Pharaoh Ramses II in display in The

University of Pennsylvania Museum and shown in Fig.5 [16]. The designer showed

the Pharaoh wearing a short Schenti, a decorated Nemes with cobra on its front,

putting his hands on his thighs and his chair is full of inscriptions. The nose is broken

as indicated in the zoomed view in Fig.5.

- The sixth example is a colossal striding statue for Pharaoh Ramses II in the Luxor

Temple and shown in Fig.6 [17]. The Pharaoh was shown wearing a short Schenti

with front tail, a Nemes headdress with Cobra on its front, holding an object in each

hand with thin long beard. Unfortunately, the stone type and height are not identified !.

Fig.5 Statue of Ramses II [16]. Fig.6 Statue of Ramses II [17].

International Journal Of Advancement In Engineering Technology, Management and Applied

Science (IJAETMAS)

ISSN: 2349-3224 || www.ijaetmas.com || Volume 03 - Issue 12 || December - 2016 || PP. 106-116

www.ijaetmas.com Page 109

- The seventh example is a 1.94 m height black granite setting statue for Pharaoh

Ramses II in display in the Turin Museum of Italy and shown in Fig.7 [18]. This is

may be one of the best statues of the Great Pharaoh Ramses II of the 19th

Dynasty.

The designer showed the Pharaoh wearing a long inscribed Schenti, the Blue Crown

with Cobra on its front, holding a Crook in his right hand and an object in his left

hand. The Pharaoh is shown wearing a sandal in his feet. The details of the face and

the decorations of the Blue Crown are shown in the zoomed view in Fig.7. The carver

was so professional to carve granite and produce the very high quality depicted in the

zoomed view.

Fig.7 Statue of Ramses II [18].

- The eighth example is a colossal statue for Pharaoh Ramses II standing in the Giza

Plateau and shown in Fig.8 [19]. The statue has an 11m height and an 83 ton weight.

The designer showed the Pharaoh wearing a short Schenti with front tail, a Nemes

headdress and a Double Crown over the headdress, holding an object in its vertical

straight hands and may be a double Cobra in front of the Crown as depicted in the

zoomed view of Fig.8.

- The ninth example is again a colossal statue for Ramses II in the entrance of his

Temple at Abu-Simbel and shown in Fig.9 [20]. Four colossal statues were cut in the

rocks of Pharaoh Ramses II Temple at Abu-Simbel. The estimated height is about

5.25 m and the weight is unknown. The Pharaoh was shown wearing short Schenti, a

Nemes headdress and probably a Double Crown with Cobra on its front and putting

his two hands on his thighs.

- The tenth example is a stone group statue for Scribe Ptahmai and his family (1250-

1200 BC) in display in the Neues Museum at Berlin and shown in Fig.10 [21]. The

designer showed the Scribe and his two wives setting on a sofa with his daughter

standing between him and her mother. He is shown wearing a long Schenti, pectoral

and putting his hands on his thighs. Both wives are wearing a long Tunic, decorated

headdress and putting one hand on her thigh and holding his waist with the other hand.

The wives had a headdress with elaborated decoration as shown in the zoomed view

of his wife at his right.

International Journal Of Advancement In Engineering Technology, Management and Applied

Science (IJAETMAS)

ISSN: 2349-3224 || www.ijaetmas.com || Volume 03 - Issue 12 || December - 2016 || PP. 106-116

www.ijaetmas.com Page 110

- The eleventh example is a limestone statue of one of Ramses II daughters in display

in the Egyptian Museum at Cairo and shown in Fig.11 [22]. The princess is wearing a

coloured-long Tung, well decorated headdress with two Cobra on its front and a

Crown with Cobra on all its circumference. The statue was carved and painted with

extreme sophistication and technology leading to a product sustaining for more than

3200 years.

Fig.8 Statue of Ramses II [19]. Fig.9 Statues of Ramses II [20].

Fig.10 Group statue of Ptahmai [21]. Fig.11 Statues of Ramses II daughter [22].

- The twelfth example is a sandstone statue for Khaemwaset, one of the sons of

Pharaoh Ramses II in display in the British Museum and shown in Fig.12 [23]. The

designer showed the Prince wearing a short Schenti, a decorated Khat headdress and

holding two long bars, one bar per hand.

- The thirteenth example is a granite statue for Merneptah, the fourth Pharaoh of the

19th

Dynasty (1213-1203 BC) in display in the Egyptian Museum at Cairo and shown

in Fig.13[24]. The Pharaoh is shown wearing a short Schenti with front tail, a

decorated Nemes with one Cobra on its front and a Double Crown on it as clear in the

zoomed view of Fig.13.

International Journal Of Advancement In Engineering Technology, Management and Applied

Science (IJAETMAS)

ISSN: 2349-3224 || www.ijaetmas.com || Volume 03 - Issue 12 || December - 2016 || PP. 106-116

www.ijaetmas.com Page 111

Fig.12 Statue of Khaemwaset [23]. Fig.13 Statue of Merneptah [24].

- The fourteenth example is a striding statue for Seti II, the 5th

Pharaoh of the 19th

Dynasty (1203-1197 BC) in display in the Egyptian Museum at Turin, Italy and

shown in Fig.14 [25]. The Pharaoh is shown wearing short Schenti with belt and front

tail, a decorated Khat headdress with Cobra on its front and holding an object in each

hand. The stone type nor the dimensions are not available.

- The fifteenth example is a replica statue of Pharaoh Seti II in display in the

Rosicrucian Egyptian Museum at California and shown in Fig.15 [26]. The designer

showed the Pharaoh kneeing, wearing a short Schenti, a Nemes headdress with Cobra

on its front and holding a shrine to be presented to Amun. Here, the designer did not

show the Pharaoh with thin long beard as in the design of Fig.14.

Fig.14 Statue of Seti II [25]. Fig.15 Statue of Merneptah [26].

- The last example from the 19th

Dynasty is painted quartzite head for Amenmesse, the

6th

Pharaoh (1201-1198 BC) in display in the Brooklyn Museum at NY and shown in

Fig.16 [27]. The Pharaoh was shown wearing the Blue Crown of ancient Egypt with a

Cobra on its front.

International Journal Of Advancement In Engineering Technology, Management and Applied

Science (IJAETMAS)

ISSN: 2349-3224 || www.ijaetmas.com || Volume 03 - Issue 12 || December - 2016 || PP. 106-116

www.ijaetmas.com Page 112

Fig.16 Statue of Amenmesse [27].

III. THE 20TH

DYNASTY

The 20th

Dynasty of ancient Egypt covers a time span from1189 to 1077 BC ruled by

10 Pharaohs starting by Setnakhte and ending by Ramses XI [28]. Some of the human

stone judging the evolution of stone statues industry in the New Kingdom of Egypt are

presented below:

- Fig.17 shows a basalt statue of Ramses III, the 2nd

Pharaoh of the 20th

Dynasty (1186-

1156 BC) in display in the Rockefeller Museum at East Jerusalem [29]. The Pharaoh

was shown wearing a decorated Nemes headdress.

- The second example is a granite striding statue for Pharaoh Ramses III in display in

the Egyptian Museum at Cairo and shown in Fig.18 [30]. The Pharaoh is shown

wearing a long Schenti, a decorated Nemes with a Cobra on its front and holding a

Royal Bar by its left hand while his right is extending downwards. Even though the

granite is one of the hardest stone, the carver could produce this wonderful piece with

too many details and build-in decorations in the Schenti, headdress and bar.

Fig.17 Statue of Ramses III [29].

International Journal Of Advancement In Engineering Technology, Management and Applied

Science (IJAETMAS)

ISSN: 2349-3224 || www.ijaetmas.com || Volume 03 - Issue 12 || December - 2016 || PP. 106-116

www.ijaetmas.com Page 113

Fig.18 Striding statue of Ramses III [30].

- The third example is a kneeling mudstone statue for Ramses IV, the 3rd

Pharaoh of the

20th

Dynasty (1155-1149 BC) in display in the British Museum and shown in Fig.19

[31]. The designer showed the Pharaoh as an old man wearing a short Schenti with

front tail, decorated Nemes headdress with front Cobra and holding two ointment jars,

one per palm.

- The fourth example is a granodiorite statue of the High Priest Ramessesnakht during

the rein of Pharaoh Ramses IV (1155-1149 BC) in display in the Egyptian Museum at

Cairo and shown in Fig.20 [32]. The designer showed the Priest as a Scribe in a

writing position with a paper on his thighs and a pen in his right hand. He is wearing a

special headdress.

Fig.19 Kneeling statue of Ramses IV [31]. Fig.20 Statue of Priest Ramessesnakht [32].

- The fourth example is a statue for Ramses V, the 4th

Pharaoh of the 20th

Dynasty in

display in the Egyptian Museum and shown in Fig.21 [33]. He is wearing a short

Schenti with front tail, Nemes headdress and a Double Crown over the headdress. He

is holding an object using his both hands.

- The last example is a granite statue for Ramses VI, the 5th

Pharaoh of the 20th

Dynasty

in display in the Egyptian Museum at Cairo and shown in Fig.22 [34].

Fig.21 Statue of Ramses V [33]. Fig.22 Statue of Ramses VI [34].

International Journal Of Advancement In Engineering Technology, Management and Applied

Science (IJAETMAS)

ISSN: 2349-3224 || www.ijaetmas.com || Volume 03 - Issue 12 || December - 2016 || PP. 106-116

www.ijaetmas.com Page 114

The designer showed the Pharaoh wearing a short decorated Schenti, a decorated

Khat, a Crown above the Khat headdress. The Pharaoh is in a striding fighting

position holding a military axe in his right palm and an enemy hair in his left palm as

clear in the zoomed view of Fig.22.

CONCLUSIONS

- The evolution of mechanical engineering in ancient Egypt through the study of the

human stone statues industry during the 19th

and 20th

Dynasties was investigated.

- The characteristics of the ancient Egyptian human stone statues were presented .

- Samples of the ancient Egypt human stone statues were presented from the collections

of national and international museums.

- The study covered ancient Egyptian historical periods during the 19th

and 20th

Dynasties.

- The Khat headdress continued to appear in both 19th

and 20th

Dynasties.

- Short Schenti with front tail was the common Royal dress during both 19th

and 20th

Dynasties.

- The Nemes headdress with or without Cobra on its front was the common Royal

headdress in both dynasties.

- Blue Crown was in use during the 19th

Dynasty.

- The Double Crown was in used during both 19th

and 20th

Dynasties.

- Singe or double Cobra were used with some headdresses and Crowns.

- Some Pharaohs appeared in their statues with thin long beard.

- Royal and Elite women appeared in both dynasties with nicely decorated headdresses.

- In a unique appearance one Pharaoh from the 20th

Dynasty appeared smiting the head

of his enemy.

- The ancient Egyptians of the 19th

and 20th

Dynasties designed and carved stone

statues is setting, striding and kneeing positions.

- They used granite, alabaster, sandstone, mudstone, basalt, quartzite and granodiorite

in producing their human stone statues during the 19th

and 20th

Dynasties

REFERENCES

[1] D. Magdolen, “Two fragments of an ancient Egyptian statue in the City Museum

Bratislava ”, Asian and African Studies, vol.11, issue 2, pp.147-160, 2002.

[2] P. Sadikoglu, "Ancient Egyptian art influence on modern time through history", Boyut

Publisher, 2007.

[3] A. Olivier, "Social statues of elite women of the New Kingdom of ancient Egypt: A

comparison of artistic features", Master of Arts Thesis, University of South Africa, June

2008.

[4] E. Sullivan, "The development of the Temple of Karnak", Digital Karnak, Los Angeles,

http://dlib.etc.ucla.edu/projects/Karnak , 2010..

[5] L. Green, "Diagnostic use of the uraeus combination by Queen and Goddesses in the 19th

Dynasty", The 63rd

Annual Meeting of the American Research Center in Egypt, April

27-29, 2012.

[6] S. Iskander, "2011-2012 New York University Epigraphic and conservation expedition

to the Temple of Ramses II at Abydos", The 63rd

Annual Meeting of the American

Research Center in Egypt, April 27-29, 2012.

International Journal Of Advancement In Engineering Technology, Management and Applied

Science (IJAETMAS)

ISSN: 2349-3224 || www.ijaetmas.com || Volume 03 - Issue 12 || December - 2016 || PP. 106-116

www.ijaetmas.com Page 115

[7] P. Dorman, T. Garnet and H. James, "Egyptian art and architecture",

www.britannic.com/art/Egyptian-art , 2016.

[8] G. A. Hassaan, "Mechanical engineering in ancient Egypt, Part XXXIII: Stone statues

industry (Predynastic to Old Kingdom)", International Journal of Recent Engineering

Science, vol.30, pp.5-16, December 2016.

[9] G. A. Hassaan, "Mechanical engineering in ancient Egypt, Part XXXIV: Stone statues

industry (11th

to 17th

Dynasties)", International Journal of Engineering and Techniques,

vol.2, issue 6, 2016 (Under Publication).

[10] G. A. Hassaan, "Mechanical engineering in ancient Egypt, Part XXXV: Human stone

statues in the 18th

Dynasty", World Journal of Engineering Research and Technology,

2016 (Accepted for Publication).

[11] Wikipedia, "Nineteenth dynasty of Egypt",

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nineteenth_dynasty_of_Egypt , , 2016

[12] Wikipedia, "Ramesses I", https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ramesses I , 2016.

[13] A. Shaffary, "Striding statue of Seti I, Dynasty 19",

https://www.pinterest.com/pin/210754457536953091/

[14] J. Cromb, "Queen Tuya, wife of Pharaoh Seti I of Egypt and mother of Ramesses II",

https://www.pinterest.com/pin/465911523924331261/

[15] British Museum, "Statue of Ramses II, the younger Memnon",

http://britishmuseum.tumblr.com/post/125844964332/statue-of-ramesses-ii-the-younger-

memnon

[16] J. Wagner, "Seated statue of Ramesses II",

http://www.penn.museum/blog/collection/125th-anniversary-object-of-the-day/seated-

statue-of-ramesses-ii-object-of-the-day-113/, 2012.

[17] Sophy 1, "Luxor statue of Ramses II", http://www.sophyl.com/aegypten/017-luxor-

statue-ramses-2.html

[18] The Heretic Pharaoh, "The best known stattue of Ramses II at the Turin Museum",

http://thehereticpharaoh.tumblr.com/post/48646268136/the-best-known-statue-of-

ramses-ii-at-the-turin

[19] Alamy, "Ramses square, the colossal statue of Ramses II",

http://www.alamy.com/stock-photo-egypt-cairo-ramses-square-the-colossal-statue-of-

ramses-ii-48072420.html , 2016.

[20] Ingpeace Project, "Four colossal statues of Ramesess II",

http://ingpeaceproject.com/2015/11/ , 2015.

[21] A. Clark, "Ptahmai with his wife Hatshepsut and his daughter",

www.pinterest.com/pin/3523363708308391260/

[22] Artres, "Statue of Ramesses II's daughter, 19th

Dynasty",

http://www.artres.com/C.aspx?VP3=ViewBox_VPage&VBID=2UN365NZODLYX&IT

=ZoomImageTemplate01_VForm&IID=2UN39YWE80R&PN=37&CT=Search&SF=0

[23] Catja, "Sandstone conglomerate statue of Khaemwaset",

https://www.pinterest.com/pin/517280707171650745/

[24] Art & Archaeology, "Colossus of Merneptah", http://www.art-and-

archaeology.com/egypt/egy51.html

[25] A. Burnett, "Statue of King Seti II from the Egyptian Museum of Turin",

https://www.pinterest.com/pin/176062666655508529/

[26] Wikipedia, "A replica statue of Seti II holding a shrine to Amun",

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seti_II

International Journal Of Advancement In Engineering Technology, Management and Applied

Science (IJAETMAS)

ISSN: 2349-3224 || www.ijaetmas.com || Volume 03 - Issue 12 || December - 2016 || PP. 106-116

www.ijaetmas.com Page 116

[27] Metropolitan Museum, "Head of King Amenmesse wearing the Blue Crown",

http://www.metmuseum.org/toah/works-of-art/34.2.2/

[28] Wikipedia, "Twentieth Dynasty of Egypt",

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Twentieth_Dynasty_of_Egypt , 2016.

[29] Alamy, " Statue of Ramses III from Beth Shean" , http://www.alamy.com/stock-photo-

statue-of-ramses-iii-from-beth-shean-1184-1153-bc-basalt-on-display-86312071.html

[30] R. Brewer, "Striding statue of Ramses III as a standard bearer of Amun",

https://fr.pinterest.com/pin/380835712222292079/

[31] British Museum, " Kneeling mudstone figure of Ramses IV",

http://www.britishmuseum.org/research/collection_online/collection_object_details/colle

ction_image_gallery.aspx?partid=1&assetid=22761003&objectid=177337

[32] World History, " High Priest Ramessesnakht as scribe, reign of Ramesses IV",

http://www.worldhistory.biz/ancient-history/55038-9-nineteenth-twentieth-

dynasties.html , 2015.

[33] Cfeetk, " Striding statue of Ramesses V ", www.cfeetk.cnrs.fr/karnak/?ck=262&hl=ar

[34] World History, " Ramesses VI smiting Libyan enemy",

http://www.worldhistory.biz/ancient-history/55038-9-nineteenth-twentieth-

dynasties.html , 2015.

BIOGRAPHY

Galal Ali Hassaan:

Emeritus Professor of System Dynamics and Automatic Control.

Has got his B.Sc. and M.Sc. from Cairo University in 1970 and 1974.

Has got his Ph.D. in 1979 from Bradford University, UK under the supervision of

Late Prof. John Parnaby.

Now with the Faculty of Engineering, Cairo University, EGYPT.

Research on Automatic Control, Mechanical Vibrations , Mechanism Synthesis and

History of Mechanical Engineering.

Published more than 200 research papers in international journals and conferences.

Author of books on Experimental Systems Control, Experimental Vibrations and

Evolution of Mechanical Engineering.

Chief Justice of the International Journal of Computer Techniques.

Member of the Editorial Board of a number of International Journals including

IJAETMAS.

Reviewer in some International Journals.

Scholars interested in the author's publications can visit:

http://scholar.cu.edu.eg/galal