Matter for Bus Reservation System Final report

7/27/2019 Matter for Bus Reservation System Final report

1/112

PROJECT REPORT

ON

BUS RESERVATION SYSTEM

Project Submitted in partial fulfillment of

the requirement of the award of degreeof

Master of Science(Information Technology)

(2006-2009)

Submitted byNehpal Singh RathoreVijay AgarwalM.Sc.IT Final Semester

Under Guidance of: Submitted to:SH. HARDAYAL SINGH SH. HARDAYAL SINGHH.O.D. (MCA Deptt.) H.O.D. (MCA Deptt.)Engineering College Engineering CollegeBikaner Bikaner


2/112

Bus Reservation System

A Project Report

Project Submitted in partial fulfillment

of the requirement of the award ofdegree of

Master of Science -IT (2006-2009)

Under Guidance of: Submitted By:Sh. Hardayal Singh Nehpal Singh RathoreH.O.D. (MCA Deptt.) Vijay Agarwal

Engineering College

University Of Rajasthan, Jaipur (Rajasthan)(Year 2008)


3/112

Certificate


4/112

Acknowledgement

A project like this takes quite a lot of time to do properly. As is often the

case, this project owes its existence and certainly its quality to a number of

people, whose name does not appear on the cover. Among them is one of the

most extra ordinary programmers it has been my pleasure to work with

Mr. Bajarang Lal Agarwal, who did a super job in technically editing this

project. He did more then just check the facts by offering thoughtful logic

where needed to improve the project as a whole.

We also thank to Mr. Sh. Hardayal Singh (H.O.D. -MCA Deptt.

Engineering College Bikaner) who deserves credit for helping me done the

project and taking care of all the details that most programmers really dont

think about. Errors and confusions are my responsibility, but the quality of

the project is to their credit and we can only thank them.

We are highly thankful and feel obliged to Rathore Travelsstaff members

for nice Co-Operation and valuable suggestions in my project work.

We owe my obligation to my friends and other colleagues in the computer

field for their co-operation and support.

We thank God for being on my side.

(Nehpal Singh Rathore)

(Vijay Agarwal)


5/112

Table of Contents

Chapter 1 Introduction

Chapter 2 Development model

Chapter 3 System Study

Chapter 4 Project Monitoring System

Chapter 5 System Analysis

Chapter 6 Technology Used

Chapter 7 System Design

Chapter 8 System Testing

Chapter 9 System Implementation

Chapter 10 Conclusion

Chapter 11 Scope of the Project


6/112

Chapter 1

Introuction


7/112

In bus reservation system there has been a collection of buses, agent who are

booking tickets for customers journey which give bus number and departure time

of the bus. According to its name it manages the details of all agent, tickets, rental

details, and timing details and so on. It also manages the updating of the objects.

In the tour detail there is information about bus, who has been taking

customers at their destination, it also contain the detailed information about the

customer, who has been taken from which bus and at what are the number of

members he or she is taking his/her journey.

This section also contain the details of booking time of the seat(s) or

collecting time of the tickets, this section also contain the booking date and the

name of agent which is optional, by which the customer can reserve the seats for

his journey

In Bus no category it contains the details of buses which are old/new.

New buses are added with the details with bus no, from city to the city, type of the

bus, rent of a single seat, if the bus has sleeper than the cost of sleeper, if the cabin

has the facility for sitting than the cost of cabin seats, tour timings of the new bus

has also been stored. How many buses are currently given and available in office?

In seats specification it gives the list of given issued and currently

available seats and contain the information about seats like sleeper, cabin etc.

The main objective of this project to provide the better work efficiency, security,

accuracy, reliability, feasibility. The error occurred could be reduced to nil and

working conditions can be improved.


8/112

Chapter 2

Development model


9/112

Development model

Software Process Model

Our project life cycle uses the waterfall model, also known as classic life cycle

model or linear sequential model.

The Waterfall Model

The waterfall model encompasses the following activities:

1. System/information Engineering and Modeling

System Engineering and Analysis encompass requirements gathering at the system

level with a small amount of Top-level design and analysis. Information

Engineering encompasses requirements gathering at the strategic business level

and at the business area level.

2. Software requirements analysis

Software requirements analysis involves requirements for both the system and the

software to be document and reviewed with the customer.

3. Design

System/Information

Engineering

Analysis Design Code Test


10/112

Software design is actually a multi-step process that focuses on for distinct

attributes of a program: data structure, software architecture, interfaces

representation and procedural detail. The design process translates requirements

into a representation of the software that can be accessed for quality before coding

begins.

4. Code Generation

Code-Generation phase translates the design into a machine-readable form.

5. Testing

Once code has been generated, program testing begins. The testing focuses on the

logical internals of the software, ensuring that all statement have been tested, and

on the functional externals; that is, conducting test to uncover errors and ensure

that define input will produce actual results that agree with required results.

6. Support

Software will undoubtedly undergo change after it is delivered to the customer.

Change will occur because errors have been encountered, because the software

must be adapted to accommodate changes in its external environment or because

the customer requires functional or performance enhancements.


11/112

Chapter 3

System Study


12/112

Before the project can begin, it becomes necessary to estimate the work to be

done, the resource that will be required, and the time that will elapse from start to

finish. During making such a plan we visited site many more times .

2.1 Project planning objectives

The objective of software project planning is to provide a framework that enables

the management to make reasonable estimates of resources, cost, and schedule.

These estimates are made within limited time frame at the beginning of a software

project and should be updated regularly as the project progresses. In addition,

estimates should attempt to define best case and worst case scenarios so that

project outcomes can be bounded.

2.2 Software Scope

The first activity in software project planning is the determination of software

scope. Software scope describes the data and control to be processed, function,

performance, constraints, interfaces, and reliability.

2.2.1 Gathering Information Necessary for Scope

The most commonly used technique to bridge communication gap between

customer and the software developer to get the communication process started is

to conduct a preliminary meeting or interview. When I visited the site we have

been introduced to the Manager of the center, there were two another persons out

of one was the technical adviser and another one was the cost accountant. Neither

of us knows what to ask or say; we were very much worried that what we say will

be misinterpreted.

We started to asking context-free questions; that is, a set of questions that will lead

to a basic understanding of the problem. The first set of context-free questions was

like this:


13/112

What do you want to be done?

Who will use this solution?

What is wrong with your existing working systems?

Is there another source for the solution?

Can you show us (or describe) the environment in which the solution will

be used?

After first round of above asked questions. We revisited the site and asked many

more questions considering to final set of questions.

Are our questions relevant to the problem that you need to be solved?

Are we asking too many questions?

Should we be asking you anything else?

2.2.2 Feasibility

Not everything imaginable is feasible, not even in software. Software feasibilityhas four dimensions:

Technologyis a project technically feasible? Is it within the state of the art?

Finance Is it financially feasible?

Timewill the project be completed within specified time?

Resourcesdoes the organization have the resources needed to succeed?

After taking into consideration of above said dimensions, we found it could be

feasible for us to develop this project.

2.3 Software Project Estimation

Software cost and effort estimation will never be an exact science. Too may

variableshuman, technical, environmental, politicalcan affect the ultimate


14/112

cost of software and effort applied to develop it. However, software project

estimation can be transformed a black art to a series of systematic steps that

provide estimates with acceptable risk.

To achieve reliable cost and effort estimates, a number of options arise:

1. Delay estimation until late in the project (since, we can achieve 100%

accurate estimates after the project is complete!)

2. Base estimates on similar projects that have already been completed.

3. Use relatively simple decomposition techniques to generate project cost

and effort estimates.

4. Use one or more empirical models for software cost and effort

estimation.

Unfortunately, the first option, however attractive, is not practical. Cost estimates

must be provided Up front. However, we should recognize that the longer we

wait, the more we know, and the more we know, the less likely we are to make

serious errors in our estimates.

The second option can work reasonably well, if the current project is quite

similar to past efforts and other project influences (e.g., the customer, business

conditions, the SEE, deadlines) are equivalent. Unfortunately past experience has

not always been a good indicator of future results.

The remaining options are viable approaches the software project estimation.

Ideally, the techniques noted for each option be applied in tandem; each used as

cross check for the other. Decomposition techniques take a divide and conquer

approach to software project estimation. By decomposing a project into major

functions and related software engineering activities, cost and effort estimation can

be performed in the stepwise fashion.

Empirical estimation models can be used to complement decomposition

techniques and offer a potentially valuable estimation approach in their own right. A

model based on experience (historical data) and takes the form


15/112

D = f (vi)

Where d is one of a number of estimated values (e.g., effort, cost, project

duration and we are selected independent parameters (e.g., estimated LOC (line of

code)).

Each of the viable software cost estimation options is only as good as the

historical data used to seed the estimate. If no historical data exist, costing rests on a

very shaky foundation.


16/112

Chapter 4

Project Monitoring System


17/112

4.1 PERT Chart

Program evaluation and review technique (PERT) and critical path method

(CPM) are two project scheduling methods that can be applied to software

development. These techniques are driven by following information:

Estimates of Effort

A decomposition of the product function

The selection of the appropriate process model and task set

Decomposition of tasks

PERT chart for this application software is illustrated in figure 3.1. The critical

Path for this Project is Design, Code generation and Integration and testing.

Aug-2008

Figure 4.1 PERT charts for University Study CenterManagement SystemManagement System.

4.2 Gantt Chart

Gantt chart which is also known as Timeline chart contains the information

like effort, duration, start date, completion date for each task. A timeline chart can

be developed for the entire project.

Integration

and test

Oct 10 2008

Design

Aug 5, 2008

Requirement

Analysis

Aug 1, 2008

Start

Coding

Aug 15,2008

Documentati

on and

Report

Oct 30, 2008

Finish

Jan 3, 2008


18/112

Below in figure 4.2 we have shown the Gantt chart for the project. All project

tasks have been listed in the left-hand column.

Start: Jan 1, 2008.

Work tasksPlannedstart

Actualstart

Plannedcomplete

ActualComplete

Notes

1.1 Identify needs and benefits

Meet with customers

Identified needs and constraints

Established Product Statement

Milestone:Product statement defined

1.2 Defined

Desiredoutput/control/input (OCI)

Scope modes of interacton

Documented (OCI)

FTR: reviewed OCI with customer

Revised OCI as required

Milestore: OCI defined

1.3 Defined the function/behavior

Milestone: Data Modeling completed

1.4 Isolation software elements

Coding

Reports

1.5 Integration and Testing

Wk1,d1

Wk1,d2

Wk1,d3

Wk1,d3

Wk2,d1

Wk2,d1

Wk3,d3

Wk4,d1

Wk4,d3

Wk5,d1

Wk5,d1

W9,d1

Wk1,d1

Wk1,d2

Wk1,d3

Wk1,d3

Wk5,d2

Wk6,d1

Wk7,d6

W9,d3

Wk1,d2

Wk1,d2

Wk1,d3

Wk1,d3

Wk2,d2

Wk2,d3

Wk3,d5

Wk4,d2

Wk4,d5

Wk1,d2

Wk1,d2

Wk1,d3

Wk1,d3

Wk5,d5

W7,d5

W8,d6

W11,d3

Analysis

and design

is more

time

consuming.

Finish: Jan 3, 2008

Figure: 4.2 Gant chart for the Project University Study Center Management

System. Note: Wk1week1, d1day1.


19/112

Chapter 5

System Analysis


20/112

Software requirements analysis is a process of

discovery, refinement, modeling, and specification. Requirement analysis proves

the software designer with a representation of information, function, and behavior

that can be translated to data, architectural interface, and component -level

designs. To perform the job properly we need to follow as set of underlying

concepts and principles of Analysis.

5.1 Analysis Principles

Over the past two decades, a large number of analysis modeling methods

have been developed. Investigators have identified analysis problems and their

caused and have developed a variety of modeling notations and corresponding sets

of heuristics to overcome them. Each analysis method has a unique point of view.

However, all analysis methods are related by a set of operational principles:

1. The information domain of a problem must be represented and understood.

2. The functions that the software is to perform must be defined.

3. The behavior of the software (as a consequence of external events) must be

represented.

4. The models that depict information function and behavior must be partitioned

in a manner that uncovers detail in layered (or hierarchical) fashion.

5. The analysis process should move from essential information toward

implementation detail.

By applying these principles, we approach the problem systematically. The

information domain is examined so that function may be understood more

completely. Models are used so that the characteristics of function and behavior

can be communicated in a compact fashion. Partitioning is applied to reduce

complexity. Essential and implementation vies of the software are necessary to

accommodate the logical constraints imposed any processing requirements and the

physical constraints imposed by other system elements.


21/112

In addition to these operational analysis principles, Davis suggests a set o guiding

principles for requirements analysis:

Understand the problem before you begin to create the analysis model.

There is a tendency to rush to a solution, even before the problem is

understood. This often leads to elegant software that solves the wrong

problem! We always tried to escape from such situation while making

this project a success.

Develop prototypes that enable a user to understand how

human/machine interaction will occur. Since the perception of the

quality of software is ofter based on the perception ot the friendlinessof the interface, protoptying (and the iteration that results) are highly

recommended.

Record the origin of and the reason for every requirement. This is the

first step in establishing traceability back to the customer.

Use multiple views of requirements. Building data, functional, and

behavioral models provide the software developer with three views.

This reduces the likelihood that something will be missed and increases

the likelihood that inconsistency will be recognized.

Rank requirements. Tight deadlines may preclude the implementation of

every software requirement.

Work to eliminate ambiguity. Because most requirements are described

in a natural language, the opportunity for ambiguity abounds. The use of

formal technical reviews is one way to uncover and eliminateambiguity.

We have tried to takes above said principles to heart so that we could provide

an excellent foundation for design.


22/112

5.1.1 The Information Domain

All software applications can be collectively called data processing. Software is

built to process data, to transform data from one form to another; that is, to accept

input, manipulate it in some way, and produce output. This fundamental statement

of objective is true whether we build batch software for a payroll system or real-

time embedded software to control fuel flow to an automobile engine.

The first operational analysis principle requires an examination of the information

domain and the creation of a data model. The information domain contains three

different views of the data and control as each is processed by a computer

program:

(1) information contend and relationships (the data model)

(2) information flow, and

(3) Information structure.

To fully understand the information domain, each of these views should be

considered.

Information content represents the individual data and control objects that

constitute some larger collection of information transformed by the software. For

example, the data object, Status declare is a composite of a number of important

pieces of data: the aircrafts name, the aircrafts model, ground run, no of hour

flying and so forth. Therefore, the content of Status declares is defined by the

attributes that are needed to create it. Similarly, the content of a control object

called System status might be defined by a string of bits. Each bit represents a

separate item of information that indicates whether or not a particular device is on-

or off-line.


23/112

Data and control objects can be related to other data and control objects.

For example, the date object Status declare has one or more relationships with the

objects like total no of flying, period left for the maintenance of aircraft an others.

Information flow represents the manner in which date and control change

as each moves through a system. Referring to figure 6.1, input objects are

transformed to intermediate information (data and / or control), which is further

transformed to output. Along this transformation path, additional information may

be introduced from an existing date store ( e.g., a disk file or memory buffer). The

transformations applied to the date are functions or sub functions that a program

must perform. Data and control that move between two transformations define the

interface for each function.

Figure 5.1 Information flow and transformation.

5.1.2 Modeling

Transfor

m

#1

Transfor

m

#1

Transfo

rm#2

Transfo

rm#2

Data/Contro

l

Store

Data/Contro

l

Store

Input

Objects

Intermediate

data and

control

Output

Object(s)


24/112

The second and third operational analysis principles require that we build models

of function and behavior.

Functional models. Software transforms information, and in order to accomplish

this, it must perform at lease three generic functions:

Input

Processing

And output.

The functional model begins with a single context level model (i.e., the name of

the software to be built). Over a series of iterations, more and more functional

detail is gathered, until a through delineation of all system functionality is

represented.

Behavioral models. Most software responds to events from the outside

world. This stimulus/response characteristic forms the basis of the behavioral

model. A computer program always exists in some state- an externally observable

mode of behavior (e.g., waiting, computing, printing, and polling) that is changed

only when some even occurs. For example, in our case the project will remain in

the wait state until:

We click OK command button when first window appears

An external event like mouse click cause an interrupt and consequently

main window appears by asking the username and password.

This external system (providing password and username) signals the

project to act in desired manner as per need.

A behavioral model creates a representation of the states of the software and the

events that cause software to change state.


25/112

5.1.2 Partitioning(Divide)

Problems are often too large and complex to be understood as a whole, for

this reason, se tend to partition (divide) such problems into parts that can be easily

under stood and establish interfaces between the part so that overall function can

be accomplished. The fourth operational analysis principle suggests that the

information, functional, and behavioral domains of software can be partitioned.

In essence, partitioning decomposes problem intoits constituent parts.

Conceptually, we establish a hierarchical representation of function or information

and then partition and uppermost element by

(1) exposing increasing detail by moving vertically in the

hierarchy or

(2) Functionally decomposing the problem my moving

horizontally in the hierarchy.

To issulstate these partitioning approaches let us consider our project

Bus Reservation SystemBus Reservation System.. Horizontal partitioning and vertical partitioning of

Bus Reservation systemBus Reservation system is shown below.

Horizontal partitioning:

Bus Reservation SystemBus Reservation System

System configuration Password acceptance Interact with user

During installation, the software (Bus Reservation System) used toprogram and configure the system. A master password is programmed for getting


26/112

in to the software system. After this step only user can work in the environments

(right cornor naming operation, administration and maintenance) only.

Vertical partitioning ofBus Reservation SystemBus Reservation System function.

Bus Reservation SystemBus Reservation System

Configure system Username and Password

Acceptance Rejection

Interact with user Fail Retry

5.2 Software Prototyping.

Some circumstances require the construction of a prototype at the

beginning of analysis, since the model is the only means through which

requirements can be effectively derived. The model then evolves into production

software.

5.2.1 Selecting the Prototype Approach


27/112

The prototyping paradigm can be either close-ended or open-ended. The

close-ended approach is often called throwaway prototyping. Using this approach,

a prototype serves solely as a rough demonstration of requirements. It is then

discarded, and the software is engineered using a different paradigm. An open-

ended approach, called evolutionary prototyping, uses the prototype as the first

part of an analysis activity that will be continued into design and construction. The

prototype of the software is the first evolution of the finished system.

Before a close-ended or open-ended approach can be chosen, it is necessary

to determine whether the system to be built is amenable to prototyping. A number

of prototyping candidacy factors can be defined: application area, application

complexity, customer characteristics, and project characteristics.

Figure 5.5 selecting the appropriate prototyping approach

Question

Throwawa

y

Prototype

Evolutiona

ry

prototype

Additional

preliminary work

required

Is the application domain

understood?

Can the problem be modeled?Is the customer certain of basic

system requirements?

Are requirements established and

stable?

Are any requirements

ambiguous?

Are there contradictions in the

requirements?

Yes

Yes

Yes/No

No

Yes

Yes

Yes

Yes

Yes/No

Yes

No

No

No

No

No

Yes

Yes

Yes

The above six questions are made as per the Andriole suggestions for prototypingapproach.


28/112

E-R DIAGRAM :

BUSES

Work

area

Give

service

s

Wor

ks

Careof

SLEEPER

OR

WITHOUT

SLEEPER

DEPARTMENT

Full

of

Divide

d

DIFFERENT

TYPE OF

BUSES

SEATS

examin

e

BUS RESERVATION

SYSTEM


29/112

The following DFD shows how the working of a reservation system could be

smoothly managed:

DETAIL DESCRIPTION OF DATA FLOW DIAGRAM:

We have STARBUS as our database and some of our tables (relation) are

such as AGENT_BASIC_INFO, FEEDBACK, PASSANGER_INFO, STATIS and

TIMELIST

WORK AREAS

DEPTT WITH ITSBUSES

AGENT

BUSESRECORDS

DAILYENTRY REC

RESERVEDAGENT

VISITINGAGENT

AGENTDETAILS

REPORT

TABLE


30/112

STARBUS

In our table AGENT_BASIC_INFO we have following field such as agent_id,

agent_name, agent_name, agent_fname, agent_shop_name, agent_shop_address,

agent_shop_city, agent_phon_number etc.

AGENT_BASIC_INFO

AGENTBASICINFO

FEEDBACK

PASSANGERIFNO

STATIS

TIMELIST

AGENT_ID

AGENT_NAME

AGENT_FNAME

AGENT_SHOP_NAME

AGENT_SHOP_ADDRESS

AGENT_SHOP_CITY

AGENT_PHON_NUMBER

AGENT_MOBIL_NUMBER

AGENT_CURRENT_BAL


31/112

In our FEEDBACK table we have fields like name, Email, Phon, Subject,

Comment, and User_type.


32/112

In our table PASSANGER_INFO we have filed like bill_no, c_name, c_phone,

c_to, c_from, c_time, Ttalseat, Seatnumber, Amount, Agent_id and Status.

FEEDBACK

Name

Email

Comment

User_typ

e

Phone

Subject


33/112

In the table of TIME_LIST we have fields such as Sno, Satation_name,

Rate_per_seat, Time, Reach_time and Bus_number.

PASSANGER

_INFO

Bill_no

C_name

AmountSeat_no

C_to

C_time

C_phon

C_from

Total_seat

Status

Agent_id


34/112

PROCESS LOGIC::

TIME_LIST

SnoStation_name

Bus_numbe

r

Reach_time

Rate_perSeat

Time


35/112

As the privatization of buses is increasing thus the need of its smooth

management is also increasing the more we could facilitate the customers,

the more they are comfortable with us, the more customers we have visiting

our reservation unit .the above tables and modules facilitates many logics

like:

Number of buses in one unit

Number of computers in particular department

Number of users in a department

Which bus has what tour on which day

What are time table for different buses of different department

What are the schedule for buses

Schedule of a particular bus

How many buses are there

Each bus has how many seats

How many seats are occupied

Advance booking for seat

How much money is collected in a particular day

Bills for different customers

Which seat has booked by agent


36/112

Chapter 6

Technology used


37/112

6.1 Tools and Platform used for the Development

6.1.1 Front-end Environment (.NET Framework)

The Internet revolution of the late 1990s represented a dramatic shift in the way

individuals and organizations communicate with each other. Traditional

applications, such as word processors and accounting packages, are modeled as

stand-alone applications: they offer users the capability to perform tasks using data

stored on the system the application resides and executes on. Most new software,

in contrast, is modeled based on a distributed computing model where applications

collaborate to provide services and expose functionality to each other. As a result,the primary role of most new software is changing into supporting information

exchange (through Web servers and browsers), collaboration (through e-mail and

instant messaging), and individual expression (through Web logs, also known as

Blogs, and e-zines Web based magazines). Essentially, the basic role of

software is changing from providing discrete functionality to providing services.

The .NET Framework represents a unified, object-oriented set of services and

libraries that embrace the changing role of new network-centric and network-

aware software. In fact, the .NET Framework is the first platform designed from

the ground up with the Internet in mind.

Microsoft .NET Framework is a software component that is a part of several

Microsoft Windowsoperating systems. It has a large library of pre-coded solutions

to common programming problems and manages the execution of programs

written specifically for the framework. The .NET Framework is a key Microsoft

offering and is intended to be used by most new applications created for the

Windows platform.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Software_componentryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microsoft_Windowshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operating_systemhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operating_systemhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Library_(computing)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frameworkhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microsofthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microsoft_Windowshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operating_systemhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Library_(computing)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frameworkhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microsofthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Software_componentry


38/112

Benefits of the .NET Framework

The .NET Framework offers a number of benefits to developers:

A consistent programming model

Direct support for security

Simplified development efforts

Easy application deployment and maintenance

The .NET Class Library is a key component of the .NET Framework it is

sometimes referred to as the Base Class Library (BCL). The .NET Class Library

contains hundreds of classes you can use for tasks such as the following:

Processing XML

Working with data from multiple data sources

Debugging your code and working with event logs

Working with data streams and files

Managing the run-time environment

Developing Web services, components, and standard Windows applicationsWorking with application security

Working with directory services

The functionality that the .NET Class Library provides is available to all .NET

languages, resulting in a consistent object model regardless of the programming

language developers use.


39/112

Elements of the .NET Framework

The .NET Framework consists of three key elements as show in below diagram

Components of the .NET Framework

Common Language Runtime

.NET Class Library

Unifying components

VB.NET VC#.NET VC++.NET JSCRIPT.NET

ASP.NET

Web Server Web Form

Window Forms

.NET Class Library

System Data I/O Security

Common Language Runtime

Common Type System

Operating System

Visual

Studio.NET


40/112

1. Common Language Runtime

The Common Language Runtime (CLR) is a layer between an application and the

operating system it executes on. The CLR simplifies an application's design and

reduces the amount of code developers need to write because it provides a variety

of execution services that include memory management, thread management,

component lifetime management, and default error handling.

The CLR is also responsible for compiling code just before it executes. Instead of

producing a binary representation of your code, as traditional compilers do, .NET

compilers produce a representation of your code in a language common to the

.NET Framework: Microsoft Intermediate Language, often referred to as IL. When

your code executes for the first time, the CLR invokes a special compiler called a

Just In Time (JIT) compiler, Because all .NET languages have the same compiled

representation, they all have similar performance characteristics. This means that a

program written in Visual Basic .NET can perform as well as the same program

written in Visual C++ .NET.

2 .NET Class Library

The .NET Class Library containing hundreds of classes that model the system and

services it provides. To make the .NET Class Library easier to work with and

understand, it's divided into namespaces. The root namespace of the .NET Class

Library is called System, and it contains core classes and data types, such as Int32,

Object, Array, and Console. Secondary namespaces reside within the System

namespace.

Examples of nested namespaces include the following:

System.Diagnostics : Contains classes for working with the Event Log

System.Data: Makes it easy to work with data from multiple data sources

System.IO: Contains classes for working with files and data streams


41/112

The benefits of using the .NET Class Library include a consistent set of services

available to all .NET languages and simplified deployment, because the .NET

Class Library is available on all implementations of the .NET Framework.

3. Unifying components

Until this point, this chapter has covered the low-level components of the .NET

Framework. The unifying components, listed next, are the means by which you

can access the services the .NET Framework provides:

ASP.NET

Windows Forms

Visual Studio .NET


42/112

ASP.NET

After the release of Internet Information Services 4.0 in 1997, Microsoft began

researching possibilities for a new web application model that would solve

common complaints about ASP.

. ASP.NET introduces two major features: Web Forms and Web Services.

1. Web Forms

Developers not familiar with Web development can spend a great deal of time, for

example, figuring out how to validate the e-mail address on a form. You canvalidate the information on a form by using a client-side script or a server-side

script. Deciding which kind of script to use is complicated by the fact that each

approach has its benefits and drawbacks, some of which aren't apparent unless

you've done substantial design work. If you validate the form on the client by

using client-side JScript code, you need to take into consideration the browser that

your users may use to access the form. Not all browsers expose exactly the same

representation of the document to programmatic interfaces. If you validate the

form on the server, you need to be aware of the load that users might place on the

server. The server has to validate the data and send the result back to the client.

Web Forms simplify Web development to the point that it becomes as easy as

dragging and dropping controls onto a designer (the surface that you use to edit a

page) to design interactive Web applications that span from client to server.

2. Web Services

A Web service is an application that exposes a programmatic interface through

standard access methods. Web Services are designed to be used by other

applications and components and are not intended to be useful directly to human

end users. Web Services make it easy to build applications that integrate features

from remote sources. For example, you can write a Web Service that provides

weather information for subscribers of your service instead of having subscriberslink to a page or parse through a file they download from your site. Clients can


43/112

simply call a method on your Web Service as if they are calling a method on a

component installed on their system and have the weather information

available in an easy-to-use format that they can integrate into their own

applications or Web sites with no trouble.

Introducing ASP.NET

ASP.NET, the next version of ASP, is a programming framework that is used to

create enterprise-class Web applications. The enterprise-class Web applications

are accessible on a global basis, leading to efficient information management.

However, the advantages that ASP.NET offers make it more than just the next

version of ASP. ASP.NET is integrated with Visual Studio .NET, which provides

a GUI designer, a rich toolbox, and a fully integrated debugger. This allows the

development of applications in a What You See is What You Get (WYSIWYG)

manner. Therefore, creating ASP.NET applications is much simpler.

Unlike the ASP runtime, ASP.NET uses the Common Language Runtime (CLR)provided by the .NET Framework. The CLR is the .NET runtime, which manages

the execution of code. The CLR allows the objects, which are created in different

languages, to interact with each other and hence removes the language barrier.

CLR thus makes Web application development more efficient.

In addition to simplifying the designing of Web applications, the .NET CLR offers

many advantages.

Some of these advantages are listed as follows.

Improved performance:

The ASP.NET code is a compiled CLR code instead of an interpreted code. The

CLR provides just-in-time compilation, native optimization, and caching. Here, it

is important to note that compilation is a two-stage process in the .NET


44/112

Framework. First, the code is compiled into the Microsoft Intermediate Language

(MSIL). Then, at the execution time, the MSIL is compiled into native code. Only

the portions of the code that are actually needed will be compiled into native code.

This is called Just In Time compilation. These features lead to an overall improved

performance of ASP.NET applications.

Flexibility:

The entire .NET class library can be accessed by ASP.NET applications. You can

use the language that best applies to the type of functionality you want to

implement, because ASP.NET is language independent.

Configuration settings:

The application-level configuration settings are stored in an Extensible Markup

Language (XML) format. The XML format is a hierarchical text format, which is

easy to read and write. This format makes it easy to apply new settings to

applications without the aid of any local administration tools.

Security:

ASP.NET applications are secure and use a set of default authorization and

authentication schemes. However, you can modify these schemes according to the

security needs of an application. In addition to this list of advantages, the

ASP.NET framework makes it easy to migrate from ASP applications.

Creating an ASP.NET Application

After you've set up the development environment for ASP.NET, you can create

your first ASP.NET Web application. You can create an ASP.NET Web

application in one of the following ways:

Use a text editor:


45/112

In this method, you can write the code in a text editor, such as Notepad, and save

the code as an ASPX file. You can save the ASPX file in the directory

C:\inetpub\wwwroot. Then, to display the output of the Web page in Internet

Explorer, you simply need to type http://localhost/.aspx in the Address

box. If the IIS server is installed on some other machine on the network,

replace"localhost" with the name of the server. If you save the file in some other

directory, you need to add the file to a virtual directory in the Default WebSite

directory on the IIS server. You can also create your own virtual directory and add

the file to it.

Use the VS.NET IDE:

In this method, you use the IDE of Visual Studio .NET to create a Web page in a

WYSIWYG manner. Also, when you create a Web application, the application is

automatically created on a Web server (IIS server). You do not need to create a

separate virtual directory on the IIS server.

Characteristics

Pages

ASP.NET pages, known officially as "web forms", are the main building block for

application development. Web forms are contained in files with an ASPX

extension; in programming jargon, these files typically contain static (X)HTML

markup, as well as markup defining server-side Web Controls and User Controls

where the developers place all the required static and dynamic content for the web

page. Additionally, dynamic code which runs on the server can be placed in a page

within a block which is similar to other web

development technologies such as PHP, JSP, and ASP, but this practice is

generally discouraged except for the purposes of data binding since it requires

more calls when rendering the page.

Note that this sample uses code "inline", as opposed to code behind.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/XHTMLhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/HTMLhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PHPhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/JavaServer_Pageshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Active_Server_Pageshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Binding_(computer_science)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/XHTMLhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/HTMLhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PHPhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/JavaServer_Pageshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Active_Server_Pageshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Binding_(computer_science)


46/112

protectedvoid Page_Load(object sender, EventArgs e)

{Label1.Text = DateTime.Now.ToLongDateString();

}

Sample page

The current time is:

Code-behind model

It is recommended by Microsoft for dealing with dynamic program code to use the

code-behind model, which places this code in a separate file or in a specially

designated script tag. Code-behind files typically have names like MyPage.aspx.cs

or MyPage.aspx.vb based on the ASPX file name (this practice is automatic in

Microsoft Visual Studio and other IDEs). When using this style of programming,

the developer writes code to respond to different events, like the page being

loaded, or a control being clicked, rather than a procedural walk through the

document.


47/112

ASP.NET's code-behind model marks a departure from Classic ASP in that it

encourages developers to build applications with separation of presentation and

content in mind. In theory, this would allow a web designer, for example, to focus

on the design markup with less potential for disturbing the programming code that

drives it. This is similar to the separation of the controller from the view in model-

view-controller frameworks.

Example

The above tag is placed at the beginning of the ASPX file. The CodeFile property

of the @ Page directive specifies the file (.cs or .vb) acting as the code-behind

while the Inherits property specifies the Class the Page derives from. In this

example, the @ Page directive is included in SamplePage.aspx, then

SampleCodeBehind.aspx.cs acts as the code-behind for this page:

using System;namespace Website{

public partial class SampleCodeBehind :System.Web.UI.Page

{protectedoverridevoid Page_Load(EventArgs e)

{base.OnLoad(e);

}}

}


48/112

In this case, the Page_Load () method is called every time the ASPX page is

requested. The programmer can implement event handlers at several stages of the

page execution process to perform processing.

User controls

ASP.NET supports creating reusable components through the creation of User

Controls. A User Control follows the same structure as a Web Form, except that

such controls are derived from the System.Web.UI.UserControl class, and are

stored in ASCX files. Like ASPX files, a ASCX contains static HTML or

XHTML markup, as well as markup defining web control and other User Controls.

The code-behind model can be used.

Programmers can add their own properties, methods, and event handlers. An event

bubbling mechanism provides the ability to pass an event fired by a user control

up to its containing page.

State management

ASP.NET applications are hosted in a web server and are accessed over the

statelessHTTP protocol. As such, if the application uses stateful interaction, it has

to implement state management on its own. ASP.NET provides various

functionality for state management in ASP.NET applications.

Application state

Application state is a collection of user-defined variables that are shared by an

ASP.NET application. These are set and initialized when the Application_OnStart

event fires on the loading of the first instance of the applications and are available

till the last instance exits. Application state variables are accessed using the
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/HTMLhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/XHTMLhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Web_serverhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stateless_serverhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/HTTPhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/State_managementhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/State_managementhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/HTMLhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/XHTMLhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Web_serverhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stateless_serverhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/HTTPhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/State_management


49/112

Applications collection, which provides a wrapper for the application state

variables. Application state variables are identified by names.

Session state

Session state is a collection of user-defined session variables, which are persisted

during a user session. These variables are unique to different instances of a user

session, and are accessed using the Session collection. Session variables can be set

to be automatically destroyed after a defined time of inactivity, even if the session

does not end. At the client end, a user session is identified either by a cookie or by

encoding the session ID in the URL itself.

ASP.NET supports three modes of persistence for session variables:

In Process Mode

The session variables are maintained within the ASP.NETprocess. This is

the fastest way, however, in this mode the variables are destroyed when the

ASP.NET process is recycled or shut down. Since the application is

recycled from time to time this mode is not recommended for critical

applications.

ASPState Mode

In this mode, ASP.NET runs a separate Windows service that maintains the

state variables. Because the state management happens outside the

ASP.NET process, this has a negative impact on performance, but it allows

multiple ASP.NET instances to share the same state server, thus allowing

an ASP.NET application to be load-balanced and scaled out on multiple

servers. Also, since the state management service runs independent of

ASP.NET, variables can persist across ASP.NET process shutdowns.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/HTTP_cookiehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Process_(computing)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Windows_servicehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/HTTP_cookiehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Process_(computing)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Windows_service


50/112

SqlServer Mode

In this mode, the state variables are stored in a database server, accessible

using SQL. Session variables can be persisted across ASP.NET process

shutdowns in this mode as well. The main advantage of this mode is it

would allow the application to balance load on a server cluster while

sharing sessions between servers.

View state

View state refers to the page-level state management mechanism, which is

utilized by the HTML pages emitted by ASP.NET applications to maintain

the state of the web form controls and widgets. The state of the controls are

encoded and sent to the server at every form submission in a hidden field

known as __VIEWSTATE. The server sends back the variable so that when

the page is re-rendered, the controls render at their last state. At the server

side, the application might change the viewstate, if the processing results in

updating the state of any control. The states of individual controls are

decoded at the server, and are available for use in ASP.NET pages using

the ViewState collection.

Template engine

When first released, ASP.NET lacked a template engine. Because the .NET

frameworkis object-oriented and allows for inheritance, many developers would

define a new base class that inherits from "System.Web.UI.Page", write methods

here that render HTML, and then make the pages in their application inherit from

this new class. While this allows for common elements to be reused across a site,

it adds complexity and mixes source code with markup. Furthermore, this method

can only be visually tested by running the application - not while designing it.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Database_serverhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SQLhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/GUI_widgethttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template_enginehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/.NET_frameworkhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/.NET_frameworkhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Object_orientedhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inheritance_(computer_science)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Method_(computer_science)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Source_codehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Markup_languagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Database_serverhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SQLhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/GUI_widgethttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template_enginehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/.NET_frameworkhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/.NET_frameworkhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Object_orientedhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inheritance_(computer_science)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Method_(computer_science)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Source_codehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Markup_language


51/112

Other developers have used include files and other tricks to avoid having to

implement the same navigation and other elements in every page.

ASP.NET 2.0 introduced the concept of "master pages", which allow for template-

based page development. A web application can have one or more master pages,

which can be nested. Master templates have place-holder controls, called

ContentPlaceHolders to denote where the dynamic content goes, as well as HTML

and JavaScript shared across child pages.

Child pages use those ContentPlaceHolder controls, which must be mapped to the

place-holder of the master page that the content page is populating. The rest of the

page is defined by the shared parts of the master page, much like a mail merge in a

word processor. All markup and servercontrols in the content page must be placed

within the ContentPlaceHolder control.

When a request is made for a content page, ASP.NET merges the output of the

content page with the output of the master page, and sends the output to the user.

The master page remains fully accessible to the content page. This means that the

content page may still manipulate headers, change title, configure caching etc. If

the master page exposes public properties or methods (e.g. for setting copyright

notices) the content page can use these as well.

Performance

ASP.NET aims for performance benefits over other script-based technologies

(including Classic ASP) by compiling the server-side code to one or more DLL

files on the web server. This compilation happens automatically the first time a

page is requested (which means the developer need not perform a separate

compilation step for pages). This feature provides the ease of development offered

by scripting languages with the performance benefits of a compiled binary.

However, the compilation might cause a noticeable but short delay to the web user
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Header_filehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Web_templatehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/HTMLhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/JavaScripthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mail_mergehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Word_processorhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Server_(computing)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Server_(computing)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dynamic_link_libraryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer_filehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Web_serverhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Header_filehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Web_templatehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/HTMLhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/JavaScripthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mail_mergehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Word_processorhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Server_(computing)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dynamic_link_libraryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer_filehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Web_server


52/112

when the newly-edited page is first requested from the web server, but won't again

unless the page requested is updated further.

The ASPX and other resource files are placed in a virtual host on an Internet

Information Services server (or other compatible ASP.NET servers; see Other

Implementations, below). The first time a client requests a page, the .NET

framework parses and compiles the file(s) into a .NET assembly and sends the

response; subsequent requests are served from the DLL files. By default ASP.NET

will compile the entire site in batches of 1000 files upon first request. If the

compilation delay is causing problems, the batch size or the compilation strategy

may be tweaked.

Developers can also choose to pre-compile their code before deployment,

eliminating the need for just-in-time compilation in a production environment.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Internet_Information_Serviceshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Internet_Information_Serviceshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Internet_Information_Serviceshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Internet_Information_Services


53/112

Development tools

Several available software packages exist for developing ASP.NET applications:

Delphi 2006

Macromedia Dreamweaver MX, Macromedia Dreamweaver MX 2004, or

Macromedia Dreamweaver 8 (doesn't support ASP.NET 2.0 features, and

produces very inefficient code for ASP.NET 1.x: also, code generation and

ASP.NET features support through version 8.0.1 was little if any changed

from version MX: version 8.0.2 does add changes to improve security

against SQL injection attacks) Macromedia HomeSite 5.5 (For ASP Tags)

Microsoft Expression Web, part of the Microsoft Expression Studio

application suite.

Microsoft SharePoint Designer

MonoDevelop (Free/Open Source)

SharpDevelop (Free/Open Source)

Visual Studio .NET (for ASP.NET 1.x)

Visual Web Developer 2005 Express Edition (free) orVisual Studio 2005

(for ASP.NET 2.0)

Visual Web Developer 2008 Express Edition (free) or Visual Studio 2008

(for ASP.NET 2.0/3.5)

Eiffel for ASP.NET
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microsoft_Expression_Studiohttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Open_Sourcehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Open_Sourcehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Visual_Studio_2005http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Visual_Studio_2005http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microsoft_Expression_Studiohttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Open_Sourcehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Open_Sourcehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Visual_Studio_2005


54/112

6.2.1 Back-end Environment

What is SQL?

SQL stands for Structured Query Language. SQL is used to communicate with a

database. According to ANSI (American National Standards Institute), it is the

standard language for relational database management systems. SQL statements

are used to perform tasks such as update data on a database, or retrieve data from a

database. Some common relational database management systems that use SQL

are: Oracle, Sybase, Microsoft SQL Server, Access, Ingres, etc. Although most

database systems use SQL, most of them also have their own additional

proprietary extensions that are usually only used on their system. However, the

standard SQL commands such as "Select", "Insert", "Update", "Delete", "Create",

and "Drop" can be used to accomplish almost everything that one needs to do with

a database. This tutorial will provide you with the instruction on the basics of each

of these commands as well as allow you to put them to practice using the SQL

Interpreter.

SQL (Structured Query Language) is a database computer language designed for

the retrieval and management ofdata in relational database management systems

(RDBMS), database schema creation and modification, and database object access

control management.

SQL is a standard interactive and programming language for querying and

modifying data and managing databases. Although SQL is both an ANSI and an

ISO standard, many database products support SQL with proprietary extensions to

the standard language. The core of SQL is formed by a command language that

allows the retrieval, insertion, updating, and deletion of data, and performing

management and administrative functions. SQL also includes a Call Level

Interface(SQL/CLI) for accessing and managing data and databases remotely.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer_languagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Datahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American_National_Standards_Institutehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Organization_for_Standardizationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Call_Level_Interfacehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Call_Level_Interfacehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Call_Level_Interfacehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer_languagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Datahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American_National_Standards_Institutehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Organization_for_Standardizationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Call_Level_Interfacehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Call_Level_Interface


55/112

The first version of SQL was developed at IBM by Donald D. Chamberlin and

Raymond F. Boyce in the early 1970s. This version, initially called SEQUEL, was

designed to manipulate and retrieve data stored in IBM's original relational

database product, System R. The SQL language was later formally standardized

by the American National Standards Institute (ANSI) in 1986. Subsequent

versions of the SQL standard have been released as International Organization for

Standardization (ISO) standards.

Originally designed as a declarative query and data manipulation language,

variations of SQL have been created by SQL database management system

(DBMS) vendors that add procedural constructs, control-of-flow statements, user-

defined data types, and various other language extensions. With the release of the

SQL: 1999 standard, many such extensions were formally adopted as part of the

SQL language via the SQL Persistent Stored Modules (SQL/PSM) portion of the

standard.

Common criticisms of SQL include a perceived lack of cross-platform portability

between vendors, inappropriate handling of missing data and unnecessarily

complex and occasionally ambiguous language grammar and semantics.

During the 1970s, a group at IBM's San Jose research center developed the System

R relational database management system, based on the model introduced by

Edgar F. Codd in his influential paper, A Relational Model of Data for Large

Shared Data Banks. Donald D. Chamberlin and Raymond F. Boyce of IBM

subsequently created the Structured English Query Language (SEQUEL) to

manipulate and manage data stored in System R. The acronym SEQUEL was later

changed to SQL because "SEQUEL" was a trademarkof the UK-basedHawker

Siddeley aircraft company.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IBMhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Donald_D._Chamberlinhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Raymond_F._Boycehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/System_Rhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/System_Rhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Standardizationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American_National_Standards_Institutehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/System_Rhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/System_Rhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edgar_F._Coddhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Academic_publishinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trademarkhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_Kingdomhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hawker_Siddeleyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hawker_Siddeleyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IBMhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Donald_D._Chamberlinhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Raymond_F._Boycehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/System_Rhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Standardizationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American_National_Standards_Institutehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/System_Rhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/System_Rhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edgar_F._Coddhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Academic_publishinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trademarkhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_Kingdomhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hawker_Siddeleyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hawker_Siddeley


56/112

The first non-commercial non-SQL RDBMS, Ingres, was developed in 1974 at the

U.C. Berkeley. Ingres implemented a query language known as QUEL, which was

later supplanted in the marketplace by SQL.

In the late 1970s, Relational Software, Inc. (now Oracle Corporation) saw the

potential of the concepts described by Codd, Chamberlin, and Boyce and

developed their own SQL-based RDBMS with aspirations of selling it to the U.S.

Navy, CIA, and other government agencies. In the summer of 1979, Relational

Software, Inc. introduced the first commercially available implementation of SQL,

Oracle V2 (Version2) for VAX computers. Oracle V2 beat IBM's release of the

System/38 RDBMS to market by a few weeks.

After testing SQL at customer test sites to determine the usefulness and

practicality of the system, IBM began developing commercial products based on

their System R prototype including System/38, SQL/DS, and DB2, which were

commercially available in 1979,1981, and 1983, respectively.

Standardization

SQL was adopted as a standard by ANSI in 1986 and ISO in 1987. In the original

SQL standard. Until 1996, the National Institute of Standards and Technology

(NIST) data management standards program was tasked with certifying SQL

DBMS compliance with the SQL standard. In 1996, however, the NIST data

management standards program was dissolved, and vendors are now relied upon to

self-certify their products for compliance.

The SQL standard has gone through a number of revisions, as shown below:
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ingreshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_California%2C_Berkeleyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/QUEL_query_languageshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oracle_Corporationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/RDBMShttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_Navyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_Navyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Central_Intelligence_Agencyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Federal_government_of_the_United_Stateshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1979http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oracle_databasehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/VAXhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/System/38http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/System/38http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SQL/DShttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IBM_DB2http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1979http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1979http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1981http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1983http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1983http://special.lib.umn.edu/findaid/xml/cbi00168.xmlhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1996http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Institute_of_Standards_and_Technologyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Institute_of_Standards_and_Technologyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ingreshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_California%2C_Berkeleyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/QUEL_query_languageshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oracle_Corporationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/RDBMShttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_Navyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_Navyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Central_Intelligence_Agencyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Federal_government_of_the_United_Stateshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1979http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oracle_databasehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/VAXhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/System/38http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/System/38http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SQL/DShttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IBM_DB2http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1979http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1981http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1983http://special.lib.umn.edu/findaid/xml/cbi00168.xmlhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1996http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Institute_of_Standards_and_Technologyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Institute_of_Standards_and_Technology


57/112

Year Name Alias Comments

198

6

SQL-86 SQL-87 First published by ANSI. Ratified by ISO in 1987.

198

9

SQL-89 FIPS 127-1 Minor revision, adopted as FIPS 127-1.

199

2

SQL-92 SQL2, FIPS 127-2 Major revision (ISO 9075), Entry Level SQL-92

adopted as FIPS 127-2.

1999

SQL:1999 SQL3 Added regular expression matching, recursivequeries, triggers, support for procedural and control-

of-flow statements, non-scalar types, and some

object-oriented features.

200

3

SQL:2003 Introduced XML-related features, window functions,

standardized sequences, and columns with auto-

generated values (including identity-columns).

200

6

SQL:2006 ISO/IEC 9075-14:2006 defines ways in which SQL

can be used in conjunction with XML. It defines

ways of importing and storing XML data in an SQL

database, manipulating it within the database and

publishing both XML and conventional SQL-data in

XML form. In addition, it provides facilities that

permit applications to integrate into their SQL codethe use of XQuery, the XML Query Language

published by the World Wide Web Consortium

(W3C), to concurrently access ordinary SQL-data

and XML documents.

The SQL standard is not freely available. SQL: 2003 and SQL: 2006 may be

purchased from ISO or ANSI. A late draft of SQL: 2003 is freely available as a zip
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1989http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1989http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Federal_Information_Processing_Standardhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1992http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1992http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SQL-92http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1999http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1999http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SQL:1999http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2003http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2003http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SQL:2003http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/XMLhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2006http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2006http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SQL:2006http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/XQueryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/W3Chttp://www.wiscorp.com/sql_2003_standard.ziphttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ZIP_file_formathttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1989http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1989http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Federal_Information_Processing_Standardhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1992http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1992http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SQL-92http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1999http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1999http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SQL:1999http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2003http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2003http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SQL:2003http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/XMLhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2006http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2006http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SQL:2006http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/XQueryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/W3Chttp://www.wiscorp.com/sql_2003_standard.ziphttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ZIP_file_format


58/112

archive, however, from Whitemarsh Information Systems Corporation. The zip

archive contains a number of PDF files that define the parts of the SQL: 2003

specification.

Scope and extensions

Procedural extensions

SQL is designed for a specific purpose: to query data contained in a relational

database. SQL is a set-based, declarative query language, not an imperative

language such as C or BASIC. However, there are extensions to Standard SQL

which add procedural programming language functionality, such as control-of-

flow constructs. These are:

SourceCommon

NameFull Name

ANSI/ISOStandard

SQL/PSM SQL/Persistent Stored Modules

IBM SQL PL SQL Procedural Language (implements SQL/PSM)

Microsoft/

SybaseT-SQL Transact-SQL

MySQL SQL/PSM SQL/Persistent Stored Module (as in ISO SQL:2003)

Oracle PL/SQL Procedural Language/SQL (based on Ada)

PostgreSQL PL/pgSQLProcedural Language/PostgreSQL Structured Query

Language (based on Oracle PL/SQL)

PostgreSQL PL/PSMProcedural Language/Persistent Stored Modules (implements

SQL/PSM)
http://www.wiscorp.com/SQLStandards.htmlhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PDFhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Relational_databasehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Relational_databasehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sethttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Declarative_programminghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Imperative_programminghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Imperative_programminghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/C_(programming_language)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/BASIC_programming_languagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Procedural_programming_languagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SQL/PSMhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SQL_PLhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microsofthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sybasehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/T-SQLhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MySQLhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oracle_Corporationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PL/SQLhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PostgreSQLhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PL/pgSQLhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PostgreSQLhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=PL/PSM&action=edit&redlink=1http://www.wiscorp.com/SQLStandards.htmlhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PDFhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Relational_databasehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Relational_databasehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sethttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Declarative_programminghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Imperative_programminghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Imperative_programminghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/C_(programming_language)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/BASIC_programming_languagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Procedural_programming_languagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SQL/PSMhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SQL_PLhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microsofthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sybasehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/T-SQLhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MySQLhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oracle_Corporationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PL/SQLhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PostgreSQLhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PL/pgSQLhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PostgreSQLhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=PL/PSM&action=edit&redlink=1


59/112

In addition to the standard SQL/PSM extensions and proprietary SQL extensions,

procedural and object-oriented programmability is available on many SQL

platforms via DBMS integration with other languages. The SQL standard defines

SQL/JRT extensions (SQL Routines and Types for the Java Programming

Language) to support Java code in SQL databases. SQL Server 2005 uses the

SQLCLR (SQL Server Common Language Runtime) to host managed .NET

assemblies in the database, while prior versions of SQL Server were restricted to

using unmanaged extended stored procedures which were primarily written in C.

Other database platforms, like MySQL and Postgres, allow functions to be written

in a wide variety of languages including Perl, Python, Tcl, and C.

Additional extensions

SQL: 2003 also defines several additional extensions to the standard to increase

SQL functionality overall. These extensions include:

The SQL/CLI, or Call-Level Interface, extension is defined in ISO/IEC 9075-

3:2003. This extension defines common interfacing components (structures and

procedures) that can be used to execute SQL statements from applications written

in other programming languages. The SQL/CLI extension is defined in such a way

that SQL statements and SQL/CLI procedure calls are treated as separate from the

calling application's source code.

The SQL/MED, or Management of External Data, extension is defined by

ISO/IEC 9075-9:2003. SQL/MED provides extensions to SQL that define foreign-

data wrappers and datalink types to allow SQL to manage external data. External

data is data that is accessible to, but not managed by, an SQL-based DBMS.

The SQL/OLB, or 'Object Language Bindings, extension is defined by ISO/IEC

9075-10:2003. SQL/OLB defines the syntax and symantics of SQLJ, which is

SQL embedded in Java. The standard also describes mechanisms to ensure binary
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Object-oriented_programming_languagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SQL/JRThttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Java_(programming_language)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SQL_Server_2005http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SQLCLRhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microsoft_.NEThttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Perlhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Python_(programming_language)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tclhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SQL/CLIhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SQL/MEDhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SQL/MEDhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SQL/OLBhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SQLJhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Object-oriented_programming_languagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SQL/JRThttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Java_(programming_language)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SQL_Server_2005http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SQLCLRhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microsoft_.NEThttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Perlhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Python_(programming_language)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tclhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SQL/CLIhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SQL/MEDhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SQL/OLBhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SQLJ


60/112

portability of SQLJ applications, and specifies various Java packages and their

contained classes.

The SQL/Schemata, or Information and Definition Schemas, extension is defined

by ISO/IEC 9075-11:2003. SQL/Schemata define the Information Schema and

Definition Schema, providing a common set of tools to make SQL databases and

objects self-describing. These tools include the SQL object identifier, structure and

integrity constraints, security and authorization specifications, features and

packages of ISO/IEC 9075, support of features provided by SQL-based DBMS

implementations, SQL-based DBMS implementation information and sizing

items, and the values supported by the DBMS implementations.

The SQL/JRT, or SQL Routines and Types for the Java Programming Language,

extension is defined by ISO/IEC 9075-13:2003. SQL/JRT specifies the ability to

invoke static Java methods as routines from within SQL applications. It also calls

for the ability to use Java classes as SQL structured user-defined types.

The SQL/XML, or XML-Related Specifications, extension is defined by ISO/IEC

9075-14:2003. SQL/XML specifies SQL-based extensions for using conjunction

with SQL. The XML data type is introduced, as well as several routines, functions,

and XML-to-SQL data type mappings to support manipulation and storage of

XML in an SQL database.

The SQL/PSM, or Persistent Stored Modules, extension is defined by ISO/IEC

9075-4:2003. SQL/PSM standardizes procedural extensions for SQL, including

flow of control, condition handling, statement condition signals and resignals,

cursors and local variables, and assignment of expressions to variables and

parameters. In addition, SQL/PSM formalizes declaration and maintenance of

persistent database language routines (e.g., "stored procedures").

The SQL language is sub-divided into several language elements, including:
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SQL/Schematahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SQL/XMLhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SQL/Schematahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SQL/XML


61/112

Statements which may have a persistent effect on schemas and data, or which may

control transactions, program flow, connections, sessions, or diagnostics.

Queries which retrieve data based on specific criteria.

Expressions which can produce either scalar values or tables consisting of

columns and rows of data. Predicates which specify conditions that can be

evaluated to SQL three-valued logic Boolean truth values and which are used to

limit the effects of statements and queries, or to change program flow. Clauses

which are (in some cases optional) constituent components of statements and

queries.

Whitespace is generally ignored in SQL statements and queries, making it easier

to format SQL code for readability.

SQL statements also include the semicolon (";") statement terminator. Though not

required on every platform, it is defined as a standard part of the SQL grammar.

Queries

The most common operation in SQL databases is the query, which is performed

with the declarative SELECT keyword. SELECT retrieves data from a specified

table, or multiple related tables, in a database. While often grouped with Data

Manipulation Language (DML) statements, the standard SELECT query is

considered separate from SQL DML, as it has no persistent effects on the data

stored in a database. Note that there are some platform-specific variations of

SELECT that can persist their effects in a database, such as the SELECT INTO

syntax that exists in some databases.

SQL queries allow the user to specify a description of the desired result set, but it

is left to the devices of the database management system (DBMS) to plan,

optimize, and perform the physical operations necessary to produce that result set
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scalar_(computing)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scalar_(computing)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Table_(database)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Column_(database)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Row_(database)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Row_(database)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ternary_logichttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Whitespace_(computer_science)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Semicolonhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Select_(SQL)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Table_(database)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Data_Manipulation_Languagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Data_Manipulation_Languagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Database_management_systemhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Query_planhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Query_optimizerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scalar_(computing)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Table_(database)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Column_(database)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Row_(database)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ternary_logichttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Whitespace_(computer_science)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Semicolonhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Select_(SQL)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Table_(database)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Data_Manipulation_Languagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Data_Manipulation_Languagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Database_management_systemhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Query_planhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Query_optimizer


62/112

in as efficient a manner as possible. An SQL query includes a list of columns to be

included in the final result immediately following the SELECT keyword. An

asterisk ("*") can also be used as a "wildcard" indicator to specify that all

available columns of a table (or multiple tables) are to be returned. SELECT is the

most complex statement in SQL, with several optional keywords and clauses,

including:

The FROM clause which indicates the source table or tables from which the data

is to be retrieved. The FROM clause can include optional JOIN clauses to join

related tables to one another based on user-specified criteria.

The WHERE clause includes a comparison predicate, which is used to restrict the

number of rows returned by the query. The WHERE clause is applied before the

GROUP BY clause. The WHERE clause eliminates all rows from the result set

where the comparison predicate does not evaluate to True.

The GROUP BY clause is used to combine, or group, rows with related values

into elements of a smaller set of rows. GROUP BY is often used in conjunction

with SQL aggregate functions or to eliminate duplicate rows from a result set.

TheHAVING clause includes a comparison predicate used to eliminate rows after

the GROUP BY clause is applied to the result set. Because it acts on the results of

the GROUP BY clause, aggregate functions can be used in the HAVING clause

predicate.

The ORDER BY clause is used to identify which columns are used to sort the

resulting data, and in which order they should be sorted (options are ascending or

descending). The order of rows returned by an SQL query is never guaranteed

unless an ORDER BY clause is specified.

The following is an example of a SELECT query that returns

Matter for Bus Reservation System Final report

Documents

Transcript of Matter for Bus Reservation System Final report