Marriage, Work & Economics Michael Itagaki Sociology 275, Marriage and Family.
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CHAPTER-VI
Marriage and Family
117
CHAPTER-VI
MARRIAGE AND FAMILY
Attitudes towards marriage and family are indications of youth
development. Youths with social and psychological maturity (awareness,
responsibility) tend to marry at a later age (after 25 years) when they start
earning. Similarly, they also tend to have an independent, small and
nuclear family.
Objectives of the Chapter
The main objectives of the chapter are to study the attitudes of the
respondents towards marriage and family. Marriage and family are the
important stages in the development of the youth. Early marriage and joint
family system stall the growth of youth development. Such youths tend to
become orthodox, conservative and narrow minded. They tend to be less
creative and broad minded. Reddy (1980) in his thesis “Values and
Attitudes of Indian Youth” found that college students lacked broader
perspectives. Therefore, it is important to know whether college students
are in a position to take their independent decisions with regard to (1) age at
marriage, and (2) life partner.
Marriage and Youths
1. Age at Marriage
Age at Marriage and Youth Development
Age at marriage marks the beginning of social and biological entry
of the youth into married life. Lower (below 16 years) or higher (beyond
30 years) age at marriage has serious implications for youth development.
A lower age at marriage deprives young men and women their adolescent
period of social, physical, biological and educational development.
Marriage follows pregnancies, deliveries of children, etc. Early marriage
imposes familial responsibilities. In course of time early married youths
tend to become family minded; conservative and rigid. Early marriage
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stalls opportunities for developing and cultivating values of creativity and
self-thinking. Early marriage prevents social and psychological
development. In short, early marriage and youth development cannot go
together.
The Age at Marriage
The age at marriage for youths has far reaching implications for their
future development, size of the family and socialization of children.
Prakash Rao and Nandini Rao (1982) point out: Early marriage can be
evaluated on the basis of its positive and negative functions to the family
system. The positive functions of low age at marriage (child marriage) are:
a) It enables the parents to exercise their traditional patriarchal
authority in the family;
b) It provides greater opportunity for the young bride to mould and
adjust her behaviour to the in-laws.
c) It is though of as ensuring the possibility of early birth of a son for
younger couples, which is regarded as essential for parents’ salvation
for, only the son can perform funeral rites for both the parents;
d) It eliminates the conditions that may be conducive to loss of chastity
for girls;
e) It ensures the solidarity of the kinship group and consolidation of the
family property;
f) The psychological compatibility between spouses is regarded more
certain and highly probable when they are married early in their
lives.
With regard to negative functions, it has been observed that early
sexual union is harmful to the development of the youths. Little freedom of
choice strengthens the value of parents’ superiority in decision-making.
Early marriage results in higher fertility rate. It also means higher imfant
and maternal mortality.
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In short, early marriage does not allow a period of transition to make
experiments with the challenges of marriage.
6.1 Caste and Age at Marriage
Social factors like caste, religion and rural background, etc. have an
intimate relationship with age at marriage.
Caste is a social institution. It has social, economic, educational and
rural/ urban dimensions. Higher castes have higher educational and
economic status. Age at marriage, varies according to one’s caste status.
Higher caste, such as Brahmins, Jains, Lingayats in urban areas tend to
marry their youths at a higher age. Similarly, SCs and STs and backward
castes marry their youth at a lower age. Even today the lower castes are
relatively less educated, poor and work in menial and manual jobs.
G.K.Karanth (1981) in his study Rural Youth found that more than 55 per
cent of the sample had married in the age group of 14-30. Ambarao
Uplaonkar (1998) in his thesis Rural Youth in Modern India found that
more than 60 per cent of the sample was married before 18 years.
However, with the onset of modernization, the span of youth-hood is
increasing.
Marriage in India
Marriage among Hindus is a sacrament, a holy union of two souls. It
is one of the basic Samskaras – a purification ceremony – or rites that men
and women have to go through. As a sacrament, Hindu marriage demanded
(at least in the past) early or child marriage in order to protect the chastity of
the girls. Thus, Hindu ideals encouraged pre-puberty marriages. The
Dharmashastras enjoined parents and guardians to marry off their daughters
before they attained puberty. Parents who could not marry off their
daughters were ostracized and looked down upon (Kapadia, 1966; Qureshi,
1978).
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Age at Marriage in India
Age at marriage is intimately linked with youth development. Early
or late marriage has adverse effect on youth development. Optimum age
(25-30 years) at marriage provides opportunities for experimentation and
creativity. Youths from upper class and urban background tend to develop
their independent view of marriage and family. A shorter youth-hood does
not facilitate maturity of mind1. The present study indents to know how
college students perceive age at marriage.
Table-6.1.1
Age at Marriage
Sl. No.
Response No. Percent
1. Clear 189 30.00
2. Ambiguous 252 40.00
3. Not clear 189 30.00
Total 630 100.00
When asked at what age do you want to marry, the responses of the
subjects are presented in Table 6.1.1.
It could be seen from the said table that only 30 per cent had clear
perception of age at marriage. This section had clear perception of the age
at marriage. Interestingly, 40 per cent of them had ambiguous ideas. For
example, most of them stated that they were expecting their parents to
decide. A few of them, especially women, were confused about their age at
marriage. They did not know what to do and what not to do. Their social
self was ambiguous. Most of the men were not clear about early or late
marriage and its implications on couples’ health and future life.
1 G.K.Karanth’s “Rural Youth: A Sociological Study of a Karnataka Village”, 1981.
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Figure-6.1.1
Age at Marriage
Clear, 189
Ambiguous, 252
Not Clear, 189
The remaining 30 per cent were not clear about their age at marriage.
They were totally depended on their parents’ decision-making. They did
not have their own choice. Their reply was “I do not Know. My parents
would decide”. On the whole, the college students, under study, not clear
about their age at marriage.
Of the 30 per cent who had a clear picture of the age at marriage
wanted to marry between 25-30 years. The mean age at marriage was 23
years. Women had lower mean age (21 years) at marriage than that of men.
Faculty and Age at Marriage
This part of the chapter deals with respondents’ faculty and age at
marriage. More specifically, the aim is to know if there is any relationship
between the respondents’ faculty and their perception of age at marriage.
One may ask the following questions:
1. Whether the perception of age at marriage differs according to one’s
faculty.
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2. Whether Arts college students have ambiguous perceptions of age at
marriage when compared to Science and Commerce faculty.
Faculty and Perception of Age at Marriage
Faculty and youth development are related with each other. They
provide opportunities for shorter or longer span of youth-hood. Arts
students have shorter while Science and Commerce students have longer
span of youth-hood.
Arts faculty does not provide enough job opportunities for
employment. Very few Arts graduates try to seek white collar jobs, while
more than 30 per cent tend to take up trade and business and the remaining
go in for labour. Employment follows marriage and obviously, youth-hood
is closed. On the other hand, Science and Commerce students tend to wait
and prepare for jobs. Even if they join trade and business, they take up
skilled jobs such as computer, DTP, salesmanship, etc.
Table-6.1.2
Faculty and Age at Marriage
Arts Science & Commerce
Total Response
No. Percent No. Percent No. Percent
Clear 89 30.00 100 30.00 189 30.00
Ambiguous 107 36.00 145 43.00 252 40.00
Not clear 100 34.00 89 27.00 189 30.00
Total 296 100.00 334 100.00 630 100.00
²=4.72 df=2 CC=0.09 Not significant at 5% level
It could be seen from Table 6.1.2 that 30 per cent of Arts and 30 per
cent of Science and Commerce students had clear vision of age at marriage,
respectively. They said they would not marry until they completed 25 years
of age. Girl students were equally clear about their perception of age at
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marriage. Data also suggest that 36 per cent Arts and 43 per cent Science
and Commerce respondents had ambiguous vision of age at marriage. They
said if circumstances favour, they may marry at any age. They were
potentially ready for marriage.
Figure-6.1.2
Faculty and Age at Marriage
89107 100 100
145
89
189
252
189
0
50
100
150
200
250
300
Num
ber
of R
espo
nden
ts
Arts Science & Commerce Total
Faculty
Clear Ambiguous Not clear
Data also suggest that 34 per cent and 27 per cent of Arts and
Science and Commerce undergraduates were ignorant about age at
marriage. It appears that faculties do not make any difference to
respondents’ perception of age at marriage.
Caste and Age at Marriage
Caste, as a social institution, is intimately related to youth
development. Caste implies economic, educational and income status. By
and large, there is a correspondence between caste status and class status.
By and large, forward castes such as Brahmins and Jains, Kshatriyas,
Vaishyas, urban Marathas, Lingayats, Okkaligas, etc. have the practice of
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late marriages. Their young men and women are socialized to marry late –
after 25 years.
On the other hand, backward castes such as Kurubas – Shepherds,
rural Okkaligas, Idigas – Toddy tappers, SCs and STs have the practice of
child marriages. It means backwards become adults in their adolescence.
Obviously their personality becomes narrow conservative and tradition-
bound. Such young men and women are isolated from the mainstream of
social, economic and political life.
Table-6.1.3
Caste and Age at Marriage
Forward Caste Backward Caste Total Response
No. Percent No. Percent No. Percent
Clear 130 65.00 59 14.00 189 30.00
Ambiguous 50 25.00 202 47.00 252 40.00
Not clear 20 10.00 169 39.00 189 30.00
Total 200 100.00 430 100.00 630 100.00
²=175.2 df=2 CC=0.47 Significant at 5% level
Data presented in Table 6.1.3 show that 65 per cent of the forward
caste as against 14 per cent of the backward caste had clear vision of age at
marriage. It is clear that a majority of the forward caste had a clear view of
age at marriage. Most of them said that they would marry after 25 years of
age. A few of them stated that they would do their post-graduation then
think of marriage. A few of them stated that they would marry only after
they got job or started earning. Even the forward caste girl students
mentioned they were firm about PG course and try for a job. Similar views
were expressed by backward caste students. But they were from the upper
class and urban background.
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Figure-6.1.3
Caste and Age at Marriage
130
50
20
59
202
169
189
252
189
0
50
100
150
200
250
300N
umbe
r of
Res
pond
ents
Arts Science & Commerce Total
Faculty
Clear Ambiguous Not clear
Data further suggest that 25 per cent and 10 per cent of the forward
caste had ambiguous and ‘not clear’ perceptions, respectively. It means a
greater proportion of the forward caste had some idea of age at marriage. A
small proportion (10%) had no clear idea of age at marriage. On the other
hand, 47 per cent and 39 per cent of the backward caste had ‘ambiguous’
and ‘not clear’ perception about age at marriage, respectively. It is clear
that a greater proportion of backward caste students had ‘vague’ and ‘not’
clear picture of age at marriage.
The main findings are:
1. A majority (65%) of the forward caste respondents had clear vision of
the age at marriage.
2. A majority of the backward caste students had ambiguous and ‘unclear’
vision of the age at marriage.
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It could be stated that forward caste students are likely to become
matured youth who are likely to participate in national activities. On the
other hand, backward caste students are not likely to attain youth-hood and
thus remain outside the purview of national stream.
Faculty, Age at Marriage and Caste
The aim of this section is to know whether respondents’ caste status
influences their perception of age at marriage independent of faculty or in
relation with faculty. The specific objectives of the section are:
1. To know the influence of caste on the perception of age at marriage of
respondents’ of Arts faculty,
2. To know the influence of caste on the perception of age at marriage of
respondents’ of Science and Commerce faculty, and
3. To know the influence of caste on the perception of age at marriage of
respondents’ across the faculties.
In relation to the above objectives the following hypotheses are
tested:
1. Forward caste respondents of Arts faculty have a clear perception of the
age at marriage.
2. Forward caste respondents of Science and Commerce have a clear
perception of the age at marriage.
3. Forward caste respondents have a clear view of the age at marriage in
both Arts and Science and Commerce faculties.
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Table-6.1.4
Age at Marriage by Faculty and Caste
Arts faculty Science and Commerce faculty Total
Forward caste
Backward caste
Total Forward
caste Backward
caste Total
Forward caste
Backward caste
Total Response
No. % No. % No. % No. % No. % No. % No. % No. % No. %
Clear 40 57 49 22 89 30 60 46 40 20 100 30 100 50 89 21 189 30
Ambiguous 20 28 52 23 72 24 50 38 130 64 180 54 70 35 182 42 252 40
Not clear 10 15 125 55 135 46 20 16 34 16 54 16 30 15 159 37 189 30
Total 70 100 226 100 296 100 130 100 204 100 334 100 200 100 430 100 630 100
²=42.76; df=2; CC=0.36; Significant ²=28.16; df=2; CC=0.28; Significant ²=62.88; df=2; CC=0.30; Significant
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Caste and Age at Marriage of Arts Faculty Students
It could be seen from Table 6.1.4 that the forward castes students
have a greater perception of age at marriage than backward castes. For
example, 57 per cent of the forward castes as against 22 per cent of the
backward castes had a clear vision of age at marriage. It could also be seen
that 28 per cent of the forward caste as against 23 per cent of the backward
caste had ambiguous view of age at marriage. It shows they were on the
verge of decision-making. Whether they marry or not depends on
circumstance. They themselves did not have any idea of marriage. Data
also suggest that 55 per cent of the backward caste students as against 15
per cent of the forward caste had no idea of age at marriage. It is clear from
the analysis that forward caste students had a clear view of marriage. This
clarity of view enables forward caste students to develop a clear social self.
They would be more matured and responsible youths than backward caste
youths.
Caste and Age at Marriage of Science and Commerce Faculty Students
This section deals with the perception of the Science and Commerce
faculty students with regard to age at marriage. It is intended to know
whether a greater proportion of forward caste than backward caste of
Science and Commerce students have a clear view of age at marriage.
An analysis of the data, as presented in Table 6.1.4 show that even in
Science and Commerce faculties, a greater proportion of the forward caste
(46%) than a smaller (20%) proportion of the backward caste students had a
clear view of age at marriage. It means one’s caste background has a
deciding effect on the formation of social self.
It is clear that students’ caste background has a clear influence on
students’ formation of personality.
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Caste and Age at Marriage across Faculties
This section attempts to analyze whether caste has any influence on
students’ perception of age at marriage across faculties. To be specific,
whether caste has any influence on the perceptions of students regarding
age at marriage of both Arts and Science and Commerce faculties.
Data presented in Table 6.1.4 show that a greater proportion of the
forward caste students of Arts (57%) and Science and Commerce (46%) had
clear vision of the age at marriage. It means although the Government of
India has provided different types of facilities to backward caste students,
including SC and STs, they are not able to make use of the facilities. This
is mainly because backward caste students lack motivation for mobility
from their parents, kith and kin and neighbours who are poor, illiterate and
uneducated.
Major Findings
1. A majority of the respondents from the forward caste, compared to
backward caste students had clear view of the age at marriage.
2. A majority of the forward caste compared to backward caste students in
both Arts and Science and Commerce faculties had a clear perception of
the age at marriage.
3. A comparison of the perception of age at marriage of forward caste and
backward caste students across faculties has not yielded much
difference.
It could be concluded that college education does not seem to
socialize them for youth-hood.
6.2 Choice of Life Partner
The degree of freedom given to youths to choose their life-partner is
an indication of the social recognition accorded to them. In the traditional
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Indian society, the family constituted the basis of social life. Recognition
was accorded to the individual as a member of the family and not apart
from it. Thus, the individual functioned more as a member of the family
than as an individual self.
In the traditional joint family marriages were arranged by the
parents, guardians or relatives. Marriage was, and is even today, considered
a union of two families, kin groups and castes. It was the parents who were
mainly instrumental in selecting, negotiating and arranging the marriage,
and not the parties – bride and groom – who got married. Since marriage
was arranged by parents and was considered a family affair considerable
emphasis was placed on the attributes of the mate’s families. Aswalya
Grahrutra says that, first of all, the family should be examined, both from
the mother’s and father’s side. It should be stressed that it was the parents
and kinsmen who exercised their power and authority in deciding the
marriage and not the bride and groom. Besides, caste endogamy permitted
little heterogeneity in mate selection, and the principle of homogamy was
mostly prevalent.
Review of Literature
With the advent of modernization, the sacramental values associated
with marriage have begun to erode. Pre-puberty marriages, especially
among the higher castes living in urban areas, came to be looked down
upon as the younger generation, including women, started attending
schools, colleges, Shah observes: “Educated Hindus no longer felt obliged
to marry off their daughters before puberty, sending daughters to college
appeared to be gaining in favour over early marriage among the middle
class” (1975; 285-86). In course of time, education came to be recognized
as a precondition of marriage. The spread of modern education, mass
media and technology have made the younger generation conscious of their
individual rights in decision-making even in rural areas. This is not to
131
suggest that modern youth are against the power and authority of the
parents and the ideals of the joint family. What they want is a certain
amount of autonomy for self-choice, in conformity with the ideals of the
joint family. Venkatrayappa found that groom was given a chance to relied
and choose his bride though subject to the approval of the parents (1973;
185). A similar trend was noticed by Ishwaran: “Young men now want to
see their brides before marriage, and the bride is sometimes even so bold as
to glance up at the young man she is engaged to” (1968; 73).
Other studies have tried to ascertain the changes in the age at
marriage for boys and girls over the last two decades. In her
anthropological study of an urban community in Northern India, Vatuk
(1971) observed an increase in the average age at marriage for both sexes.
In his study of Rajasthan village household heads, Gupta (1972) examined
the age at marriage of 158 boys and 163 girls. The mean age at marriage for
boys and girls was 19 years. The study however, found that the age at
marriage was high for upper and economically better off castes, while it was
relatively low for agriculturists and artisans.
In a study of 115 household heads, Chekki (1968) examined the age
at marriage of 303 cases. It was found that 80.53 per cent of the females
married at 15 years or below and the rest at 16 years of age or older. Data
also revealed that there were significant differences in the attitudes of the
respondents towards age at marriage for girls and boys.
The above review of literature does not show the attitudes of college
students from different castes, religions and sexes towards choice of life
partner. The researcher believes that there are significant differences in
youth development of different castes, communities and sex groups.
Forward caste youths are more developed than the backward caste youths.
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Similarly, Hindu youths are more developed than the Muslim youths.
Similarly, male youths are more developed than female youths.
Freedom of Choice
The variable ‘freedom to choose’ is considered important in relation
to individual and family. ‘Freedom of choice’ is used in a relative sense
and not in absolute one. The variable is divided into three response
categories as a continuum – conservative – modern. At one end a youth’s
acceptance of parents’ decision in deciding his/ her life-partner without
questions was placed at the other end youth’s choice in deciding his/ her
life-mate regardless of the parents’ wishes. At similar theoretical base has
been provided by George Kurian, in his study of married ‘Syrian Christians
from Kerala’ who described a range of four patterns as follows: marriage
which is (1) arranged according to the ideas of the parents, (2) arranged by
parents with the consent of respondent; (3) respondents’ own choice with
the consent of the parents, and (4) respondents’ own choice with or without
the consent of the parents. The actual response categories in the present
enquiry were as follows:
1. Self choice without the consent of the parents,
2. Self-choice with the consent of the parents, and
3. Parents’ choice without the consent of the respondent
Objectives of the Chapter
1. To know if the respondents make self-choice without the consent of ther
parents,
2. To know if the respondents make self-choice with the consent of the
parents, and
3. To know if the parents make choice without the consent of the
respondent.
133
Choice of Life Partner
It has been already stated that youths in India, especially in rural
areas and backward castes, have not played any role in shaping their life
and that of society. They are relatively rigid and conservative. They lack a
broader state and national perspective. They can hardly make any
meaningful decisions about themselves and society.
Choice of Life Partner Scores
In the following pages an attempt is madfe to know the respondents’
perception of choice of life partner.
Table-6.2.1
Respondents’ percentage of Choice of Life Partner
Sl. No.
Response No. Percent
1. Self choice 252 40.00
2. Self-choice with parents’ consent 189 30.00
3. Only parents 189 30.00
Total 630 100.00
It could be seen from Table 6.2.1 that 40 per cent of the respondents
wanted to make self-choice of life-partner independently. They argued that
they are capable enough to take independent decisions. It was observed that
they were from upper castes and classes boys. Data further show that 30
per cent wanted to make choices in consultation with their parents. They
also said that they cannot ignore their parents wishes and desires. This
section of the respondents seemed partly modern and partly traditional.
This section consisted of rural migrants, woman from backward castes and
minorities.
134
Figure-6.2.1
Respondents’ percentage of Choice of Life Partner
Self choice, 252
Self-choice with parents’ consent, 189
Only parents, 189
Data also suggest that 30 per cent of the respondents said that their
parents are chiefly responsible for deciding their (respondents’) marriage.
Children are expected to obey their parents. This section seemed from
backward castes and minorities.
In short, a majority of the college students were in a state of
transition and confusion.
Choice of Life Partner and Faculty
This section deals with the effect of faculty on the ability to make
choice of life partner. To be specific, whether Arts and Science &
Commerce faculties differ in their influence on developing autonomy,
rationality, etc. in making choice of life-partner.
The theoretical perspective is that Arts students are conservative and
traditional, therefore they look forward to their parents to decide their life
partner, while the Science & Commerce students are relatively rational and
liberal, they are likely to make independent decisions.
135
Table-6.2.2
Choice of Life-partner and Faculty
Arts Science & Commerce
Total Response
No. Percent No. Percent No. Percent
Self choice 107 36.00 145 43.00 252 40.00
Self-choice in consultation with parents
89 30.00 100 30.00 189 30.00
Only parents 100 34.00 89 27.00 189 30.00
Total 296 100.00 334 100.00 630 100.00
²=4.73 df=2 CC=0.09 Not significant Data presented in Table 6.2.1 show that 43 per cent of Science and
Commerce students as against 36 per cent of Arts students were prepared to
make self-choice of life-partner. Data show that the proportion of students
desirous of making self-choice of life partners is not very high. It shows
those who think independently are very few. It can be further observed that
Science and Commerce students (43%) compared to Arts (36%) students
who make self-choices are not very high. It means college youths are not
much developed.
Figure-6.2.2
Choice of Life-partner and Faculty
10789
100
145
10089
252
189 189
0
50
100
150
200
250
300
Num
ber
of R
esp
onde
nts
Arts Science & Commerce Total
Faculty
Self choice Self-choice in consultation with parents Only parents
136
The proportion of students who make self-choices is 30 per cent Arts
and 30 per cent Science and Commerce. In this regard, the faculty
background does not make any difference. The possible reason is that even
in Science and Commerce courses, quite a number of students from the
backward and minority students have taken admission. It could be stated
that mere provision for higher education for backward castes and women
does not ensure training for youth-hood.
It can be further seen from the table that 34 per cent of Arts as
against 27 per cent from Science and Commerce sample have totally relied
on their parents to decide their (sample) life partner. This section of the
youth is tradition bound. The proportion of Arts (34%) students is more
than that of the Science and Commerce. Although the proportion of the
Arts students is more than the Science and Commerce, the difference is not
much. It could be stated that college education does not seem to train
college youth for any adulthood.
Choice of Life-partner and Caste
This section intends to know whether there is any relationship
between respondents’ caste background and choice of partner. The specific
objective of the section is:
1. To know whether forward castes tend to make self-choices, and
2. To know whether backward castes tend to depend on their parents
and kins.
Hypotheses
1. Forward castes such as Brahmins, Kshatriyas, Vaishyas, Jains,
Marathas, Lingayats are likely to make self-choice,
2. Backward castes including SCs and STs, minorities, etc. are likely to
depend on their parents for the selection of spouses.
137
Theoretical Background
It has been already pointed that caste, religion, gender, rural-urban
background act as chief sources of individual socialization1.
It should be mentioned that caste/ religion/ rural-urban background
are intimately related to class status. Caste means class also. For forward
castes, moderate level of education and employment are a precondition for
marriage and family. Individuals get enough transition period to tackle and
experiment with the problems of life. On the hand, backward castes have
low class status, live in congested areas with inadequate civic facilities.
Their children hardly attend school. Parents also do not exert pressure on
them to attend school. In short, backward caste students do not get
sufficient time for learning. Consequently, they do not develop qualities of
autonomy, critical thinking, etc. Thus, caste is more advantageous for
forward than for backward castes.
With the advent of Independence, large scale changes have taken
place in India. The whole Constitution has been designed and implemented
in favour of weaker sections with a view to bring about equality of
opportunity between castes, communities and sexes.
There is a significant change in the status and role of SCs and STs,
women and minorities. Studies indicate that the educational and
occupational aspirations, values and attitudes of SCs and STs are changing.
However, the backward caste youth are in a state of acute transition. They
are in between the tradition and modernity. The elite groups among them
are making use of reservation facilities (Shah et al, 1971). It is assumed
that since backward castes youths are not developed they cannot make self-
choices.
1 M.S.Gore’s, “Indian Youth: Processes of Socialization”, (1977), Vishwa Yuvak Kendra, New Delhi.
138
Table-6.2.3
Choice of Life-partner and Caste
Forward Caste Backward Caste Total Response
No. Percent No. Percent No. Percent
Self-choice 100 50.00 152 35.00 252 40.00
Self-choice in consultation with parents
70 35.00 119 28.00 189 30.00
Only parents 30 15.00 159 37.00 189 30.00
Total 200 100.00 430 100.00 630 100.00
²=31.76 df=2 CC=0.22 Significant
It could be seen from Table 6.2.3 that there are wide differences in
the responses of forward caste and backward caste with regard to choice of
life-partner. To illustrate, 50 per cent of forward caste as against 35 per
cent of the backward caste students have made self-choices. A discussion
with the forward caste sample revealed that they had greater decision-
making skills to decide their life problems. A few said that would take into
consideration all possible characteristics of the girls – education,
employment, physical appearance, family and caste background, etc. and
explain about themselves. They would consent for marriage only when
there is consensus. It was also found that this sample of the subjects was
not against parents’ opinions, desires and wishes. The respondents said that
they would take their parents, kith and kin into confidence and convince
them about their choices, in case disagreed in the beginning.
139
Figure-6.2.3
Choice of Life-partner and Caste
100
70
30
152
119
159
252
189 189
0
50
100
150
200
250
300N
umbe
r of
Res
pond
ents
Arts Science & Commerce Total
Faculty
Self-choice Self-choice in consultation with parents Only parents
Data further show that 35 per cent and 28 per cent of forward caste
and backward caste respectively, wanted to make self-choice provided the
proposal is approved by parents. If the proposal is finally not approved by
the parents due to various reasons, the proposal stands cancelled. But the
difference in proportions of the forward caste and backward caste with
regard to the response is not much.
It could be further seen that 15 per cent of forward caste as against
37 per cent of backward caste expressed their desire to select their spouses
according to the will and wishes of their parents/ guardians. The proportion
of the respondents who totally depended on parents constituted more
women than men. In short, respondents’ caste background has a significant
relationship with youth development.
140
Table-6.2.4
Choice of Life-partner, Faculty by Caste
Arts faculty Science and Commerce faculty Total
Forward caste
Backward caste
Total Forward
caste Backward
caste Total
Forward caste
Backward caste
Total Response
No. % No. % No. % No. % No. % No. % No. % No. % No. %
Self-choice 40 57 67 30 107 36 80 62 65 32 145 43 120 60 132 31 252 40
Self-choice in consultation with parents
20 29 69 30 89 30 30 23 70 34 100 30 50 25 139 32 189 30
Only parents 10 14 90 40 100 34 20 15 69 34 89 27 30 15 159 37 189 30
Total 70 100 226 100 296 100 130 100 204 100 334 100 200 100 430 100 630 100
²=21.57; df=2; CC=0.26; Significant ²=29.59; df=2; CC=0.29; Significant ²=53.73; df=2; CC=0.28; Significant
141
Choice of Life-partner Faculty and Caste
It has been observed in the previous sections that the respondents’
faculty background has not made any influence on the inculcation of skills
of choice-making. It has been observed that college education is not well
organized and goal oriented. Students, especially from the Arts faculty
hardly learn anything meaningful. Students in Arts colleges seek admission
for securing scholarships and benefits rather than with aim of learning.
Even in Science and Commerce faculties, the situation is not totally
different. It was also observed that the respondents’ caste background still
continues to influence students personality growth.
This section indents to analyze the influence of caste on the
development of skills of choosing life partner against the respondents’
faculty.
Objectives
1. To know whether caste influences choice of life partner independent of
faculty or in cooperation with faculty.
2. To know whether caste makes independent influence on choice of life
partner with regard to Science and Commerce faculty, and,
3. To know whether caste makes independent influence on the choice of
life-partner in both faculties viz., Arts and Science and Commerce.
Choice of Life-partner, Arts Faculty and Caste
This section deals with the influence of caste on choice of life
partner in relation to Arts faculty. The assumption is that caste and faculty
together exert their influence on choice of life-partner.
Data presented in Table 6.2.4 show that 57 per cent of forward caste
as against 30 per cent of the Arts faculty have made self-choice of life-
partner. It means the influence of caste on deciding choice of life-partner is
more powerful than the influence of faculty (36%).
142
It can also be seen that 40 per cent of backward caste as against 14
per cent of the forward caste depended on parents. It is clear that the said
faculty does not seem to make any influence choice of life-partner.
Data with regard to the Science & Commerce faculty show that even
in this faculty a majority (62%) of the forward caste have made self-choice
in deciding their life-partner. On the other hand only 32 per cent of the
backward caste respondents have made self-choice. It means forward caste
students are making use of the facilities available in the Science &
Commerce faculties. It also means a majority of the backward caste
students are not availing the said opportunities. It could be stated that the
extension of college education to SCs and STs, women and rural areas has
not served the expected goal. It seems, as the data show, the forward caste
continue to make use of the facilities by higher education. The result is that
forward caste students are developing into matured youths. On the other
hand, backward caste students are likely to remain immature youths.
Choice of Life-partner Faculties and Caste
This section deals with the influence of caste on choice of life-
partner of the respondents from the Arts and Science & Commerce
faculties. The aim is to know whether there are any significant differences
in the proportions of the forward caste and backward caste students from
the Arts and Science & Commerce faculties with regard to choice of life-
partner. The underlying assumption is that more Science & Commerce
faculty forward caste students than backward caste tend to make choice of
life-partner.
Data suggest 62 per cent of the Science & Commerce students
compared to 57 per cent of the Arts students have made self-choice. But
the data do not suggest a wide variation. Data with regard to other response
categories – self-choice one’s categories – self-choice with parents approval
and only parents – do not have wide variations. This shows that faculties
143
do not make much difference developing autonomy among college students,
under investigation.
Major Findings
Caste plays an important role in influencing college students choice
of life partner in both Arts and Science and Commerce faculties
separately.
Caste plays an important role in influencing choice of life partner
when Arts and Science and Commerce faculties are compared.
It could be concluded that forward castes, compared to backward
castes, are developing powers of autonomy required of youth in
modern India.
6.3 Preference for Family Type and College Students
The family is one of the primary groups, institutions and
organizations of human society. According to Mandel Baum (1972:33)
individuals are born into a family and it is here that the child gets its
education before it begins to learn from outside the home. From here on the
child gains a place in the society and a recognition. As Eric Wolf puts it,
the family provides for a man’s reputation and it is interlinked with his own
reputation (1966:8). Family type and youth development.
Family is a group where the individual is socialized for adulthood.
However, the development of the individual self varies according to the
type of family. The youth development in a joint family is characterized by
traditionalism and conservatism. On the other hand, youth development in
a nuclear family is characterized by autonomy, initiative, critical logic etc.
This section aims
To know the attitudes of the respondents towards the family type.
To know whether there is any association between the attitudes of
the Arts and the Science & Commerce, students and the type of
family chosen.
144
To know whether there is any association between the attitudes of
the respondents of different castes and type of family.
To know whether there is any association between the attitudes of
the respondents of the different castes against their faculty
background.
Hypotheses
The attitudes of college students are more in favour of joint than
nuclear family.
Science & Commerce, students are relatively more favourable for
nuclear than joint family.
Forward caste students are more favourable for nuclear than joint
family.
More forward than backward in both Arts and Science &
Commerce, faculties are favourable for nuclear than joint
families.
Importance of the Family
Family is the first and foremost institution of society. As an
institution, family has played a significant role in socializing and integrating
the young into the value system of the society. It caters to the needs and
desires of all its members. Every individual is born and brought up in a
family; grows old in the family and eventually dies in the family. In this
connection MacIver and Page (1949) have said: “Of all the organizations,
large and small, which the society unfolds, none transcends the family in
the intensity of its sociological significance. It influences the whole society
in innumerable ways, and its changes reverberate through the whole
structure. It is capable of endless variation and yet reveals a remarkable
continuity, persistence through change.
According to Goode (1965) the family is the fundamental foundation
of the larger social structure on whose contribution all other institutions
145
depend. He points out that it is the only institution, other than religion,
which is formally developed is all societies. Family duties are the direct
responsibility of every one in the society with rare exceptions. Almost no
family role or responsibility can be delegated to others is more specialized
obligations can be in a work situations. However, studies conducted on the
changing character of the family have shown that despite several
specialized and formal organizations taking away its functions, the family
especially in India, has remained the basic institution for the care of
children and youths.
Note: For details on youth and family see ISP “The Indian family in the
change and challenge of the seventies” (1972) Sterling: New Delhi.
The Changing Family
Traditionally, the relationships in the joint family were structured in
the form of institutions, customs and practices. Individuals interacted with
each other as role-players with little freedom and liberty.
The British and Family Change
With the advent of the British, significant changes occurred in India.
The British were the first to introduce formal educations, transport and
communication; hospitals etc. Consequently, the age of adolescence and
youth hood began to increase consequently, the traditional joint family
large, patriarchal, authoritarian began to transform itself into moderate and
small individual families in urban areas.
Types of Families
Broadly speaking, the family is divided into: 1) Joint/Extended and
nuclear family. This broad division of the family works out in western
society, but not in India. Joint family is not an extended family. It is an
organization of nuclear or individual families. Joint family is an integrated
group of individuals and relationships.
146
Changing Forms of Joint Family
The joint family has never been a static system. It has been changing
according to the changing needs of society.
According to Iravati Karve (1953): A joint family is a group of
people who generally live under one roof, who eat food cooked at one heart,
who hold property in common and who participate in family workship and
are related to each other as some particular type of kindered. According to
Karve, the joint family is a kinship group. It basically means a set of roles
statuses, duties, responsibilities towards kin members such as parents, grand
parents, children, grand children, sisters and other relatives. The type of
joint family envisaged by Karve is outdated in modern times. Joint family
in modern India, especially among educated and employed in urban areas is
becoming two generation and one generation families. There are families
where parents and married brothers and unmarried children live together.
There are families where parents and married sons live together. Yet there
are families where parents and unmarried sons live together. Joint family is
becoming small in its size and functions. In the present study joint and
nuclear families are understood as two ends of the same system. Both are
complementary and supplementary to each other. The joint family is
divided into three sub groups viz
1. Joint family
2. Joint nuclear and
3. Nuclear Joint
Let us explain them.
1. Joint family: Consists of grand parents, parents unmarried and
married brothers and their children. By and large, they live under
one roof and eat food cook in one kitchen. Men and elders
exercise power and authority. Besides men, mothers and
mothers-in-law play a dominant role in the family.
147
2. Joint Nuclear Family: It is a group that consists of parents
father, mother or both unmarried brothers and sisters and ego (the
son) his wife and children, parents earning, non-earning do not
play any important role. The ego has the responsibility of
looking after parents and unmarried brothers and sisters.
3. Nuclear Joint Family: This type of family consists of ego, his
wife and children. It is a small family where both husband and
wife exercise power and authority. Each individual enjoys
greater personal freedom and liberty. In this system, parents,
grand parents, married brothers reside in separate households.
But the ego and his wife have the responsibility of looking after
the aged parents, *unmarried brothers and sisters, even widows
and orphans.
In modern India youths prefer to stay independently nuclear joint
family. Attitudes towards the family type is an indication of youth
development. Those who wish to stay in nuclear joint families are
supposed to be individual oriented with broader perspectives of society and
nation.
Attitude towards Family Type Score
In the following paragraphs an attempt is made to know the attitudes
of college students towards family types.
* There are cases where the aged parents, brothers and sisters live in old-age homes. But the ego and his family members visit the old age home and take care of them.
148
Table-6.3.1
Preference for family type
Sl. No.
Response No. Percent
1. Joint family 126 20
2. Joint Nuclear family 315 50
3. Nuclear Joint family 189 30
Total 630 100.00
Data presented in Table 6.3.1 show that only 20 and 30 percents
have opted for Joint Family and Nuclear Joint Family, respectively. It
means the college youth are neither conservative nor modern. To be
specific, only 20 percent wants to live in joint families. It means a small
percentage of college youth are conservative. But 30 percent of than want
to live in nuclear joint families.
Figure-6.3.1
Preference for family type
Joint family, 126
Joint Nuclear family, 315
Nuclear Joint family, 189
149
It means they are extremely modern liberal, independent and self-
oriented. They want to perform limited functions of joint family. But,
interestingly, 50 percent of the respondents wanted to live in joint nuclear
families. It means about 50 percent of the college students, under study, are
changing their traditional attitudes towards life. They are relatively
becoming independent in thinking. They want modern changes but wish to
stick to traditional values.
Preference for family type and faculty
This section deals with the association between preference for family
type and faculty. To be specific it is intended to know whether college
students, under study vary in their preference for family type according to
faculty. The objectives of the section are:
1. To know the preferences of family type by Arts students.
2. To know the preferences of family type by Science & Commerce
students, and
3. To know if the Arts and Science & Commerce, students differ in
their preference for family type.
Hypotheses
1. Arts students tend to prefer joint family system.
2. Science & Commerce, students tend to prefer joint nuclear and
nuclear joint families.
Preference for family type and faculty
This section deals with the preferences for family type by Arts and
Science & Commerce, students. The theoretical assumption is that Arts
students are likely to prefer for joint family, while Science & Commerce,
students are likely to prefer nuclear joint family. The reason is that Arts
courses are less Science oriented.
150
There are no laboratory exercises. They are not engaged in
experiments obliviously, their critical thinking is not likely to develop.
Table-6.3.2
Preference for family Type and Faculty
Arts Science & Commerce
Total Type of family
No. Percent No. Percent No. Percent
Nuclear 39 13 150 44 189 30
Nuclear Joint 150 50 165 50 315 50
Joint 107 37 19 06 126 20
Total 296 100 334 100 630 100
²=125.53 df=2 CC=0.41 Significant at 5% level It could be seen from the above Table 6.3.2 that the faculty
background of the respondents does not seem to make any difference to
preference for family type as 44 and 13 percents of the Arts and Science &
Commerce, respondents respectively have preferred for nuclear type of
family. It means a relative majority (44%) from Science & Commerce as
against 13 percent from Arts have opted for nuclear family. It can be stated
that Science & Commerce, students have greater orientations of
independence, freedom and equality.
151
Figure-6.3.2
Preference for family Type and Faculty
39
150
107
150165
19
189
315
126
0
50
100
150
200
250
300
350N
umbe
r of
Res
pond
ents
Forward Caste Backward Caste Total
Faculty
Nuclear Nuclear Joint Joint
On the other hand, Arts faculty students’ orientations of
independence, freedom and equality are poorely developed. They are likely
to be traditional. Data also reveal that 50 and 50 percents of Arts and
Science & Commerce students, respectively have opted for nuclear joint
family. It means, half of the respondents want to live in a joint family with
nuclear characteristics. They want a compromise of both nuclear and joint
families. They are in the midst of tradition and modernity.
Data further reveal that a relative majority (37%) of Arts faculty
students as against 6 percent from Science & Commerce, students for joint
family. On the whole a good deal of change is taking place in the
perception of college students. However, the change cannot be attributable
to faculty background.
Major findings
1. A majority of the students have opted for nuclear joint family. They
want a compromise between tradition and modernity.
152
2. A relative majority (44%) from Science & Commerce, have opted
for nuclear family. It means Science & Commerce, students are
becoming more change oriented. The fact that certain amount of
change (modernization) is taking place in the attitudes of Science &
Commerce, students cannot be ruled out.
Preference for family type and caste
This section aims to find out if there is any relationship between the
respondents’ preference for family type and their caste background.
Caste and family are interrelated. Higher castes are likely to prefer
an individual dominated family where greater scope is provided for youth
development. Forward castes are also forward classes on the other hand
backward castes are likely to live in nuclear joint and joint families.
Backward castes are relatively kinship oriented. They feel content with
caste and kinship people.
Table-6.3.3
Preference for Family Type and Caste
Forward Caste Backward Caste Total Type of family
No. Percent No. Percent No. Percent
Nuclear 130 65 59 14 189 30
Nuclear Joint 50 25 265 62 315 50
Joint 20 10 106 24 126 20
Total 200 100 430 100 630 100
²=170.93 df=2 CC=0.46 Highly significant
Data presented in Table 6.3.3 show that 65 percent of the FC as
against 14 percent of the BC have preferred for nuclear family. It means
153
they want independent family free from kinship bounds. The fact that a
majority (65%) of the FC castes opted for nuclear family shows that they
are socially and psychologically prepared to make adjustment with a variety
of men and women drawn from the different castes and classes. Their
attitude towards nuclear family shows their high and positive self-concept.
Figure-6.3.3
Preference for Family Type and Caste
130
50
20
59
265
106
189
315
126
0
50
100
150
200
250
300
350
Num
ber
of R
espo
nden
ts
Arts Science & Commerce Total
Faculty
Nuclear Nuclear Joint Joint
Data further reveal that 62 percent of the BC respondents have opted
for nuclear joint family. This indicates that a majority of the BC
respondents have expressed for a change in their attitude towards life. It
can be stated that college education seems to have made some impact on the
development of youth from backward classes.
154
Table-6.3.4
Preference for family Type, Faculty by Caste
Arts faculty Science and Commerce faculty Total
Forward caste
Backward caste
Total Forward
caste Backward
caste Total
Forward caste
Backward caste
Total Response
No. % No. % No. % No. % No. % No. % No. % No. % No. %
Nuclear 40 57 60 27 100 34 70 54 19 10 89 27 110 55 79 18 189 30
Nuclear Joint 20 28 80 35 100 34 50 38 165 80 215 64 70 35 245 57 73 15
Joint 10 15 86 38 96 32 108 20 10 30 9 20 10 106 25 126 20
Total 70 100 226 100 296 100 130 100 204 100 334 100 200 100 430 100 630 100
²=24.85; df=2; CC=0.28; Significant ²=218.63; df=2; CC=0.63; Highly significant ²=74.4; df=2; CC=0.32; Significant
155
Preference for family type, faculty and caste
So far the analysis has shown that college education has some
influence on the preference for family type. To be specific, a greater
proportion (44%) of Science & Commerce, students have shown a
favourable attitude towards nuclear family, while equal percentage of the
Arts (50%) and Science & Commerce (50%) have reacted favorably
towards nuclear joint family. It means respondents’ faculty background
does not make much difference to the choice of family type.
Data with regard to the influence of caste on preference type show
that a majority of the FC have opted for nuclear family, while a majority of
the BC respondents have opted for nuclear joint family. It indicates that FC
respondents have orientations of independence liberty and equality, while a
majority of the BC respondents are on the verge of modernization between
tradition and modernity. It means they are in a state of transition.
The present section seeks to know whether the influence of caste on
the preference for family type is independent of faculty or otherwise.
Objectives of the section
The objectives of the section are:
1. To know the influence of caste on the preference for family type
against respondents’ faculty viz., Arts and Science & Commerce,
and,
2. To know the influence of caste on the preference for family type of
the Arts and Science & Commerce, faculties separately.
Hypotheses:
The main hypothesis of the section is that caste background of the
respondents has a significant influence on the preference for family type
when the influence of faculty is controlled.
156
Data presented on Table show that a majority of (57%) of the FC
respondents with Arts faculty have wished to opt for nuclear family. On the
other hand, only 27 per cent of the BC students have opted for nuclear
family. It could be derived from the data that the FC students are
independence minded liberal and ambitious. On the other hand, BC
students are family minded with lower orientations of independence etc.
A similar trend could be observed with regard to the Science &
Commerce, students as 54 percent of the FC students as against 10 percent
of the BC students. It could be said Science & Commerce, student have not
developed their social self. It seems access to faculties has not prepared the
BC students in developing their personality.
Data also reveal that a majority (80%) of the Science & Commerce,
students have opted for nuclear joint family. It indicates that certain degree
of change is taking place in the attitudes of the BC students. They want a
change in between tradition and modernity. It could also be seen that a
majority of the FC students from Arts (57%) and Science & Commerce
(54%) faculties have opted for nuclear families. It means caste regardless
of faculty, has a significant influence on the development of youth
personality.
Summary and conclusion
1. The aim of this chapter was to know the attitudes of the college
students towards the preference for family type.
2. It is also intended to know whether there is any association between
the attitudes of the Arts and Science & Commerce and the family
type.
3. To know whether there is any association between the attitudes of
the college students towards the family type and their caste
background and
157
4. To know whether the caste background of the respondents has any
influence on the preference for family type against their faculty
background.
Analysis of the data has shown that faculty has not made much
impact on the preference for family type. However, Science & Commerce,
students preferred nuclear joint family. This indicates that there are
changes in the orientations of college students towards independence,
achievement of progressive goals and equality. The analysis also shows
that the respondents under study wish to stay with their parents and siblings.
The data further show that caste background of the respondents has a
significant influence on the preference for family type as a majority of the
FC students opted for nuclear family, while a majority of the BC students
wanted to opt for nuclear joint family. It means the BC students want a
change towards modernization yet to conform to joint family values and
practices.
A third attempt was made to know whether caste makes any
significant influence on the preference for family type against their faculty
background. The analysis has revealed that caste has a significant influence
on the choice of family type in both Arts and Science & Commerce,
faculties. However, the Science & Commerce, faculty has some impact on
the choice of family type by FC and BC students.
It may be concluded that caste seems to be more important than
college education in bringing about changes in the attitude towards the
issues of life.