Maroulis Phoebe 2003

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The Winston Churchill Memorial Trust of Australia

Report by Phoebe Maroulis 2003 Churchill Fellow

The Swire Group Churchill Fellowship to investigate the commercial and

technical feasibility of supplying rural and remote communities with

renewable energy, particularly bioenergy opportunities as a combined

management tool for woody shrub invasion and energy supply

I understand that the Churchill Trust may publish this Report, either in hard copy or on the Internet or

both, and consent to such publication.

I indemnify the Churchill Trust against any loss, costs or damages it may suffer arising out of any claim or

proceedings made against the Trust in respect of or arising out of the publication of this Report submitted

to the Trust and which the Trust may place on a website for access over the Internet.

I warrant that my Final Report is original and does not infringe the copyright of any person, or contain

anything which is, or the incorporation of which into the Final Report is, actionable for defamation, a

breach of any privacy law or obligation, breach of confidence, contempt of court, passing-off or

contravention of any other private right or of any law.

Signed Dated


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Index

Introduction 2

Executive Summary 4

Programme 6

Main Body 12

Conclusions 23

Recommendations 24

Bibliography 25

Recommended Contacts 26

Definitions 28


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Introduction

My Churchill Fellowship to study the use of woody weeds as a bio-energy source involved visiting

cooperative research centres, universities, private companies and individuals in Canada, the United

States and the United Kingdom.

The main issues I examined were:-

a broad overview of renewable energy generation and storage technologies

provision of energy in remote regions

biomass as a feedstock for electricity generation

biomass as a liquid or gaseous fuel

The aim is renewable energy production that reduces greenhouse gas emissions, enhances ecosystem

functions and contributes to robust rural and regional economies Brian Keating, CSIRO Sustainable

Ecosystems 1993

I would like to acknowledge the enormous amount of time and support given to my pursuits by Philip

Hams, without Philips input my batteries would have been flat long ago. Thankyou also to Sharon Knight

and Michael Mangold for what has been a lengthy period of support and encouragement and to Phil

Johnson for committing to assist me in achieving the commercialisation of a bioenergy industry.

I would also like to acknowledge the generous support of The Swire Group through their sponsorship of

my fellowship and support upon my return home.

Thankyou to the companies and individuals with whom I met and who assisted in the preparation of my

visits, in particular Alan Stewart and Bob Wynne.

Thanks must of course also go to my family, you know who you are and how you supported me.


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Executive Summary

Phoebe Maroulis Cicero Design Sustainable Design and Development Consultancy

Pine Hill, Dry Bogan Road

Bourke, NSW, [email protected]

Ph/Fax: 02 6870 1681

There has been a growing realisation amongst land managers and the wider community that many of our historical

agricultural systems are becoming less productive and have limitations to ecological and economic sustainability.

This realisation has led to a growing interest in understanding and assessing resource capability. This report aims

to assist such a process by providing opportunity for alternate income generation through the utilisation of woody

weed biomass.

Woody weeds is a term given to a number of native Australian plants, which are rapidly infesting large areas of

the semi-arid and arid regions of NSW. Growing up to 3m high, woody weeds occur as individual plants,

in clumps, or more commonly as dense stands. Woody weeds cause a range of management difficulties

for graziers and are greatly inhibiting the viability of Western Division grazing country.

Currently there are a range of bio products for which workable technology exists to convert woody weed

biomass to energy and bi-products. These technologies would add to the potential grazing enterprise mix thus

aiding both the ecological and economic sustainability of the agricultural operation. The limiting factor is

bringing the cost of these technologies down in order to make the products fossil fuel competitive or

alternatively by realising the potential of alternate industries to add to the existing land management mix.

The main biomass technologies identified as showing potential for the Bourke region were

thermochemical processing technologies. Whilst combustion technologies have been proven and are

currently operational, the industry believes the future lies in small-scale biorefineries generating high

value fuels and bio-products using advanced technology such as hydrolysis and thermochemical

conversion rather than the direct production of heat and electricity through combustion. These

biorefineries can be scaled to operate on a property level through to a regional level, depending on the

technology used, availability of woody weed matter and the outputs required.

The key method of pursuing this potential will be through close alliance with both The Bourke Shire

Council Economic Development Unit and the Western Catchment Management Authority.

Highlights

The majority of my learning occurred in Colorado with visits to Community Power Corporation, a modular

bioenergy research and production facility, and to the US Department of Energy Renewable Energy

Laboratory. Both of these facilities highlighted that the future of commercial bioenergy lies in advanced

bio-refinery processes such as pyrolysis and gasification rather than the traditional combustion.


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The trip revealed the enormous breadth of biomass technology that is under development and the

exciting potential that is provided in the utilisation of our woody weed resource. I was also encouraged by

the fact that the majority of the small-scale technology that is being investigated can be used in

conjunction with existing land management processes so that it adds value to existing operations rather

than requiring a complete shift in land management operations.


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Programme

Date: 11/2/04 15/2/04

Location: Vancouver

Contacts: Erica Branda (Institute for Fuel Cell Innovation) & Erin Bigelow (Fuel Cells Canada)

Main Purpose of Visit: To learn more about fuel cell technology and identify opportunities for the use of

fuel cells in the Bourke Shire.

Outcomes: A fuel cell is an electro-chemical energy converter. At the simplest conceptual level it

combines hydrogen with oxygen to produce water and (heat) electricity.

It is possible to build combined heat and power (CHP) systems based on fuel cells, delivering electricity

and heat from 80 to 800 degrees C.

At this stage although fuel cell technology would appear to have an important role to play in projects in

remote areas such as Bourke, it is not currently economically feasible.

Date: 15/2/04 21/2/04

Location: Whitehorse, The Yukon, Canada

Contacts: Doug Maclean, Hector Campbell, Don Flinn, Donna Mercier

Company: Yukon Energy & The Energy Solutions Centre

Main Purpose of Visit: To discuss strategies for distributed energy supply in a remote region

Outcomes: The Yukon has a large supply of electricity through a major hydro power scheme the main

requirement is for liquid fuels and distributed energy solutions for the remote parts of the Territory where

diesel currently accounts for around 90% of energy production! Due to the geography of The Yukon

bioenergy was not deemed to be a feasible alternative and their main focus is on wind generation.

Yukon Energy did a feasibility study looking at using the hydro electricity to convert water to hydrogen

and then using fuel cell technology, transporting the hydrogen to the remote areas for conversion to

electricity. Three years ago this proposal wasnt feasible but improvements in fuel cell technology etc

may make it a possibility in the near future.

The Canadian experience suggests that hybrid solutions are imperative both economically and

logistically.

There was an emphasis on the need for full and extensive testing and monitoring prior to project

commencement. If the project fails it will set the whole industry back a long way, it is therefore better to

take the appropriate time in the first place.

Although emissions trading remains an emerging market, Yukon Energy expects that greenhouse gas

credits will be a highly valued commodity within a regulated environment.

Yukon Energy has a Portable Solar Hybrid Unit demonstration project which is used around the Yukon

when additional power is required eg community events. A similar unit based on bioenergy could be used

in the Bourke region.

We touched on the concept of Municipal ownership and investment in project development. This is an

area that should be pursued.


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Date: 22/2/04 24/2/04

Location: Tracey Biomass Plant - California

Contacts: Jerry DesRoche & Steven Truran

Company: National Power & Tracy Operators

Main Purpose of Visit: To visit an operating biomass plant and discuss potential for Australian biomass

development from the perspective of National Power.

Outcomes: Tracy is a viably operating 22Mw biomass generation plant. It is considered an excellent size for

biomass generation as it is large enough to achieve required economies of scale and yet is not so big so as to

create fuel supply issues, or heavy traffic demands in the area (this starts occurring at around 30Mw)

15 years ago the US government offered a heavily subsidised opportunity for biomass plants 5-6 biomass

plants still operate economically in California as a result of this program. The key to the program was that it

was long-term so as to provide security of investment and opportunity to pay back capital expenses.

Tracy takes 50% of its fuel from the horticulture industry (mainly through the removal of orchard trees and from

thinnings and prunings) and 50% from industry wood.

Some American States are looking at mandatory renewable energy targets (MRETs) it is felt that this will

improve the uptake of bioenergy and that it is important to pursue MRETs in Australia.

Fuel supply to the plant door needs to be less than $25/tonne dry (dry means less than 40% moisture content)

There is USA CSIRO evidence to show burning for power is better for greenhouse gases than rotting wood.

The plant uses approximately 300,000 gallons of water/day (although this figure was sketchy)

The plant is open for biomass receivable 24 hours a day 7 days a week with very quick transfer rates this is

seen as an advantage.

Cost of industrial timber approx $15/tonne, agricultural approximately $30/tonne (this has some subsidy from

Government) dry to 30% including transportImages of pollution from ground burning will help sell the technology

National Power is looking for 450000 tonnes of biomass at approx 45% moisture (although less would be

better) for a 30Mw plant in South Australia

Date: 25/2/04 29/2/04

Location: Davis, California

Contacts: Bruce Hartsough

Company: University of California Davis Campus

Main Purpose of Visit: To investigate the Californian experience in relation to Woody Weed

management and to identify new industry potential through the utilisation of the bio-matter.

Outcomes: I was unable to establish contact with Bruce Hartsough prior to my visit, which was

disappointing. As a result I visited with a number of faculties at the University and did extensive research

through the University library. Through this research I established that the management techniques that

were being used to control the Woody Material were not economically viable as an alternate industry in

the United States. This was mainly because the vegetation was not seen to have as significant an

economic impact on grazing viability as it does in Australia.


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Date: 1/3/04 7/3/04

Location: Power-Gen, Renewable Energy Conference, Las Vegas

Key Contacts and Companies: A range of companies and technologies were investigated, with a core list

established for follow up.

Main Purpose of Visit: To gain an overview of the latest renewable energy technologies and to establish

contacts with the key players in the industry

Outcomes: The conference provided an excellent opportunity to see the latest technologies and to meet

with relevant industry contacts to pursue potential opportunities. The conference was a superb method of

gaining a broad industry overview. The main technologies pursued following these conference leads

were thermochemical processes.

Date: 1/3/04

Location: Hoover Dam, Nevada

Company: US Bureau of Reclamation

Main Purpose of Visit: To investigate the impact and potential provided by hydro electricity

Outcomes: Hydro electricity is not a viable option for the Western region of NSW

Date: 1/3/04

Location: Las Vegas, Nevada

Company: Air Products www.airproducts.com/h2energy

Main Purpose of Visit: To investigate the technology surrounding the co-production of hydrogen fuel and

electric power.

Outcomes: The station requires natural gas as the primary fuel source, which may be feasible with theestablishment of a reliable gas supply to Western NSW. The filling stations hydrogen generator

produces hydrogen through the reforming of natural gas. This hydrogen is then supplied to both a

hydrogen compression unit for fuel production and a 50-kW PEM (proton exchange membrane) fuel cell

for electricity production. The technology would be attractive if there were a reliable supply of natural gas

or hydrogen through viable electrolysis in the region.

Date: 1/3/04

Location: Las Vegas, Nevada University of Nevada, Las Vegas Centre for Energy Research

Company: Amonix www.amonix.com

Main Purpose of Visit: To investigate the potential of high-concentration photovoltaics in the Australian

context

Outcomes: From my discussions and investigations it would appear that high-concentration pv technology

has strong potential in the Bourke Shire. I did not pursue the technology in depth as my focus is on bioenergy.

Date: 10/3/04

Location: Kramer Junction, Mojave Desert, California

Company: Kramer Junction Company

Contact: www.kjcsolar.com

Main Purpose of Visit: Investigate the feasibility of solar thermal generation in the Bourke context


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Outcomes:The KJC plant consists of five SEGS, each producing 30 Mw of power using the sun as the

primary energy source. The 5 SEGS cover over 1000 acres at a capital cost of $500 million. Each SEGS

has a large solar field and a conventional power plant. The solar field is composed of rows of parabolic

trough solar collectors. The collectors are composed of reflector panels or mirrors- which track the sun

using sensors and microprocessors.

The sunlight reflected off the reflector panels is focused on specially coated steel tubes (surrounded by a

vacuum-insulated glass tube) that contain a heat transfer fluid. This fluid is heated to temperatures of

735F and pumped through a series of heat exchangers in the power block to produce superheated

steam, which powers the turbine generator creating electricity.

The SEGS are designed as peaking power plants supplying power to the local utility during its peak

demand periods, particularly hot summer afternoons with high electrical use loads.

Solar energy plants have a relatively high capital cost requirement although they are becoming

increasingly competitive with conventional energy sources. This will improve with increased government

and industry support for renewable energy sources.

Date: 11/3/04

Location: Tehachapi, California

Company: Kern Wind Energy Association

Main Purpose of Visit: To see first hand, a large scale wind generation site in order to participate in

debate on the visual amenity of wind turbines.Outcomes: As of 1999, the Tehachapi Wind Resource area is the largest wind energy producer in the

world. Kern County produces as much wind energy as the rest of the United States combined. The

Tehachapi Wind Resource area produces more wind energy than Germany or Denmark or Japan, other

regions with high interest in the production of electrical power from wind energy.

There are more than 4,600 wind turbines in the Tehachapi area. These wind turbines collectively

generate 1.4 billion kilowatt-hours of electricity per year. (The typical fluorescent lamp fixture with two 4-

foot bulbs requires 100 watts of power, so 1.4 billion kilowatt-hours of electricity could continuously and

simultaneously create light from nearly two million such lighting fixtures.)

Each wind turbine includes automatic controls, which sense wind direction and speed. When the wind is

low the turbines are disconnected from the power grid. When the wind is too high for safe operation, the

turbines are braked to avoid overstressing the equipment. During appropriate wind speeds the turbines

are automatically pointed into the wind to maximise power generation. Newer turbines also adjust turbine

blade angles so as to generate more power over a wider range of wind speeds.

Due largely to capitalisation expenses, the cost of electricity from wind turbines is about 7 cents per

kilowatt-hour, somewhat higher than the cost of producing electricity using coal or atomic energy. This


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factor, combined with the fact that my research was mainly centred around bioenergy meant that I didnt

pursue wind generation in depth.

Date: 13/3/04

Location: Cameron, Arizona

Contact: Darren Schmidt

Company:Energy & Environmental Research Centre

Main Purpose of Visit: To visit an operational small-scale bioenergy plant

Outcomes: Unfortunately the pilot plant was not operation in time for my visit. I was able to gather

extensive information on the process for commercialising the technology and the fact that the facility was

not open reveals some of the glitches that can (and do) occur with a project of this nature.

Date: 19/3/04

Location: Littleton, Colorado

Contact: Rob Walt

Company: Community Power Corporation

Main Purpose of Visit: To see small-scale biomass equipment first hand and to meet with a commercial

company to discuss the applications for the technology in an Australian context.

Outcomes: CPC is one of the more advanced players in the modular biomass market and are close to

commercialising small scale heat and power units for use in schools, hospitals and distributed energy

situations. They are also developing modular thermochemical technology in order to produce a higher

value product. At this point they were unable to provide conclusive data re capital and maintenance costs

however they are confident in the technology they have developed and foresee financial feasibility withinthe next 3-5 years.

Date: 19/3/04

Location: Golden, Colorado

Contact: John Scahill

Company: Department of Energy

Main Purpose of Visit: To learn more about the various biomass technologies being investigated by the

US Department of Energy and to discuss opportunities for the Australian setting.

Outcomes: The future appears to be in biofuels rather than direct combustion of biomass as this is a

more efficient process with a higher value and more flexible end product.

Biomass combustion, such as burning wood, has been one of man's primary ways of deriving energy

from biomass from prehistoric times to the present. It is not, however, very efficient. Converting the solid

biomass to a gaseous or liquid fuel by heating it with limited oxygen prior to combustion can greatly

increase the overall efficiency, and also make it possible to instead convert the biomass to valuable

chemicals or materials. U.S. Department of Energy Biomass Program researchers are helping lead a

national effort to develop thermochemical technologies to more efficiently tap the enormous energy

potential of lignocellulosic biomass. In addition to gasification and pyrolysis and other thermal processing,


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program research focuses on cleaning up and conditioning the converted fuel, a key step for effective

commercial use of thermochemical platform chemicals.

Date: 26/3/04

Location: New York

Contact: Jeffrey Lawrence

Company: SG Barr Devlin

Main Purpose of Visit: To discuss the requirements for financing of renewable energy projects

Outcomes: There are many unknowns in terms of carbon trading and environmental trading mechanisms

however the general feeling is that renewable energy credits are a developing market and it is anticipated that

strong international incentives for renewable energy products will be developed over the next 5-10 years.

Date: 30/3/04

Location: London, United Kingdom

Contact: Tim Bridgeman

Company: The Swire Group

Main Purpose of Visit: To meet with scholarship providers and to present findings of trip and to learn of

the potential for bioenergy within The Swire Group of Companies.

Outcomes: Not only did I achieve the objectives of my visit but I also received tremendous hospitality

and was provided with vital information pertaining to the finer points of rugby and rowing, which have

placed me in excellent stead in many conversations since!

Date: 1/4/04Location: Notts, United Kingdom

Contact: John Strawson

Company: Renewable Energy Growers Limited

Website:www.energycrop.co.uk

Main Purpose of Visit: To investigate the viability of growing short rotation energy crops in the UK and to

determine potential markets and viability for Australia

Outcomes: Unfortunately contact with John Strawson was unable to be made. As a result my research

in this area had to be web and phone based.

Viability of energy crops in the UK is dependent on the demand for fuel, which is higher in Europe due to

the high demand for heat as well as power.


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Main Body

Sustainable regional development will require a radical transformation in the way we create wealth from

our land resource. One such transformation will be the way in which we procure and use energy in our

regions. A second transformation will be the way in which we manage and utilise our natural resources.

My Churchill Fellowship investigated the sustainable management of woody vegetation in the Western

Catchment for the development of an alternative regional energy industry.

There are six key sustainability issues to be considered when looking at potential regional development

projects. They are

Greenhouse gas/energy balance

Air quality and health impacts

Land and water impactsBiodiversity outcomes

Social consequences

Economic costs / benefits

The Bourke Shire

Bourke Shire is located in northwestern NSW and covers an area of over 40,000km2. The Shire is

sparsely populated with 4,400 residents recorded in the last census.

The Bourke Shire is predominantly leasehold land, administered under the Western Lands Act (1901) by

the Department of Land and Water Conservation. There are more than 635 pastoral and agricultural

holdings in the catchment. Predominant land uses in this semi-arid zone are grazing, irrigated cotton and

horticulture, tourism and nature conservation.

The landscape in the Bourke Shire is semi-arid with low, highly variable rainfall that is winter dominant in

the south and summer dominant in the north. Severe droughts and floods are a common feature.

Evaporation is high and relative humidity low. Summers are hot and winters are mild. The terrain is flat

and low, with no mountain ranges high enough to affect climate.

1

There is a growing realisation amongst land managers and the wider community that many of our

historical agricultural systems are becoming less productive and have limitations to ecological

sustainability. This realisation has led to a growing interest in understanding and assessing resource

capability, so as to provide a sound basis both for resource allocation and to guide day-to-day

management decisions and practice.

1Western Catchment Regional Strategy (1997)


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In a survey of community responses to natural resource management issues in the Western Catchment

Management Area2, of which Bourke Shire forms a part, undertaken in August 1997, woody weed

management was identified as a priority issue. In particular the community sited lack of incentives to

undertake woody weed control, limitations imposed by Government regulation (eg SEPP 46 and

Threatened Species legislation), lack of funding and practical application of research, as priority issues.

The issue of woody weed management was ranked second, only to water quantity and equitable sharing

of water flow, in workshops held throughout the region. We are not alone in this respect with over 62

million hectares also being affected by woody weeds in the USA. To date woody weed management has

been viewed as a burden to economically and ecologically sustainable land management, my research

suggests that these woody weeds are in fact a resource, which if strategically managed, can add to the

sustainable management of our natural resources and agricultural enterprises.

Woody Weeds

Woody weeds are native plants, which are rapidly infesting large areas of the semi-arid and arid regions

of NSW. Their distribution and density is increasing owing to favourable environmental conditions, certain

unsustainable land management practices and the lower incidence of fire. Growing up to 3m high, woody

weeds occur as individual plants, in clumps, or more commonly as dense stands.

Woody weeds severely restrict the growth of surrounding pastures due to competition for moisture and

light. This results in very poor pasture cover or bare ground. Consequently, shrub invasion increases the

susceptibility of land to sheet, rill, gully and wind erosion. Moreover, because the shrubs are unpalatable,

livestock concentrate in and overgraze adjoining areas not affected by woody weeds. As a consequence,these areas also become more susceptible to degradation.

Other land management and livestock problems associated with high densities of woody shrubs include

difficult stock mustering and surveillance, severely reduced grazing capacities, less drought resistant

pastures, greater stock losses during periods of flystrike, lower lambing rates and an increased incidence

of stag rams. Woody weeds also harbour feral animals and hamper attempts to control them. For these

reasons, the land value may differ by about $45 per dry sheep area between country infested with woody

weeds and more open country.3

The following species are considered the main woody species

Common name Scientific name

Turpentine Eremophila sturtii

Budda Eremophila mitchellii

Narrowleaf hopbush Dodanaea attenuata

Broadleaf hopbush Dodanaea viscosa var angustifolia

2Survey of Community Responses to Natural Resource Management Issues, August 1997

3Rangeland Management in Western NSW


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Punty bush Cassia eremophila

Silver cassia Cassia artemisioides

Other plants, not listed by the Act, can also grow in dense stands and create the same problems. They

include:

Common Name Scientific name

Dense Cassia Cassia sturtii

Harlequin fuchsia bush Eremophila duttonii

Mulga Acacia aneura

White cypres pine Callitris glaucophylla

Mesquite Prosopis juliflora

African boxthorn Lycium ferocissimum

The occurrence and density of these species has been assessed in a survey conducted in 19894

. Thesurvey found that almost 70% of the Western Catchment is affected by woody weed infestation. Severe

infestations occur on the sandplains in the Bourke-Wanaaring district. Moderate infestations occur in a

substantial portion of the Western Catchment covering the region bounded by Enngonia, the Bulloo

Overflow, White Cliffs, Wilcannia and Nymagee. These figures need to be updated as anecdotal evidence

suggests extensive increases in infestation have occurred throughout the Western Division.

A report compiled by the Office of Energy5

suggests that there was close to 48 million tonnes of woody

weeds in the Bourke Shire in 1995. Anecdotal evidence suggests this figure would since have increased.

The average long-term carrying capacity in the semi-arid woodlands is about 1 dry sheep equivalent

(d.s.e.) to 2.2-5 ha, but it varies substantially depending upon the density of woody weeds. Some badly

infested paddocks can no longer support profitable grazing of sheep. A paper presented by John Murphy

at the Woody Weed Task Force, National Workshop, June 17th-19

th1992, suggests the following gross

margins of two levels of woody weed invasion/encroachment

Gross margin for country severely affectected by woody weeds

Per ewe Per dse Per ha Ha/dse Per ha Ha/dse$5.26 $2.50 $0.31 8 $0.63 4

Gross margin for country not severely affected by woody weeds

Per ewe Per dse Per ha Ha/dse Per ha Ha/dse

$15.77 $7.51 $1.50 5 $3.76 2

4

Land Degradation Survey NSW 1987-1988, Soil Conservation Service of NSW, Sydney ISBN 0 73056392 85

Fraser (1995)


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The basal wool price used for these calculations is for a market indicator in the range of 570-600c/kg.

These figures will obviously have changed over the past 12 years however they will provide an indication

of the costs of woody weed infestation.

There is good evidence that prior to settlement most of the mulga was open woodlands. Today, it is not

uncommon for mulga densities to exceed 5,000 stems per ha or one stem for every two square metres.

In some areas, woody weed species, such as hopbush and turpentine can exceed 15,000 stems per ha.

Capitalisation on this prolific vegetative growth through selective harvesting and management of the

woody weed resource could greatly aid property viability and assist in the more sustainable management

of the overall landscape. The successful control of woody weeds depends on the integration of all aspects

of property management with the options for woody weed control. All control programs should consider

financial, livestock, grazing and alternative enterprise management.

Bioenergy

Biomass energy sources include wood, crops, crop residues and manure. Biomass can be burnt to

produce useful heat and/or electricity, or converted into liquid or gaseous fuels, for the production of

electric power, heat, or chemicals or for use in engines. Provided the biomass which is used in this way

is replanted, the combustion of biomass or biomass fuels produces no net increase in greenhouse gas

emissions. In comparison, the traditional methods of disposing of woody vegetation via burning produce

unfiltered emissions and waste heat energy. In addition there is no economic return to the landholder

through in paddock burning.

The biomass processing techniques that are of particular interest in this study are combustion,

thermochemical processing (gasification and pyrolysis), biochemical and essential oil extraction. The

outputs of which are as follows

Combustion Heat and Power

Gasification Heat and power

Chemical feedstocks

Pyrolysis Heat and power

Chemical feedstocks

Biochemical Liquid fuels

Oil extraction Valuable essential oils

The most desirable factors in a biomass feedstock are high residue density, high annual production, lowmoisture content, high availability (few competing uses), high calorific value, low ash content, good

collection conditions, low collection costs, close proximity to the point of end use and eligibility for

Biomass Processes

Combustion Gasification Pyrolysis

Thermal Processing

Anaerobic Digestion Fermentation

Biochemical

Oil Extraction

Mechanical

Biomass


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renewable energy status. Woody weed species rate well on most, if not all of these points, making them

an ideal biomass feedstock, particularly if property scale biorefineries are used.

In order to maximise returns on investment and further assist process feasibility there are a number of

issues relating to the production of woody weeds that could be looked at. Whilst these factors were not

investigated in depth during my travels they are included here as a point of discussion. Such areas

requiring investigation include

Plant physiology

Optimised agronomy to maximise sustainable biomass production

Optimised feedstock collection and harvesting practices

Biomass combustion, such as burning wood, has been one of man's primary ways of deriving energy

from biomass from prehistoric times to the present. The majority of biomass electricity is generated using

a steam cycle: biomass material is converted to steam in a boiler; the steam then turns a turbine, which is

connected to a generator. Biomass combustion is not, however, very efficient. Converting the solid

biomass to a gaseous or liquid fuel by heating it with limited oxygen prior to combustion can greatly

increase the overall efficiency, and also make it possible to convert the biomass to valuable chemicals or

materials as well as generating electricity if desired.

The research undertaken during my Churchill Fellowship shows that the main thrust in biomass research

on an international level is in the development of thermochemical technologies to more efficiently tap the

enormous energy potential of lignocellulosic biomass. In addition to gasification, pyrolysis, and other

thermal processing, research and development is focusing on cleaning up and conditioning the convertedfuel, a key step for effective commercial use of thermochemical platform chemicals. The key outputs of

these processes are fuels, chemicals, materials and power.

Due to the vast dispersion of biomass material in the Bourke district, my studies indicate that the main

potential for woody weed biomass lies in small, modular units or distributed energy systems. Distributed

energy systems are advantageous in that they supply electrical power or biofuels on site where the

biomass is available for feedstock. Small systems (with rated capacities of 5 megawatts and smaller) can

provide power to villages or remote industry or can provide local supplies of biofuels and chemicals, and

have a great potential market in this region.

The advantages of a distributed energy approach are:

For businesses, Distributed Energy Systems can reduce peak demand charges, reduce overall energy

use, ensure greater power quality and reliability, supply input fuels and chemicals and reduce emissions

For large utilities and power producers, DES can augment overall system reliability, avoid large

investments in transmission system upgrades, reduce transmission losses, closely match capacity

increases to demand growth, supply input fuels and chemicals and open markets in remote or

environmentally constrained areas.For communitiesthere is local employment, retention of monies otherwise leaving the community for

payment of power, fuel and chemical bills and diversification of industry


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Such distributed energy systems are currently being developed in the United States through the U.S.

Department of Energys Small Modular Biopower Systems Project (www.eren.doe.gov/biopower ). The

project consists of feasibility studies, prototype demonstrations, and system integration based on a

business strategy for commercialisation of the small-scale systems. Small modular biomass systems

typically convert a solid biomass fuel into a gaseous fuel through a process called gasification. The

resulting gas, comprised primarily of carbon monoxide and hydrogen, is then cleaned before use in a gas

turbine or internal combustion engine connected to an electrical generator. Waste heat from the turbine or

engine can also be captured and directed to useful applications. Small modular systems lend themselves

to such combined heat and power operations much better than large central facilities.

The intended power range for these systems is from 5 kilowatts to 5 megawatts of electricity generation

or the production of biofuels for use in transport or later heat and power production. I took the opportunity

to meet with John Scahill, Senior Engineer at the National Renewable Energy Laboratory in Golden,

Colorado, to discuss the progress of this project. The general opinion of participants in the program is

that future developments will lie with thermochemical processing such as gasification or pyrolysis rather

than with the more traditional combustion and steam generation technology. The small-scale modular

systems offer great flexibility both in terms of sourcing biomass feedstocks and markets for outputs.

Thermochemical Processing

The fuel-to-electricity efficiencies of thermochemical processes are much higher than those of

combustion, (combustion converts 20-25% of embodied energy, gasification converts approximately 35%)

but so are the capital costs as these processes use more demanding technology. These factors willinfluence the method of processing used and will influence the timeframe for commercialisation of

emerging technologies. Leaders in the industry predict that gasification technology will be commercially

comparative with fossil fuel technology within 5-10 years.

Community Power Corporation is a participant in the Small Modular Biopower Systems Project and I met

with Robb Walt, President of CPC, whilst in Colorado. CPC are developing a system called the BioMax

which uses a thermochemical (gasification) technology to convert woody materials to a clean fuel gas for

heat, power and cooling. At this point they do not have a commercial system and are still investigating

the following technical issues;

system capacity

load following ability

system fuel consumption

fuel flexibility

number of operators and required training

life cycle costs

environmental impacts (feedstock related issues; air, water and solid emissions)

safety

load profile (proposed hours of operation etc)

proposed fuel (including availability)


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fuel handling/feeding system and method

system transportability

maintenance schedule and costs

water consumption

number of operators and training required

life cycle costs

capacity for remote monitoring (unit performance and maintenance intervals

CPCs BioMax systems are modular, skid-mounted, fully automated biopower systems that consist of an

advanced and controllable down-draft gasifier integrated with an engine/generator that produces 5, 20

and 50kW from producer gas (a thermochemically derived bio-gas). The company suggests that on-

going research and development at CPCs production development facility in Denver, Colorado, will

continue to achieve upgrades and performance enhancements in the areas of hot-gas filtration, feedstock

variety, control systems, and cost reductions to increase the commercial viability of the systems. It is my

opinion that the CPC system is 3-5 years from commercial production suitable for use with Australian

woody weed feedstocks.

Reflective Energies is another participant in the U.S. Department of Energy Small Modular Bioenergy

Program. The Flex-Microturbine system, developed by Reflective Energies in partnership with Capstone

Turbine Corporation (www.capstoneturbine.com), is a unit designed to generate 30kW of electric power

using biogas or gasified wood or crop residues. The Flex-Microturbine system will use a microturbine

manufactured by Capstone Turbine Corporation, and a down-draft biomass gasifier made by BG

Technologies. The innovation in this technology is that the Flex-Microturbine will be able to run on fuel

gases that are today considered too low in pressure or energy content to produce electric power. The

entire system will be mounted onto a trailer, allowing it to be moved to the location of the fuel supply. The

demonstration project for this technology will be located in Cameron, Arizona on the Navajo Reservation

at a log home manufacturing site. I had hoped to visit this facility however it was running behind schedule

and wasnt in operation during my visit.

Similar technology, based on larger scale gasification technology was found in the Power Generating Inc

(PGI) power system, which is a direct-fired, combustion turbine power system designed to operate on

relatively clean-burning solid fuels. Solid fuel is burned in a patented pressurised combustor, generating

hot, high-pressure gases, which are passed through a cyclonic separator into a gas turbine to generate

electrical and thermal energy. The PGI Power System is designed in different configurations to produce

from 0.5 to 10 megawatts of electrical power which can be used either on-site or grid connected, while

producing from 3 to 70 mmbtu/hour of useable heat. In order to be efficient and cost-effective in a Bourke

setting a use would need to exist for the waste heat. Examples of such use could include cotton ginning,

drying of fruit, greenhouse heating and refrigeration.


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Biological Processing

Biofuels are alcohols, esters and other chemicals made from cellulosic biomass, including woody weeds,

through a process of biological processing. The two most common types of biofuels that are being

developed are bioethanol and biodiesel. Opportunities explored through my work focused mainly on

bioethanol however this focus was relatively limited due to the fact that R&D in this area is at least 5

years from commercialisation.

All wood contains large quantities of cellulose and hemicellulose, which are based on long chain sugar

polymers. There are several different methods under development for the hydrolysis of the polymers to

release individual sugar molecules. Once released and recovered, these sugars may be fermented to

make ethanol in much the same way as sugars from molasses or starch.

Ethanol can be blended directly with petrol or with diesel fuel using an additive which forms a stable

emulsion (diesohol). Ethanol, when used as a blend with diesel fuels at levels of up to 20% may be used

in the existing engine population without the need for engine modifications.

There are four basic steps in converting biomass to bioethanol:

1. Produce biomass

2. Convert and/or process biomass to fermentation feedstock

3. Ferment biomass intermediates to ethanol

4. Recover ethanol byproducts.

The JVAP Research Update Series No.7 produced in conjunction with Rural Industries Research and

Development Corporation - RIRDC (www.rirdc.gov.au) identified that ethanol from wood is estimated to

cost 82 cents per litre in a 200ML plant built today in Australia using worlds best technology. If multiple

improvements are achieved over the next 15 years this price may fall by 50% to as low as 41 cents per

litre. This cost is based on biomass feed available at $20 per fresh tonne delivered to the plant.

These technologies are still under development and are not currently economically viable. There are no

full scale wood biomass to ethanol plants currently operating anywhere in the world. However my visit to

the US National Renewable Energy Laboratory in Golden, Colorado, revealed that a range of

opportunities for improvements to the technologies have been identified. If these were all achieved they

would serve to reduce the cost of ethanol from wood substantially over the next 15 years. An excellent

resource for keeping up to date with developments in the ethanol industry is the www.bbibiofuels.com

website. From my research I felt it more productive to focus on thermochemical processing rather than

biological processing at this stage.

Pellets and Briquettes (Densification)

Pellets and Briquettes offer a more dense form of fuel for combustion. This aids in the transportationefficiencies able to be achieved and these fuel sources provide cleaner fuel for wood stoves. These

products however require an appropriate market, which would appear to be limited in the woody weed


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region due to the lack of fuel stoves. There is potential to investigate the export market for these

products, particularly to third world countries where wood is used as the primary source of fuel and where

extensive deforestation has occurred. This potential was not investigated during my studies.

Co-products

There are several potential co-products from biomass processing. Co products can aid viability of a

process when a market exists for them, the structure is in place to market them and the price paid justifies

their production. Co products include charcoal, activated carbon, oils and pyrolysis products (including

liquid fuels).

Another co-product is the oils extracted from the woody weed material and new products from the lignin.

Again technologies for these processes are in their infancy with much room for improvement. One of the

woody weed species, Australian Native Sandalwood or Eremophila mitchellii shows strong potential for

the extraction of essential oils. The tree attains a maximum height of 4.5-5m and 35-45cm diameter at

the base of the trunk. The heartwood contains 2-3% w/w of a cherry red, viscous, fragrant oil. The oil is

valuable in perfumery and cosmetics and has antimicrobial properties.

Complementary values must also be taken into account such as increased employment, community cash

flow, grazing land management through woody weed control and the development of associated

industries such as seed banks for regeneration works and potential industries to utilise waste heat such

as dried fruits.

Economics and Financing Bioenergy Projects

At present, transmission losses and system inefficiencies are obscuring the real price of power in the

Bourke Shire. Whilst the market price for Green electricity sits in the vicinity of $75/MWh, the true cost

may be as high as $82 per MWh. This will assist in the potential viability of a local BioPower industry.

The majority of renewable energy projects, particularly in relation to bioenergy generation, have high

initial capital costs, and in some cases they are based on commercially unproven technologies, so

traditional project financing may be too expensive or not available at all. As a result of this most potential

developments will be dependent upon some form of Government support.

My discussions with SG Barr Devlin revealed that there is a desire by financiers to be involved in the

renewable energy sector with some financiers possessing sector specific teams to develop potential

projects. However, there is a certain amount of caution within the sector due to insecurity in the

regulatory area, some high profile renewable energy failures and a lack of security over the treatment of

bioenergy in the renewable energy trading market.

These points would suggest that any renewable energy project (as should be the case for all investmentand property management) should be thoroughly investigated from the vantage of future fuel and


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regulatory trends, rather than in light of current market conditions. It also reveals that there is strong

potential for renewable energy products in a favourable policy and legislative framework.

Policy and Regulation

Much of my research indicates that the technology for a viable bioenergy industry exists but that its

success in development will be driven by enlightened government policy, further technology

improvements and improved understanding of bio-resources.

While renewable power is experiencing phenomenal growth, the existing market system and laws favour

traditional fuels. New policy drivers can make the energy market more competitive, create demand for

new technologies, and provide incentives for R&D and drive down costs that inhibit investment.

Government policy is the most effective means of accelerating the commercialisation of renewables

because policies help the market to reflect the true costs of energy.

Removing subsidies on fossil fuels and implementing tax incentives for renewables, the world over, will

stop energy price distortions, consequently increasing the market competitiveness of renewables.

Existing market drivers for renewable energy systems include

Green power schemes whereby customers voluntarily pay a premium on certified green electricity

State and Federal Government renewable energy programs

Mandatory Renewable Energy Target currently set at 2%, whereby wholesale electricity buyers must

purchase a minimum of 2% of their electricity from renewable energy sources.

The purchase price of electricity can be influenced by a number of factors including Community Service

Obligations, Renewable Energy Certificates and Government subsidies. An important issue which

impacts significantly on revenue is the current ineligibility of the project to qualify for (Renewable Energy

Certificates)RECs, given the fact that the Regulations under which the Office of Renewable Energy

Regulation operates preclude the use of native woody weed species for power generation.


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Conclusions

Each of the processes outlined has advantages and disadvantages, making it difficult to prepare a

conclusive comparison. It is possible to make comparisons based on potential size of a single unit, the

conversion efficiencies of the system and the specific costs of an installed system however obtaining

capital and operating costs and output figures on the various systems is difficult as few if any are currently

commercial.

The above figure, shows comparison of cost, efficiency and size for a range of small-scale bioenergy

technologies.6

This figure shows that for the small-scale technologies under consideration power generation technology

systems cannot yet compete with the internal combustion engine due either to their poorer fuel-to-

electricity conversion efficiencies or their higher unit costs or both. There is a clear trade-off between

system cost and efficiency.

Each of the companies I spoke to suggested that their technology is close to being commercial and that

they anticipate major cost reductions resulting from mass production, technology advances and product

refinement.

My research has revealed that direct combustion of biomass for electricity generation at the small-scale is

not economically feasible. Feasibility is improved with combined heat and power production however the

6Sims, Renewable Energy World, Jan-Feb 2002 in The Brilliance of Bioenergy


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requirement for heat in the Bourke Shire is currently limited (although this is an area that could be

developed).

Greater hope is placed with internal combustion engines and microturbines integrated with

thermochemical technologies but further research into gas cleaning is still required in order to improve

system performance. Pyrolysis oil production, such as the BioOil system, coupled to a diesel engine or a

gas turbine also has potential, especially for peak power periods. BioOil is also advantageous in that the

transport of BioOil will be much cheaper than transporting low energy density biomass fuels (in terms of

dollars per gigajoule per kilometre).

Currently there are a range of bio products for which workable technology exists to convert woody weed

biomass to energy and bi-products. These technologies would add to the potential grazing enterprise mix thus

aiding both the ecological and economic sustainability of the agricultural operation. The limiting factor is

bringing the cost of these technologies down in order to make the products fossil fuel competitive or

alternatively by realising the potential of alternate industries to add to the existing land management mix.

The key method of pursuing this potential will be through close alliance with both The Bourke Shire

Council Economic Development Unit and the Western Catchment Management Authority. In addition I

will continue to discuss the opportunities presented with landholders in the region and will share the

knowledge at regional forums as the opportunity arises. One such forum is the NSW Rural Financial

Counsellors AGM to be held in Bourke at the end of June.

A copy of this report will be forwarded to my sponsors The Swire Group, to the Sustainable EnergyDevelopment Authority and to CountryEnergy.


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Recommendations

Identify legislation and regulation affecting clearing and land management techniques in the Western

Division and lobby to achieve effective, integrated legislation and government support mechanisms.

Determine the energy values and processing characteristics of each of the Woody Weed species

Conduct a Woody Weeds Summit in Bourke to highlight the economic impacts of woody weeds in the

district and to facilitate the sharing of knowledge in relation to the latest management techniques.

Contact potential companies and individuals that may be interested in further investigating the

commercialisation of woody weed material. A list of companies and individuals identified for such

contact through my fellowship are listed in the appendix to the full report.

Full review compendium of Woody Weeds management and harvesting techniques, the pros and

cons of each, costs and limitations

Full survey of the Western Division to gain an estimation of how much Woody Weed is currently in the

area, where it is located and at what densities, species spread, regeneration, growth rates etc

Establish eligibility of Woody Weed biomass for renewable energy certificates and green credits and

lobby for inclusion of Woody Weed bio-products in all renewable energy support and incentive

programs.

Once the thermochemical processing described in this report has been proven technically and

financially, encourage a commercial trial of the small-scale generation technology using woody weed

species. It must be borne in mind that singular isolated pilot projects, without a commitment to early

replication, and regardless of technology and design rigour, fail due to lack of sustained support. In

addition a multi-year commitment (both in time and money) is required to achieve sustainable

solutions. This commitment must come from all sources including the landholder, the government

and private sectors

Local training, including operating manuals and regional O&M capability are critical for sustained

operation. In order to facilitate this learning and local knowledge my recommendation would be to

form a cooperative or user group for the technology so that individual landholders have support from

each other as well as stronger technical support from a central source

In addition to my recommendations I would like to suggest that readers refer also to the recommendationsmade by Max Hams in his 1991 Churchill Fellowship report as many of his suggestions are still relevant in

todays context.


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Bibliography

Survey of Community Responses to Natural Resource Management Issues in the Western Catchment

Management Area, Final Report, August 1997, for the Western Catchment Management Committee,

AACM International, Adelaide.

Western Catchment Regional Strategy, Western Catchment Management Committee, October 1997

Heywood, J. Hodgkinson, K. Marsden, S. and Pahl, L. (2000) Graziers Experiences In Managing Mulga

Country, Department of Primary Industries, QLD

Prospects for Socio-economic Advancement in the Western Catchment Management area of New South

Wales, a report for the Western Catchment Management Board, National Institute of Economic andIndustry Research trading as National Economics, Clifton Hill, VIC, September 2000

Fraser, K.I, Holmes, A.R, Gould, N.S. and Parfett, D.C (1995) Economic Analysis of the Use of Cotton

Wastes and Other Agricultural Residues as Feedstocks for Ethanol Fuel Production. Office of Energy,

Sydney

Woody Weed Management Strategy, Proceedings of National Workshop, June 17th-19

th1992, Cobar

NSW, Woody Weeds Task Force.

Soil Conservation Service of NSW, Land Degradation Survey NSW 1987-1988, Sydney ISBN 0 7305

6392 8

Noble, JC (1997) The Delicate and Noxious Scrub: CSIRO Studies on native tree and shrub proliferation

in the semi-arid woodlands of Eastern Australia CSIRO Division of Wildlife and Ecology, Lyneham ACT

Schuck, S Bioenergy Emerging Biomass Opportunities in Australia. Conference Proceedings:

Harnessing Biomass Opportunities through Environmental ManagementConference Brisbane 16th

March

2001.


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Suggested Companies and Individuals to be contacted regarding

commercialisation opportunities

Company: Magellan Aerospace CorporationWebsite:www.orenda.com or www.magellanaerospace.com

Contact: Robert M. Cyzmer

Contact details:[email protected]

Technology: Orenda Bio-fuel Gas Turbine powered energy electrical generating package

Company: Dynamotive

Website: www.dynamotive.com

Contact: David Sanguinetti

Contact details: [email protected]

Technology: Working in conjunction with Magellan (see above)

Company: National Power

Website:

Contact:Jerry DesRoche


Technology: Medium scale biomass electricity generation facility

Jerry has also worked extensively in India and would be a good contact for potential export of Australia

bio-products into India as well as development opportunities for use of woody vegetation in biomass

combustion.

Company: Power Generating Inc.

Website: www.powergeneratinginc.com

Contact: No direct contact made


Technology: PGI Power System, a direct-fired, combustion turbine power system

Company: Ingersoll Rand

Website: www.irenergysystems.com

Contact: No direct contact made

Technology: Microturbine technology not currently suitable for use with woody weeds but worth

maintaining contact with.

Company: Kramer Junction Company (KJC)

Website: www.kjcsolar.com

Technology: Solar thermal generation. Potential development opportunities for solar thermal in

Australia.


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Company:Alternative Green Energy Systems

Website: www.ages-biomass.com

Contact: A.H. Burns


Technology: Combination of kinetic disintegration-dewatering with Standing Shock Wave technology, to

provide a low moisture burnable dust from Raw Wet Hog-forest waste and Bio-Solids.

Company: Energy & Environmental Research Centre

Website:www.undeerc.org

Contact: Darren Schmidt


Technology: Research into small scale biomass units. A good contact for staying current with the latest

research and technology

Company: National Renewable Energy Laboratory, US Department of Energy

Website:www.nrel.gov

Contact: John Scahill, Senior Engineer, National Bioenergy Centre


Technology: Research into bioenergy. A good contact for staying current with the latest research and

technology in the United States.


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DEFINITIONS AND TERMS taken from

www.newuses.org/pdf.FinalBiomassRoadmap.pdf

Agronomy: The science of plant production and soil management.

Anaerobic: Life or biological processes that occur in the absence of oxygen.

Biobased Product: Commercial or industrial products, other than food or feed, derived from biomass

feedstocks. Many of these products possess unique properties unmatched by petroleum-based products

or can replace products and materials traditionally derived from petrochemicals.

Biocatalyst: Usually refers to enzymes and microbes, but it can include other catalysts that are living or

that were extracted from living organisms, such as plant or animal tissue cultures, algae, fungi, or other

whole organisms.

Biochemical Conversion Process: The use of living organisms or their products to convert organic

material to fuels.Biodiesel*: Conventionally defined as a biofuel produced through transesterification, a process in which

organically- derived oils are combined with alcohol (ethanol or methanol) in the presence of a catalyst to

form ethyl or methyl ester. The biomass- derived ethyl or methyl esters can be blended with conventional

diesel fuel or used as a neat fuel (100% biodiesel). Biodiesel can be made from soybean or rapeseed

oils, animal fats, waste vegetable oils, or microalgae oils.

*Note: Biodiesel can in certain circumstances include ethanol-blended diesel. This is an evolving

definition.

Bioenergy: Useful, renewable energy produced from organic matter. The conversion of the complex

carbohydrates in organic matter to energy. Organic matter may either be used directly as a fuel

processed into liquids and gases, or be a residual of processing and conversion.

Biofuels: Fuels made from biomass resources, or their processing and conversion derivatives. Biofuels

include ethanol, biodiesel, and methanol.

Biogas: A methane-bearing gas from the digestion of biomass.

Biomass: Any organic matter that is available on a renewable or recurring basis, including agricultural

crops and trees, wood and wood wastes and residues, plants (including aquatic plants), grasses,

residues, fibers, animal wastes, and segregated municipal waste, but specifically excluding unsegregated

wastes; painted, treated, or pressurized wood; wood contaminated with plastic or metals; and tires.

Processing and conversion derivatives of organic matter are also biomass.

Biopower: The use of biomass feedstock to produce electric power or heat through direct combustion of

the feedstock, through gasification and then combustion of the resultant gas, or through other thermal

conversion processes. Power is generated with engines, turbines, fuel cells, or other equipment.

Biorefinery: A processing and conversion facility that (1) efficiently separates its biomass raw material

into individual components and (2) converts these components into marketplace products, including

biofuels, biopower, and conventional and new bioproducts.

Biotechnology: A set of biological techniques developed through basic research and now applied to

research and product development. In particular, biotechnology refers to the use by industry ofrecombinant DNA, cell fusion, and new bioprocessing techniques.


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British Thermal Unit (Btu): Measure of energy based on the amount of heat required to raise the

temperature of one pound of water from 59F to 60F at one atmosphere pressure.

Cellulose: The main carbohydrate in living plants. Cellulose forms the skeletal structure of the plant cell

wall.

Co-Firing: The simultaneous use of two or more different fuels in the same combustion chamber of a

power plant.

Co-Generation: The sequential production of electricity and useful thermal energy from a common fuel

source. Reject heat from industrial processes can be used to power an electric generator (bottoming

cycle). Conversely, surplus heat from an electric generating plant can be used for industrial processes, or

space and water heating purposes (topping cycle).

Combined Cycle: Two or more generation processes in series, configured to optimise the energy output

of the system.

Commercial Sector: An energy-consuming sector that consists of service-providing facilities of

businesses; federal, state, and local governments; and other private and public organisations, such as

religious, social, or fraternal groups.

Conservation Reserve Program: A voluntary USDA program whereby agricultural landowners can

receive annual rental payments and cost-share assistance to establish long-term, resource conserving

covers on eligible farmland. The Commodity Credit Corporation (CCC) makes annual rental payments

based on the agriculture rental value of the land, and it provides costshare assistance for up to 50 percent

of the participants costs in establishing approved conservation practices. Participants enroll in CRP

contracts for 10 to 15 years. The program is administered by the CCC through the Farm Service Agency

(FSA), and program support is provided by Natural Resources Conservation Service, Cooperative State

Research and Education Extension Service, state forestry agencies, and local Soil and WaterConservation Districts.

Densification: A mechanical process to compress biomass (usually wood waste) into pellets, briquettes,

cubes, or densified logs.

Electric Utility: A corporation, person, agency, authority, or other legal entity or instrumentality that owns

and/or operates facilities for the generation, transmission, distribution, or sale of electric energy primarily

for public use.

Energy Crops: Crops grown specifically for their fuel value. These crops may include food crops such as

corn and sugarcane, and nonfood crops such as poplar trees and switchgrass.

Energy Density: The energy content of a material measured in energy per unit weight of volume.

Environmentally Sustainable: An ecosystem condition in which biodiversity, renewability, and resource

productivity are maintained over time.

Enzyme: A protein that acts as a catalyst, speeding the rate at which a biochemical reaction proceeds

but not altering the direction or nature of the reaction.

Ethanol: Ethyl alcohol produced by fermentation and distillation. An alcohol compound with the chemical

formula CH3CH2OH formed during sugar fermentation.

Feedstock: Any material converted to another form or product.

Fermentation: The biological conversion of biomass.


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Forest Residues: Material not harvested or removed from logging sites in commercial hardwood and

softwood stands as well as material resulting from forest management operations such as pre-

commercial thinnings and removal of dead and dying trees.

Fossil Fuel: Solid, liquid, or gaseous fuels formed in the ground after millions of years by chemical and

physical changes in plant and animal residues under high temperature and pressure. Oil, natural gas, and

coal are fossil fuels.

Fuel Cell: A device that converts the energy of a fuel directly to electricity and heat, without combustion.

Gasification: A chemical or heat process to convert a solid fuel to a gaseous form.

Genetics: The study of inheritance patterns of specific traits.

Genetically Engineered Organism: An organism developed by inserting genes from another species.

Greenhouse Gases: Gases that trap the heat of the sun in the Earths atmosphere, producing the

greenhouse effect. The two major greenhouse gases are water vapor and carbon dioxide. Other

greenhouse gases include methane, ozone, chlorofluorocarbons, and nitrous oxide.

Grid: A system for distributing electric power.

Grid Connection: Joining a plant that generates electric power to an electric system so that electricity

can flow in both directions between the electric system and the plant.

Hydrolysis: Conversion of biomass into sugars and sugar substrates via chemical or biological

processes or through biocatalysis.

Industrial Sector: An energy-consuming sector that consists of all facilities and equipment used for

producing, processing, or assembling goods. The industrial sector encompasses manufacturing;

agriculture, forestry, and fisheries; mining; and construction.

Inorganic Compounds: A compound that does not contain carbon chemically bound to hydrogen.

Carbonates, bicarbonates, carbides, and carbon oxides are considered inorganic compounds, eventhough they contain carbon.

Kilowatt: (kW) A measure of electrical power equal to 1,000 Watts. 1 kW = 3,413 Btu/hr = 1.341

horsepower.

Kilowatt hour: (kWh) A measure of energy equivalent to the expenditure of one kilowatt for one hour. 1

kWh = 3,413 Btu.

Landfill Gas: Gas that is generated by decomposition of organic material at landfill disposal sites.

Lipid: Any of various substances that are soluble in non-polar organic solvents (as chloroform and ether),

that with proteins and carbohydrates constitute the principal structural components of living cells, and that

include fats, waxes, phosphatides, cerebrosides, and related and derived compounds.

Lignin: An amorphous polymer related to cellulose that, together with cellulose, forms the cell walls of

woody plants and acts as the bonding agent between cells.

Life Cycle Assessment (LCA): LCA is an internationally recognised assessment model of a products

impact on energy, economic, and environmental values. LCA extends from cradle-to grave from material

acquisition and production, through manufacturing, product use and maintenance, and finally, through the

end of the products life in disposal or recycling. The LCA is particularly useful in ensuring that benefits

derived in one area do not shift the impact burden to other places within a products life cycle.

Methane: An odourless, colourless, flammable gas with the formula CH4 that is the primary constituent of

natural gas.


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Municipal Solid Waste (MSW): Garbage. Refuse includes residential, commercial, and institutional

wastes and includes organic matter, metal, glass, plastic, and a variety of inorganic matter.

Organic Compounds: Compounds that contain carbon chemically bound to hydrogen. They often

contain other elements (particularly O, N, halogens, or S).

Precommercial Thinning: Thinning for timber stand improvement purposes, generally in young, densely

stocked stands.

Pyrolysis: The thermal decomposition of biomass at high temperatures (greater than 400F, or 200C) in

the absence of air. The end product of pyrolysis is a mixture of solids (char), liquids (oxygenated oils),

and gases (methane, carbon monoxide, and carbon dioxide) with proportions determined by operating

temperature, pressure, oxygen content, and other conditions.

Quad: One quadrillion Btu (1015 Btu). An energy equivalent to approximately 172 million barrels of oil.

Residential Sector: An energy-consuming sector that consists of living quarters for private households.

The residential sector excludes institutional living quarters.

Residue: Unused solid or liquid by-products of a process.

Rural: Of or relating to the small cities, towns, or remote communities in or near agricultural areas.

Sewage: The wastewater from domestic, commercial, and industrial sources carried by sewers.

Silviculture: A branch of forestry dealing with the development and care of forests.

Syngas: A syntheses gas produced through gasification of biomass. Syngas is similar to naturalgas and

can be cleaned and conditioned to form a feedstock for production of methanol.

Therm: A unit of energy equal to 100,000 Btus; used primarily for natural gas.

Transportation Sector: An energy-consuming sector that consists of all vehicles whose primary purpose

is transporting people and/or goods from one physical location to another. Vehicles whose primary

purpose is not transportation (e.g., construction cranes and bulldozers, farming vehicles, and warehousetractors and forklifts) are classified in the sector of their primary use.

Urban: Of, relating to, characteristic of, or constituting a city, usually of some size.

Maroulis Phoebe 2003

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