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embodiment(mbd i mnt)

n.1. something or someone that embodies a spirit, principle, etc.; incarnation.2. something embodied.3. the act of embodying or the state of being embodied.[182030]

Random HouseKernerman Webster's College Dictionary, 2010 K Dictionaries Ltd. Copyright 2005, 1997,1991 by Random House, Inc. All rights reserved.

ThesaurusLegend: Synonyms Related Words AntonymsNoun1.embodiment- a new personificationof a familiar idea; "the

embodiment of hope"; "the incarnation of evil"; "the very

avatar of cunning"avatar,incarnation

personification- a person who represents an abstractquality;"she is the personification of optimism"

deification- an embodiment of the qualities of a god; "thecapitalists' deificationof capital"

reincarnation- embodiment in a new form(especially the reappearance ora person in another form); "his reincarnationas a lion"

2.embodiment- a concrete representationof an otherwise nebulous

concept; "a circle was the embodiment of his concept of life"shapeconcrete representation,concretism- a representationof an abstract idea

in concrete terms

3.embodiment- giving concrete form to an abstract concept

objectification- the act of representing an abstraction as a physical thingsoul- the human embodiment of something; "the soulof honor"

personification,incarnation- the act of attributing human characteristics

to abstract ideas etc.

Based on WordNet 3.0, Farlex clipart collection. 2003-2012 PrincetonUniversity, Farlex Inc.

embodiment
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nounpersonification,example,model,type,ideal,expression,symbol,representation,manifestation,realization,incarnation,paradigm,epitome,incorporation,paragon,perfect example,exemplar,quintessence,actualization,exemplification,reificationAbaby is the embodiment of vulnerability.

Embodied cognitionFrom Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Inphilosophy,the embodied mind thesisholds that the nature of thehumanmindis largely determined by the form of the humanbody.Philosophers,psychologists,cognitive scientists,andartificialintelligenceresearcherswho study embodied cognitionandthe embodied mindargue that all aspects of cognition are shaped byaspects of the body. The aspects of cognition include high level mental

constructs (such asconceptsandcategories)and human performance onvarious cognitive tasks (such as reasoning or judgment). The aspects ofthe body include themotor system,theperceptual system,the body'sinteractions with the environment (situatedness)andtheontologicalassumptions about the world that are built into the body andthe brain.

The embodied mindthesis is opposed to other theories ofcognitionsuchascognitivism,computationalism,andCartesian dualism.[1]The idea hasroots inKantand20th century continental philosophy(such asMerleau-

Ponty). The modernversion depends on insights drawn from recentresearch inpsychology,linguistics,cognitive science,dynamicalsystems,artificial intelligence,roboticsandneurobiology.

Embodied cognition is a topic of research insocialandcognitivepsychology,covering issues such associal interactionanddecision-making.[2]Embodied cognition reflects the argument that themotorsysteminfluences our cognition, just as the mind influences bodily actions.For example, when participants hold a pencil in their teeth engaging themuscles of a smile, they comprehend pleasant sentences faster than

unpleasant ones, while holding a pencil between their nose and upper lip toengage the muscles of a frown has the reverse effect.[3]

George Lakoff(acognitive scientistandlinguist)and his collaborators(includingMark Johnson,Mark Turner,andRafael E. Nez) have writtena series of bookspromoting and expanding the thesis based on
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discoveries incognitive science,such asconceptual metaphorandimageschema.[4]

Roboticsresearchers such asRodney Brooks,Hans MoravecandRolfPfeiferhave argued that trueartificial intelligencecan only be achieved by

machines that havesensoryandmotor skillsand are connected to theworld through a body.[5]The insights of these roboticsresearchers have inturn inspired philosophers likeAndy ClarkandHorst Hendriks-Jansen.[6]

NeuroscientistsGerald Edelman,Antnio Damsioand others haveoutlined the connection between the body, individual structures in the brainand aspects of the mind such asconsciousness,emotion,self-awarenessandwill.[7]Biologyhas also inspiredGregoryBateson,Humberto Maturana,Francisco Varela,Eleanor RoschandEvanThompsonto develop a closely related version of the idea, which they

callenactivism.[8]

Themotor theory of speech perceptionproposed byAlvinLibermanand colleagues at theHaskins Laboratoriesargues that theidentification of words is embodied in perception of the bodily movementsby which spoken words are made.[9][10][11][12][13]

Contents

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Philosophy[edit]

In his pre-critical period, philosopherImmanuel Kantadvocated a similarembodied view of themind-body problemthat was part of hisUniversalNatural History and Theory of Heaven(1755).[14][15]Jos Ortega yGasset,George Santayana,Miguel de Unamuno,Maurice Merleau-Ponty,Martin Heideggerand others in the broadlyexistentialtradition haveproposed philosophies of mind influencing the development of the modern'embodiment' thesis.[16]

The embodiment movement in AI has fueled the embodiment argumentin philosophy.[17]It has also given emotions a new status inphilosophy ofmindas an indispensable constituent, not a non-essential addition to

rational intellectual thought. In philosophy of mind, the idea that cognition isembodied is sympathetic with other views of cognition such assituatedcognitionorexternalism.This is a radical move towards a total re-localization of mental processes out of the neural domain.[18]

Psychology[edit]
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dia.org/wiki/Alvin_Libermanhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alvin_Libermanhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Motor_theory_of_speech_perceptionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Embodied_cognition#cite_note-8http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Enactivismhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evan_Thompsonhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evan_Thompsonhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eleanor_Roschhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Francisco_Varelahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Humberto_Maturanahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gregory_Batesonhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gregory_Batesonhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biologyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Embodied_cognition#cite_note-7http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Will_(philosophy)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Self-awarenesshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Self-awarenesshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emotionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Consciousnesshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ant%C3%B3nio_Dam%C3%A1siohttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gerald_Edelmanhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neurobiologyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Embodied_cognition#cite_note-6http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Horst_Hendriks-Jansen&action=edit&redlink=1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Andy_Clarkhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Embodied_cognition#cite_note-5http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Motor_skillshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sensory_perceptionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Artificial_intelligencehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rolf_Pfeiferhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rolf_Pfeiferhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hans_Moravechttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rodney_Brookshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robotichttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Embodied_cognition#cite_note-4http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image_schemahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image_schemahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conceptual_metaphorhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cognitive_science


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Visual Search[edit]

One embodied cognition study shows that actionintentioncan affectprocessing invisual search,with moreorientation errors for pointing thanfor grasping.[19]Participants either pointed to or grasped target objects of 2

colors and 2 orientations (45 and 135). There were randomized numbersof distractors as well (0, 3, 6, or 9), which differed from the target in color,orientation, or both. A tone sounded to inform participants which targetorientation to find. Participants kept their eyes on a fixation point until itturned from red to the target color. The screen then lit up and theparticipants searched for the target, either pointing to it or grasping it(depending on the block). There were 2 blocks for pointing and 2 for grasping, withthe order counterbalanced. Each block had 64 trials.

[19]

Graph of the visual search task results showing that participants made less object orientation

errors when grasping than pointing.

Results from the experiment show that accuracy decreases with an increase in the number ofdistractors.

[19]Overall, participants made more orientation errors than color errors.

[19]There was no

main effect ofaccuracybetween the pointing and grasping conditions, but participants made

significantly less orientation errors in the grasping condition than the pointing condition.[19]

Colorerrors were the same in both conditions.[19]Because orientation is important in grasping an object,these results fit with the researchers' hypothesis that the plan to grasp an object will aid in orientationaccuracy.

[19]This supports embodied cognition because action intention (planning to grasp an

object) can affect visual processing of task-relevantinformation(orientation).[19]

Distance Perception[edit]

Internal states can affect distanceperception,which relates to embodied cognition.[20]Researchersrandomly assigned college student participants to high-choice, low-choice, and control conditions.The high-choice condition signed a freedom of choice consent form indicating their decision towear aCarmen Mirandacostume and walk across a busy area of campus. Low-choice participantssigned an experimenter choice consent form, indicating the experimenter assigned the participantto wear the costume. A control group walked across campus but did not wear a costume. At theconclusion of the experiment, each participant completed a survey which asked them to estimate thedistance they walked.

[20]

The high-choice participants perceived the distance walked as significantly shorter than participantsin the low-choice and control groups, even though they walked the same distance.

[20]The

manipulation caused high-choice participants to feel responsible for the choice to walk in theembarrassing costume.

[20]This createdcognitive dissonance,which refers to a discrepancy

betweenattitudesand behaviors.[20]

High-choice participants reconciled their thoughts and actionsby perceiving the distance as shorter.[20]These results show the ability of internal states to affect
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perception of physical distance moved, which illustrates the reciprocal relationship of the body andmind in embodied cognition.

[20]

Perspective[edit]

Researchers have found that when making judgements about objects in photographs, people willtake theperspectiveof a person in the picture instead of their own.

[21]They showed college

undergraduate participants 1 of 3 photographs and asked where 1 object in the picture wascompared to the other object. For example, if the 2 objects were an appleand a banana, theparticipants would have to respond to a question about the location of the apple compared to thebanana. The photographs either had no person, a person looking at the object, in this case thebanana, or a person reaching for the banana. The photograph and question appeared in a larger setof questionnaires not related to the study.

[21]

Graph depicting the percentage of responses by perspective for each photograph condition.

Results show that participants who viewed photographs that included a person were significantlymore likely to respond from another's perspective than those who saw photographs with noperson.

[21]There were no differences in perspective of responses for the person looking versus

reaching.[21]

Participants who saw the scene without a person were significantly more likely torespond from their own perspective.

[21]This means that the presence of a person in the photograph

affected the perspective used even though the question focused solely on the two objects.[21]

Theresearchers state that these results suggest disembodiedcognition, in which the participants put

themselves into the body of the person in the photograph.[21]

Language Comprehension[edit]See also:Embodied language processing

The motor systemis involved inlanguagecomprehension, in this case when sentences wereperformable by a human, there was a change in participants' overall movement ofapendulum.

[22]Researchers performed an experiment in which college undergraduate participants

swung a pendulum while completing a "sentence judgement task." Participants would swing thependulum with both hands for 10 seconds before a prompt and then a sentence would appear on thescreen until the participant responded. In the control condition, participants swung the pendulumwithout performing the "sentence judgement task." Each trial had half "plausible" and half"implausible" sentences. The "plausible" sentences made sense semantically, while the

"implausible" ones did not. The "performable" sentences could be performed by a human, while the"inanimate" sentences could not. Participants responded by saying "yes" to the "plausible"sentences.

[22]
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The change in "relative phase shift" for different conditions in the study. Participants had a

significantly larger change for "performable" sentences than "inanimate" sentences and

swinging only.

Results show a significant "relative phase shift," or overall change in movement of the swingingpendulum, for the "performable" sentences.

[22]This change did not occur for "inanimate" sentences

or the control condition.[22]The researchers did not expect an overall phase shift, instead theyexpected a change in the variability of movement, or the "standard deviationof relative phaseshift."

[22]Although not entirely expected, these results support embodied cognition and show that the

motor system is involved in the understanding of language.[22]The researchers suggest that thenature of this relationship needs to be further studied to determine the exactcorrelationthis task hasto bi-manual motor movements.

[22]

Some researchers extend embodied cognition to include language.[2]

They describe language as atool that aids in broadening our sense of body.

[2]For instance, when asked to identify this object,

participants most often choose an object near to them.[2]

Conversely, when asked to identify thatobject, participants choose an object further away from them.

[2]Language allows us to distinguish

between distances in more complex ways than the simple perceptual difference between near andfar objects.[2]

Memory[edit]

A study examiningmemoryand embodied cognition illustrates that people remember more of thegist of a story when they physically act it out.

[23]Researchers divided female participants randomly

into 5 groups, which were "Read Only," "Writing," "Collaborative Discussion," "IndependentDiscussion," and "Improvisation." All participants received amonologueabout teen addiction andwere told to pay attention to details about the character and action in the monologue. Participantswere given 5 minutes to read the monologue twice, unaware of a future recall test. In the "ReadOnly" condition participants filled out unrelated questionnaires after reading the monologue. In the"Writing" condition participants responded to 5 questions about the story from the perspective of thecharacter in the monologue. They had 6 minutes to answer each question. In the "Collaborative

Discussion" condition participants responded from the character's perspective to the same questionsas the "Writing" group, but in groups of 4 or 5 women. They were also given 6 minutes per questionand everyone participated in answering each question. The "Independent Discussion" condition wasthe same as the "Collaborative Discussion," except 1 person answered each question. In the"Improvisation" condition participants acted out 5 scenes from the monologue in groups of 5 women.The researchers suggest that this condition involves embodied cognition and will produce bettermemory for the monologue. Every participant played the main character and a supporting characteronce. Participants were given short prompts from lines in the monologue, which were excluded fromthe memory test. Participants had 2 minutes to choose characters and 4 minutes for improvisations.
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The recall test was the monologue with 96 words or phrases missing. Participants had to fill in theblanks as accurately as possible.

[23]

Researchers gave the recall test to a group who did not read the monologue. They scoredsignificantly lower than the other groups, which indicated that guessing was not easy.

[23]In coding

the answers to the recall test, exact words were labeled "Verbatim", and correct content but variedwording was labeled "Gist". The combination of "Verbatim" and "Gist" was called "Total Memory."

The "Improvisational" group had more "Gist" memories than any other group and had more "TotalMemory" than both of the discussion groups.

[23]The results fit the researchers' hypothesis that the

"Improvisational" group would remember more because they actively rehearsed the information fromthe monologue.

[23]Although other groups had also elaborately encoded the information, the

"Improvisation" group remembered significantly more than the discussion groups and marginallymore than the "Reading Only" and "Writing" groups.[23]Simply experiencing the monologue in anactive way aids in remembering the "Gist."

[23]There were no differences across groups for

"Verbatim" memory, which they suggest could take longer than the limited time during theexperiment to develop.

[23]

Reasoning[edit]

A series of experiments demonstrated the interrelation between motor experience and high-levelreasoning. For example, although most individuals recruit visual processes when presented withspatial problemssuch as mental rotation tasks

[24]motor experts favor motor processes to perform

the same tasks, with higher overall performance.[25]

A related study showed that motor experts usesimilar processes for the mental rotation of body parts and polygons, whereas non-experts treatedthese stimuli differently.

[26]These results were not due to underlying confounds, as demonstrated by

a training study which showed mental rotation improvements after a one-year motor training,compared with controls.[27]Similar patterns were also found in working memory tasks, with the abilityto remember movements being greatly disrupted by a secondary verbal task in controls and by amotor task in motor experts, suggesting the involvement of different processes to store movementsdepending on motor experience, namely verbal for controls and motor for experts.

[28]

Approach and Avoidance[edit]

In research focused on the approach and avoidance effect, people showed an approach effect forpositive words.

[29]In the "positive toward condition," participants moved positive words toward the

center of the screen and negative words away. In the "negative toward condition," participantsmoved negative words toward the center and positive words away. Participants were given feedbackabout their accuracy at the end of each of the 4 experimental blocks. In the first experiment the wordat the center of the screen had a positivevalence,while in the second experiment the central wordhad a negative valence. In the third experiment, the center of the screen had an empty box .

[29]

Table showing response times for the positive, negative, and neutral valence conditions in the

approach and avoidance experiment. Participants were significantly faster for the "positive

toward" condition regardless of the central word's valence.
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As predicted, in the first experiment participants in the "positive toward condition" respondedsignificantly faster than those in the "negative toward condition."

[29]This fits the approach/avoidance

effect in embodied cognition, which states that people are faster to approach positive things andavoid negative ones.[29]In the second experiment, researchers expected participants in the "negativetoward condition" to be faster, yet those in the "positive toward condition" responded significantlyfaster.

[29]Although effects were smaller in the third experiment, participants in the "positive toward

condition" were still faster.[29]

Overall, people were faster in the "positive toward condition,"regardless of the valence of the central word. Despite mixed results regarding the researchers'expectations, they maintain that the motor system is important in processing higher levelrepresentations such as the action goal.[29]In this study, participants showed strong approach effectsin the "positive toward condition," which supports embodied cognition.

[29]

As part of a larger study, researchers separated participants into 5 groups with differentinstructions.

[30]In the "approach" condition, participants were instructed to imagine physically moving

the product toward them, but in the "avoid" condition, participants had to imagine moving the productaway from them. In the "control" condition, participants were instructed to simply observe theproduct. The "correction" condition involved the same instructions as the approach condition, exceptparticipants were told that the body can affect judgment. In the "approach information" condition,participants had to list 5 reasons why they would obtain the product. After viewing a picture of an

aversive product, participants rated on a scale of 1 to 7 how desirable the product was and howmuch they approached of or avoided the product. They also provided how much they would pay forthe product.

[30]

An approach/avoidance effect was found in relation to product evaluation.[30]Participants in the"approach" condition liked the aversive product significantly more and would pay more for it. Therewere no differences between the "avoidance," "control," "correction," and "approach information"conditions. Simulation of approach can affect liking and willingness to pay for a product, but theeffect can be reversed if the person knows about this influence.

[30]This supports embodied

cognition.[30]

Self-Regulation[edit]

As part of a larger study, one experiment randomly assigned college undergraduates to 2

groups.[31]

In the "muscle-firming" condition participants grasped a pen in their hand, while in the"control" condition participants held the pen in their fingers. The participants were then asked to fillout donations toHaitifor theRed Crossin sealed envelopes. They were told to return the enveloperegardless of whether they donated. They also filled out questionnaires about their feelings about theRed Cross, their tendency to donate, their feelings about Haiti, what they thought the purpose of thestudy was, etc.[31]

Significantly more participants in the "muscle-firming" condition than in the "control" conditiondonated money.[31]Condition did not affect the actual amount donated when participants chose todonate. As the researchers predicted, the "muscle-firming" condition helped participants get overtheir physical aversion to viewing the devastation in Haiti and spend money. Muscle-firming in thisexperiment may also be related to an increase in self-control, suggesting embodied cognition canplay a role in self-regulation.

[31]

Some suggest that the embodied mind serves self-regulatory processes by combining movementand cognition to reach a goal.

[32]Thus, the embodied mind has a facilitative effect. Some judgments,

such as the emotion of a face, are detected more quickly when a participant mimics the facialexpression that is being evaluated.

[20]Individuals holding a pen in their mouths to freeze their facial

muscles and make them unable to mimic the expression were less able to judge emotions. Goal-relevant actions may be encouraged by embodied cognition, as evidenced by the automatedapproach and avoidance of certain environmental cues.

[20]Embodied cognition is also influenced by

the situation. If one moves in a way previously associated with danger, the body may require a
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greater level ofinformation processingthan if the body moves in a way associated with a benignsituation.

[32]

Social Psychology[edit]

Some social psychologists examined embodied cognition and hypothesized that embodied cognitionwould be supported by embodied rapport.

[33]Embodied rapport would be demonstrated by pairs of

same-sex strangers using Aronsparadigm, which instructs participants to alternate asking certainquestions and to progressively self-disclose. The researchers predicted that participants wouldmimic each others movements, reflecting embodied cognition. Half the participants completedacontrol task of reading and editing a scientific article, while half the participants completed ashortened version of Aronsself-disclosureparadigm.

[33]

Results from the social embodied cognition study that illustrate the relationship between positive

emotions, observed behavioral synchrony, and embodied rapport.

There is a significant correlation between self-disclosure and positive emotions towards the otherparticipant.[33]Participants randomly assigned to the self-disclosure task displayed morebehavioralsynchrony(rated by independent judges watching the tapes of each condition on mute)and reported more positive emotions than the control group.

[33]Since bodily movements influence

the psychological experience of the task, the relationship between self-disclosure and positivefeelings towards one's partner may be an example of embodied cognition.

[33]

Evolutionary View of Embodied Cognition[edit]

Embodied cognition may also be defined from the perspective ofevolutionarypsychologists.

[34]Evolutionary psychologists view emotion as an importantself-regulatoryaspect of

embodied cognition, andemotion as a motivatortowardsgoal-relevant action.[34]Emotion helps

driveadaptive behavior.The evolutionary perspective cites language, both spoken and written, astypes of embodied cognition.[34]

Pacingandnon-verbal communicationreflect embodied cognition inspoken language. Technical aspects of written language, such asitalics,all caps,andemoticonspromote aninner voiceand thereby a sense of feeling rather than thinking about awritten message.

[34]

Cognitive science and linguistics[edit]George Lakoffand his collaborators have developed several lines of evidence that suggest thatpeople use their understanding of familiar physical objects, actions and situations (such ascontainers, spaces, trajectories) to understand other more complex domains (such as mathematics,relationships or death). Lakoffargues that allcognition is based on knowledge that comes from thebody and that other domains are mapped onto our embodied knowledge using a combination

ofconceptual metaphor,image schemaandprototypes.

Conceptual metaphor[edit]Main article:Conceptual metaphor

Lakoff andMark Johnson[35]

showed that humans use metaphor ubiquitously and that metaphorsoperate at a conceptual level (i.e., they map one conceptual domain onto another), they involve anunlimited number of individual expressions and that the same metaphor is used conventionallythroughout a culture. Lakoff and his collaborators have collected thousands of examples ofconceptual metaphors in many domains.

[35][36]
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For example, people will typically use language about journeys to discuss the history and status of alove affair, a metaphor Lakoff and Johnson call "LOVE IS A JOURNEY". It is used in suchexpression as: "we arrived at a crossroads," "we parted ways", "we hit the rocks" (as in a sea

journey), "she's in the driver's seat", or, simply, "we're together". In cases like these, somethingcomplex (a love affair) is described in terms of something that can be done with a body (travelthrough space).

Image schema[edit]Main article:Image schema

This section

requiresexpansion.(December 2011)

Prototypes[edit]Main article:Prototype theory

Prototypes are "typical" members of a category, e.g. a robin is a prototypical bird, but a penguin isnot. The role of prototypes in human cognition was first identified and studied byEleanor Roschinthe 1970s.[37]She was able to show that prototypical objects are more easily categorized than non-

prototypical objects, and that people answered questions about a category as a whole by reasoningabout a prototype. She also identifiedbasic level categories:

[38]categories that have prototypes that

are easily visualized (such as a chair) and are associated with basic physical motions (such as"sitting"). Prototypes of basic level categories are used to reason about more general categories.

Prototype theory has been used to explain human performance on many different cognitive tasksand in a large variety of domains.

[39]George Lakoff argues that prototype theory shows that the

categories that people use are based on our experience of having a body and have no resemblanceto logicalclassesortypes.For Lakoff, this shows that traditionalobjectivistaccounts oftruthcannotbe correct.

[39]

Artificial intelligence and robotics[edit]

History of AI[edit]

The experience of AI research provides another line of evidence supporting the embodied mindthesis. In the early history ofAIsuccesses in programming high-level reasoning tasks such as chess-playing led to an unfounded optimism that all AI problems would be relatively quickly solved. Theseprograms simulated intelligence using logic and high-level abstract symbols (an approachcalledGood old-fashioned AI). This "disembodied" approach ran into serious difficulties in the 1970sand 80s, as researchers discovered that abstract, disembodied reasoning was highly inefficient andcould not achieve human-levels of competence on many simple tasks.

[40]Funding agencies (such

asDARPA)withdrew funding because the field of AI had failed to achieve its stated objectives,leading to difficult peri

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