L.O.V.E.

l.o.v.e. and decision-making

Michal Willinger, 2012

Decision making seminar with:

Dr. Itzhack Aharon

Many thanks to:

Daniel Levy (structure)

Tamir Goldberg (encouragement)

Mario Mikulincer (containment)

The Polyvagal Theory (via Porges, 1995)

The vagal nerves.

Note when a human being is standing upright, there is a “ladder” from brain to heart of electrical nerve fibers.

AIR

FL

OW


Once upon a time,

Before the advent of a complex

nervous system,

the nervous system of aquatic

animals could only reduce heart rate

by floating, and waiting for the

excitement to go away.

There was no channel for the brain to tell the

heart what to do.


Then, an exciting change occurred.

Evolved forms of life emerged with a second

vagal nerve pathway that connected the

brain to send the heart messages for the first

time.

Animals were able to feel calm as well as to

feel excitement.


Stephen Porges discovered the vagal

nerves hold the key to a third system of the body that is beyondbeyond

fight or flight.

It is called, communication.

Spirituality, conversation and

organization emerge as a function to lift and

lower the rate of the heart at will.

Are we special?

We perhaps are not so special. Many, many

species have vagal nerve branches that

allow for communication to

occur.

But we are uprightupright.

Could there be a relationship between

Jacob’s Ladder and our anatomy?

Are we connected?We perhaps are not so connected. Many studies have failed to support overt psychic phenomenon or mystical explanations for thought and consciousness.

But we are consciousconscious.

Could there be a relationship between consciousness and anatomical alignment?

In connection: emerging orderThe ACC seems to be especially involved when effort is needed to solve problems of energy and trust.

The ventral part of the ACC (internal consolidation) projects to the amygdala, nucleus accumbens, hypothalamus, and the anterior insula (the

internal reactionary system).

I propose more metabolic energy is required to get over the "hill" of altering any internal motivation state at rest; or in a self-feeding loop of action and reaction. Frontal lobe inhibition must create a schematic of effort to "convince" the ACC that it is neither too much energy nor too little energy to "trust" an imagined OFC-pleasant future is possible and worthwhile.

In connection: emerging orderParietal touch and space diverts focus from imagined inner pain, stress and inaccurate representations of body-external threat to inner conceptions of space, time, distance and achievable states of internal homeostasis. The mind directs the body with the drive of the imagination and self-observed rewards.

At a certain point, sensory "fuel" is needed to feedback OT sensitivity into the system in order to prevent receptor scaffolding from decaying from lack of use.

One could reasonably deduce that physical isolation and non-touch over time will produce an excitable and indifferent organism who suffers from chronic stress or 'freezing' - the last and oldest evolutionary defense of "playing dead" in order to conserve energy.

In connection: the internal organs (insula, homeostasis)

In connection: the parietal lobe (skin, space, distance)

In connection: the nerves-system

(organization of energy and muscle movement)

what physical laws rule these elements? the vagal nerve : in connection

Jacob’s Ladder:

When two currents are parallel, they form a ladder of

energy.

The vagal system:

Lining the spine from heart to brain, two parallel currents up the body center.

So Michal, What is L.O.V.E.?

L = Long-term

O = On-line

V = Velocity of

E = Evolution

Part One: The Machinery: the Brain

The ACC.

A = Anterior (before)

C = Cingulate (a circle around something)

C = Cortex (bark, i.e. an edge)

The anterior cingulate cortex is a circle of surface neurons around your insula.

The vmPFC or the OFC.

V = Ventro (belly) M = Medial (next to the middle)P = Pre (before)F = Frontal (front; i.e. the forehead)

O = Orbito (eyes)F = (see above)C = (see previous slide)

The vmPFC or the OFC.

The vmPFC, or the OFC, is the middle area of surface neurons behind the eyeballs and behind the forehead.

Image courtesy of the “connectome” imaging project, MIT, Boston.

Ready to jump in?

Option for clip 1: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=vYwOtTMUz0c

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=vYwOtTMUz0c



Let’s map the ACC.

The anterior cingulate cortex can be divided anatomically based on dorsal (“cognitive”) and ventral (“emotional”) components.

SOURCE:

Bush G, Luu P, Posner MI (2000). Cognitive and emotional influences in anterior cingulate cortex. Trends

in Cognitive Science, 4 (6): 215–222.

Huh? What does this mean?

To get the answer, we first have to know about the structure that the cortex is “cingulating.” Do you remember what it is?

The Insula

First, imagine I take the “sylvian fissure” and open it up to peek inside.

Your sylvian fissure:

Protecting your limbic system since fMRI.

The red area is what I am interested in. Hey, wait, what does “insula” mean?

In both hemispheres, there is an insulating sheath of neurons who project to dorsal and ventral “streams” in the brain.

SOURCE:

Bush G, Luu P, Posner MI (2000). Cognitive and emotional

influences in anterior cingulate cortex. Trends in Cognitive

Science, 4 (6): 215–222. doi:10.1016/S1364-

6613(00)01483-2.

Inside vs. Outside

The dorsal stream traditionally is called “emotional”, but this is not so accurate:

It is the stream that is sourced by the interior of the body (skin and deeper) from the anterior insula, which processes internal body states.

SOURCE:

Critchley, H.D. (2005). Neural mechanisms of autonomic, affective, and cognitive integration. Journal of Comparative Neurology, 493 (1): 154–66.

Can you name 3 or more examples of internal body states?

Homeostasis

Status of internal organs

Sympathetic activation

Parasympathetic relaxation

Heart rate

Breath rate

Outside vs. InsideThe ventral stream traditionally is called cognitive, but this is not so accurate:

It is the stream which is sourced by the exterior of the body (beyond the skin) from the posterior insula, which processes external body states.

SOURCE:

Critchley HD (December 2005). "Neural mechanisms of autonomic, affective, and cognitive integration". Journal of Comparative Neurology, 493 (1): 154–66.

Can you name 3 or more examples of external body states?

Heat

Vibration

Texture

Touch

Pain

Cold

THOUGHT-BREAK:

What is the relationship between ACC-

insula position and its structure/function?

Hint: Let’s start with simple nature. Here is a flower that looks a lot like a brain. Up close, there is complexity. But it’s still one thing, and each petal isn’t so different from the others.

Note for good understanding of our insula and ACC function:

1. Any anterior brain function is an abstraction of its posterior (see source).

2. The ventral channel is sourced by the posterior insula and the dorsal channel is sourced by the anterior insula.

SO:

Thinking back to internal and external body states, what can we deduce?

IN SUPPORT OF MY DEDUCTION:

Kita, S. et. al. 2011. Does Conditioned Taste Aversion Learning in the Pond Snail Lymnaea stagnalis Produce Conditioned Fear? Biological Bulletin, 220: 71-81.

Let’s map the dorsal ACC.

The dorsal ACC (external consolidation) projects to the PFC, parietal cortex, sensory-motor

system and the frontal eye fields. In this case, note that targets may also be sources.

SOURCE:

Posner M. & DiGirolamo, G.J. 1998. Executive attention: Conflict, target detection, and cognitive contro". In Parasuraman R. The attentive brain. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.

Anterior cingulate sources

PFC targets

FEF targets

Parietal targets

SII targets

Let’s map the dorsal ACC simply:

Let’s map the dorsal ACC visually:

Visual Key (Willinger):

PFC = the ultimate inhibitor

SII = body-sensory

Frontal eye fields = eye motions (saccades)

Parietal = touch and space


PFC targets

FEF target

Parietal targets

SII targets

Yes/No/If/Then

decisions and feelings

muscle-motion

touch and space

eye movements (saccades)

Let’s map the ventral ACC.

The ventral ACC (internal consolidation) projects to the amygdala, nucleus accumbens, hypothalamus, and anterior insula. Note also, targets may be sources.

SOURCE:

Allman J., Hakeem A., Erwin J., Nimchinsky E., Hof P. (2001). The anterior cingulate cortex. The evolution of an interface between emotion and cognition. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences. 935(1): 107–17.


Let’s map the ventral ACC simply:

Amygdalic targets

Hypothalamic targets

Nucleus accumbens targets

Insular Feedback

Let’s map the ventral ACC visually:

Visual Key (Willinger):

Amygdala = primary emotional arousal

Hypothalamus = primary instinctual arousal

Nucleus accumbens = motivations and addictions

Anterior insula = homeostasis


PFC targets

FEF target

Parietal targets

SII targets

Emotion from the face

decisions and feelings

Internal body states

instinct

emotion

Motivations and addictions

Homeostasis

Part One: Article IA

Optimal Decision Making and the Anterior Cingulate Cortex

Research team:Steven K. Kennerly (University College London)Mark E. Walton (University of Oxford)Timothy E.J. Behrens (Oxford fMRI Center)Mark J. Buckley (Oxford)Matthew F.S. Rushworth (Oxford & Oxford fMRI Center)

APA citation:Kennerly, S., Walton, M., Behrens, T., Buckley, M., & Rushworth, M. (2006). Optimal Decision Making and the Anterior Cingulate Cortex. Nature/Neuroscience, published online doi:10.1038/nn1724.

TRUST

DEFIANCE

ENERGY

Article IA – The researchers asked the following Research Questions:


1. What is the relationship of the ACC and effort?

2. Why are efforts low when the ACC is damaged?

3. Why when the ACC is damaged do we observe: i. impatience,ii. vacillation in decision-making; and iii. imperviousness to change?

Perhaps the ACC makes the effort of reward appear greater than it actually is.

Therefore, learning-based decisions toward a goal state is more of an exaggerated effort than in reality.

Article IA – The researchers proposed the following Hypothesis:


1. Training rats and monkeys with and without lesions in the ACC to obtain a reward of juice by pressing a lever.

Article IA – The research weighed the following Methods:

2. Training rats with and without lesions in the ACC to obtain a reward of juice by tracking a visual target

with delay.

Measurements are via singular neuron electrical recordings cross-referenced across brain regions.


The equipment procedure includes

mouse surgery, training and learning, execution

and autopsy.

We teach the mouse to think slowly over time,

and when we are satisfied he has learned,

his neurons are sacrificed on the altar of

science.

Just saying.

Get-Real Break:

1. The ACC is involved with the retaining of learning involving the positive value of rewards.

Article IA – The researchers found the following Results:

2. Lesions to the PFC, OFC or vmPFC do not show similar results when reward-based learning is controlled without reward-based rule structure.

The ACC is particularly involved in retaining good memories for future reward of current efforts over time.


1. Remember being satisfied from a

reward.

2. Accurately calculate the effort needed to

gain a future reward.

3. Socially learn.

The scientists could not teach ACC-damaged animals to:

The scientists could teach ACC-damaged animals to:

1. Memorize rules.

2. Follow rules.

3. Keep reaction times up to par in a task.

1. The positive rewards hypothesis explains why the ACC is involved with the retaining of learning involving the positive value of rewards

Article IA – The researchers presented the following points of Discussion:

2. It also explains why memorizing rules or reaction times is not effected by ACC lesions.

Further research should distinguish between value-based learning (ACC), effort-based learning (hypothalamus), and rule-based learning (PFC).

Researchers should take care to consolidate past studies and avoid out-of-date explanations for behaviors.


Part Two: Article IB

Decision Making and Reward in the Frontal Cortex: Complementary Evidence from Neurophysiological and Neuropsychological Studies

Research team:Steven K. Kennerly (University College London)Mark E. Walton (University of Oxford)

APA citation:Kennerly, S., Walton, M. (2011). Decision Making and Reward in the Frontal Cortex: Complementary Evidence from Neurophysiological and Neuropsychological Studies. Behavioral Neuroscience, 125(3), 297-317.

Article IB – The research review explored the relationship between:

1. ACC learning and effort-based action.

ACC lesions and lesions in other brain areas.

ACC and learning the value of actions.

APA citation:Kennerly, S., Walton, M. (2011). Decision Making and Reward in the Frontal Cortex: Complementary Evidence from Neurophysiological and Neuropsychological Studies. Behavioral Neuroscience, 125(3), 297-317.

1. ACC and addiction appears to project dopaminergic motivation to categorization processes in the frontal lobe of the left hemisphere, which subsequently “zooms out” of ‘long-term’ or ‘distant’ if-then rules.

Article IB – My summary of the authors’ review results is the following:

2. ACC and delayed gratification appears to project to the vmPFC of the right hemisphere, which subsequently “zooms in” to ‘short-term’ repulsions, or ‘close’ if-then rules.

Further review should examine research that links “zoomed-out” affect regulation and the right hemisphere to “zoomed-in” affect regulation in the right hemisphere via relevant pathways of neurotransmission.

Note that generally active left PFC’s tend to produce attractive behaviors and active right PFC’s tend to produce repulsive behaviors. There is evolutionary animal-studies preliminarily supporting as to why; namely, the right hemisphere is mouth-oriented and the left hemisphere is body-oriented.

Other sources for cross-reference of this summary:Bush, G., Vogt, B., Holmes, J., Dale, A. Greve, D., Jenike, M., Rosen, B. (2002). Proceedings of the National Academy of Science, 99(1), 523-528.

Davidson, R & Irwin, W. (1999). The functional neuroanatomy of emotion and affective style. Trends in Cognitive Science, 3(1), 1-21.

Deng, C. & Rogers, L. (2009). “Factors Affecting Lateralization and Chicks” in Comparative Vertabrate Lateralization, edited by Rogers, L. University of New England: Australia.

Davidson, R. (2004). What does the prefrontal cortex “do” in affect: Prospectives in frontal EEG asymmetry research. Biological Psychology, 67, 219-234.

Kennerly, S., Walton, M., Behrens, T., Buckley, M., & Rushworth, M. (2006). Optimal Decision Making and the Anterior Cingulate Cortex. Nature/Neuroscience, published online doi:10.1038/nn1724.

Lamar, M. (2006). Neuroscience and Decision Making. SOL-UK Workshop: Triarchy Press, London.

Letzkus, P., Boeddeker, N., Wood, J., Shao-Wu, Z., Srinivasan, M. (2008). Lateralization of visual learning in the honey bee. Biology Letters, 4(1), 16-19.

Part THREE: The Machinery: The Skin

Touch.

The parietal cortex stores space and time relative to the embodiment of touch.

Brain axon imaging from the Human Connectome Project, MIT.

SOURCE:

Rakitin, B. 2006. Introduction to Neuroscience, Lecture 2, Columbia University.Levy, D. 2009. Biological Psychology, Lecture 3, Raphael Racanti International School of Psychology.

Parietal touch taps into bi-directional feedback loops between the OFC and insular cortex.

BASE SOURCE FOR PARIETAL FUNCTIONING (any textbook, and in particular):Rakitin, B. 2006. Introduction to Neuroscience, Columbia University.Mudrick, L. 2009. Biological Psychology Recitation, Raphael Racanti International School of Psychology.

OFC (pleasant or unpleasant)

INSULA (external/internal homeostasis)

Parietal Base

The main components of touch and decisions:Parietal axons tap directly into opiate-producing source

neurons in the OFC. Opioids in turn reduce pain and facilitate the release of oxytocin.

In healthy animals, oxytocin overwhelms the presence of cortisol. When unchecked, cortisol destroys the primary line of defender-cells in the immune system to activate defensive behavior.

SOURCE:Field, T. (2010). Touch for socioemotional and physical well-being: a review. Devlopmental Review, (30), 367-383.Uvnas, K.. & Peterson, M. (2005). Oxytocin, a Mediator of Anti-Stress, Well-being, Social Interaction, Growth and Healing. Journal of Psychosomatic Medicine, 52(1), 57-80.

INSULA external/internal homeostasis

OFC pleasure

PARIETAL LOBE

Under the skin

(all skin cellular imaging from www.cell.com)

Oxytocin and the Skin

The surface of the skin is comprised of “zombie cells” – they remove nutrients only and give nothing back.

The real action takes place in the deep nerve pressure receptors underneath.

OT blood-brain junction, image from Weizmann

1. Mammals possess tiny hair cells hooking into nerves in the third layer of skin.

2. These “deep pressure receptors” terminate in the brain-OFC for pleasure (or pain) and opiate release (or Substance P).

Deep hair-based axons.

Surface hair cells.

A SUPPORTING PAPER:

Field, T. (2010). Touch for socioemotional and physical well-being: a

review. Devlopmental Review, (30), 367-383.

THOUGHT BREAK:

What organizes mental concepts of “space” and “distance” in my brain? What is the relationship

between spatial organization, and my decisions?

Oxytocin: Skin to Blood to Brain - Manipulating Time and Space?

The oxytocin receptor is unique because it self-replicates via blood transport to brain cells and the skin.

OT responds to any modality containing vibration and rhythm to create self-responding patterns at a preferred frequency.

A RECENT OT STUDY: Gutnick, A., Blechman, J., Kaslin, J., Herwig, J., Belting, H.G., Affolter, M., Bonkowsky, J., Levkowitz, J. The Hypothalamic Neuropeptide

Oxytocin Is Required for Formation of the Neurovascular Interface of the Pituitary. Developmental Cell, 21(4), 642.

Cosmic filaments create a “hand” in space.

NASA, 2009

Be Mindful for what’s ahead that….Once oxytocin locks into a phase pattern, it is repeated

internally in cycles of solar and lunar rhythms*…

…and these cycles of addiction can be the most rewarding, devastating and humbling aspects of our ACC-bearing species:

The infatuation with other humans, the self, and a feeling of soothing loving-peace in contact with living bodies existing withinour frequenciesof sensory perception.

*(we will go into depth in Part III).

Part Four : Connecting the Dots

The parietal lobe, the anterior cingulate cortex, and decision -making.

Part Four : Article IC

Parietal Cortex and Insula Relate to Evidence Seeking Relevance to Reward-Related Decisions

Research team:Nicolas Furl (Laboratory of Neuropsychology, NIMH)Bruno Averbeck (Laboratory of Neuropsychology, NIMH)

APA citation:Furl, N. & Averbeck, B. (2011). Parietal Cortex and Insula Relate to Evidence Seeking Relevance to Reward Related Decisions. The Journal of Neuroscience, 31(48), 72-82.

Article IC – The research asked the following Research Questions:

1. What brain areas are active in collecting careful evidence and making decisions in the ACC?

2. How does seeking more evidence before a decision compare success by random chance?

3. Do people who tend to seek out less evidence have corresponding brain areas that are less active?


Perhaps neural substrates may be identify when a person decides to stay to collect more information rather than take a decision, or to move on.

Article IC – The researchers proposed the following Hypothesis:


If so, identification of these areas will help us to consolidate other fMRI studies in understanding the decision-making brain more accurately.

Article IC – The research weighed the following Methods:

1. Training humans on a computer game involving probability, jars, and beads of different colors.

2. Jars were given monetary rewards and losses that required trial-and-error.


Measurements compare participant choice to Bayesian statistical models of random chance, loss/win frequencies, and recorded fMRI activation during the task.

1. Searching for information activates the internal-ventral stream: insula, striatum (conditioned-learning), anterior cingulate, and parietal cortex.

Article IC – The research found the following Results:

2. The stream is most active when the odds are at 60/40.


3. The parietal lobe is the most active at the onset of loss; and the insula fluctuates in sync with choice of strategy.

4. People tended to search less time than optimal for certainty: on average, maximum mathematical certainty required to examine a few more examples.

DISTANCE

EFFORT

ENERGY

1. Loss increases evidence-seeking.

Article IC – The researchers presented the following points of Discussion:

2. People tend to investigate for less than is necessary, even when controlled for monetary gain and “hit” rates of accuracy.


3. When there is no change in outcome, there is a bit more seeking of evidence, but it is still less than necessary.

There appears to be a relationship between the flux of activation in the insula and the parietal lobe, for when a person is “full” of information and makes the decision to go inward, and strategize, or outward, and choose (Willinger).

Part Five: The Machinery: YOGA

L.O.V.E.

Education

Transcript of L.O.V.E.