Lithofacies and Sedimentary Structures of Yamuna River ...ir.amu.ac.in/6528/1/DS 926.pdf · The...
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Lithofacies and Sedimentary Structures of Yamuna River Around Brindaban
Dist. Mathura
DISSERTATION SUBMITTED IN PARTIAL F U L F l t M E M T OF TME
REQUIREMENTS FOR THE AWARD OF THE DEGREE O F
Mnittx of ^Ijilosiopljp IN
Geology
BY
SYED DANISH RAZA M. Sc .(Alig.)
DEPARTMENT OF GEOLOGY ALIGARH MUSLIM QNIVERSITY
ALIGARH (INDIA) SEPT. 1986
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o i l / - vv/ -' ^^ -"• '••*
DS926
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,D. Bhardvvaj M . S c , Ph.D.(AMU) S u p e r v i s o r
Telepl'.onc No. : 5615
DEPARTMENT OF GEOLOGY ALIGARH MUSLIM UNIVERSITV
AUGARH-202001
Date.Sep.tember 4^1986
I certify that the work presented
in this dissertation has been carried out
by Mr. Syed Danish Raza, M.Sc.(AMU),under
my guidance. The work is an original one
and has not been submitted for any other
degree at this or any other University.
( B.D. BharcSwaj )
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C O N T E N T S
Chapter-I
aiapt9r~XI
Chapter-XIX
INTHOSUCTION
Yamuna Hiver
Gaoiaorphic features
Study area
SaapXing and AnaXyticaX Techniques
^kncKvXedgement
ULIHOFACIBS
Overbank Deposits
Point bar deposits
SmW^ntMiY STHUCTIBES AM) fLiM PATTERNS
aippXe Drift Cross Lmination
Cross Bedding
ConvoXute Bedding
HorisontaX Bedding
wavy Lamination
Massive Units
FXow patterns
Vector ii^an
Vector strength
Variance
• • •
« • •
• • •
• • •
• • •
* • •
• • •
• • «
• * •
• • •
• • •
• • «
• • •
• « •
• • •
• • •
• • *
• • •
« • •
• • •
Page
X
3
4
5
5
8
9
9
X2
X6
X6
2 i
26
^
32
33
34
35
35
36
Chapter->IV GRAXH SIZE ANALYSIS • • • 37
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- l i -
Chapt03C-V tUHERAL Ca^POSlTlON • • • ^^
Chap t e r -V l FLUVIAL / CDEL • • • A^
kode l - A • • • ^^
M©d«l - S • • • 46
O i a p t e r - V I I CoriCLUSION • . . 48
Hefe rances • • • SO
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L I S T OF F I G U R E S
Facing page
Figure - X i ap of the stuciy area • ••
Figure - 2 Showing iithofaeies distribution
Figure - 3
Figure - 4
Distribution of sedimentary structures in bank deposits
Distribution of sediii^ntary ••• structures in point bar deposits
16
16
Figure - 5 Map showing variation in current direction froia general flow patterns 34
Figure - 6 Histograms shmving mechanical ABCD em£|>osition of Yamuna sands ••• 38
Figure - 7 Cumulative curves for Yamuna sands • •• 38
Figure - 8 Representative trenches of bank deposits • •• 44
Figure - 9 Representative trenches of bar deposits • • •
Figure - 10 f4odel - A
44
44
Figure - 11 Model - B 44
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L I S T OF P L A T E S
Facing l>ag«
Plate - I F ig . 1-2
Field photf^raphs showing ripple d r i f t crest lai&ination • • • 16
Plat© - 2 Fig0^2
Field photographs shewing cross bedding • •• 21
Plate - 3 Fig. 1-2
Field photographs showing convolute bedding • • • 26
Plate - 4 Fig* 1
Fig . 2
Field phot«^raphs showing horizontal bedding
Field photographs shmving oassive unit
• • •
• • •
30
30
Plate - 5 Photographs (fi Ulcro) of various ^^d.nerals of Ysaauna sand «•• 4C
L I S T OF T A B L E S
Table - 1
Table
Table
Table
2
3
4
Vector mean* Vector magnitude standard deviation and variance of cross bedding dip azimuths »•«
Grain size frequency distribution (Percent) of Yamuna sands••
Statistical parameters of size frequency distribution •*•
Mineral coi^osition of Yamuna sands •••
34
37
37
39
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N
M^THURA CITY
S o I I KM
h Fig.l Map Of The Study Area .
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C H A P T E R - I
INTHODUCTION
The Study of 8«dloi«ntaxy processes and products in
a knovm environment is helpful in reconstructing the
ancient sedimentary deposltional environments. The deposi-
tional processes leave their imprints in the sediments
deposited during geologic past. Passega (1962) established
that the study of recent sediments searve& as the mediocre
mean in understanding the ancient sedimentation* Friedman
(1961» 1967, 1979) on the other hand strongly supported
the significance of study of recent sedimentation in
interpreting the ancient sedimentary environment if Boam
limitations are kept in consideration. Visher (1969) while
admitting that ancient sediments show some minor deviation
from their modern analogous. However» Gees (1965), Kleven
(1966) and Sevon (1966) told that the study of modern
sediments is not of great importance because of so many post
deposltional changes.
Sedimentary enviroiment can be defined in terms of
physical, chemical and geomorphic variables. The study of
the physical processes is most important and provides the
basic information for geomorphic interpretation. The factors
such as changes introduced during diagenetic, epigenetic,
chemical and biological transformation, mixing of environ-
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-2-
latoral and v«rtieal fades variation* timo and othar
factors must also bo takon into con*iteration* Notwith
standing » tiM abovo sionti<m0d views th« studios of tho
recent sediments provide the iMist tool for the reconstruct-
tion of the ancient envir(»»M»nt of deposition* •
Meandering and Braided are the two laain typss of
river sys^ua noted in the geological literature* Many studies
have been made in the recent years on oodern rivers* Allen
(1965» l97o)t Miali (i976» 1977>, Shelton «nd Noble (1974}>
Friectean (1979)* JfUist (1978) in order to determine how the
sedimentary structures and other bedding characters are
formed* In the present study an attempt has been made to
determine th« nature of sediments depcMiited by the action
of lateral accretion on point bars and the vertical deposits
on flood plains due to overbank flooding of the yamuna river*
To achieve these objects the different faeiee a nd their
internal struc^res in relaticm to differwit bed-forms have
been recognised to reconstruct the appropriate fluvial
GT'Odei for Yamuna river under the following heads*
1* The flood plains and river channel facies on the exposed
surface along trenches and in cuts on the banks*
2* Various sedimentary structures» their geometry* lateral
and vertical association and orientation were examined
and a local flow pattern was worked out*
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.»
3. ni« s«diiB«nts w«r« anaXystd for grain size and mlnara-
logical charactars. On tha baaia of tha abova studiaa it
haa baan posaible to raconstruct two aaparata fluvial
modala each for bank daposita a nd point bar daposita of
Yamuna rivar«
YAMlAiA RIVER
Tha Yaonina rivar is one of tha most important rivar
of Gangas rivar syatem of North India anc oceupiaa wastarn
most position in this systam* As tha sourca of Yamuna
river is concemad, tha Yamuna rivar originata? from tha
Yamnotri glaciar at an alavation of 6320 m abova maan aaa
laval naar B«idurpunch in tha ly^saooria rangaa of lowar
Himalayaa of Uttar Kashi (U«P«)« During ita coursa from
Uttarkashi to Allahabad a larga numbar of smaller straama
join tha main rivar at various loealitiaa» Of tha wastarn
atraam tha Riahi Qanga joina tha Yanuna rivar at ita right
bank naar Banas» a^ila tha two othar straan^ tha Utna and
Kanuman Ganga mat tha main rivar on its laft bank* Thara
ara alao savaral atraama originating frcm tha lowar
Himalayan rangas and ridgas join tha Yamuna rivar* Aftar
joining tha Toria rivar» which is tha main sourca of watar
in tha mountainaoua r4Bigaa» tha Yamuna rivar antars tha
Musaooria hilla and than braaks tha hills to ba joinad by
Qiri and Ahaan rivara* Aftar flowing up to a diatanca of
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u
200 km the Yamuna river emerges from SiwaXik ranges into
plains near Saharanpur in Uttar Pradesh, vthiere it flows
in a broad curve through Delhi* Mathura» Agra and then
Joins Ganga at Allahabad city having an elevation of 100 m
above niean seal level. During its course from Uttar Kashi
to Allahabad it covers a distance of 1 3 ^ km and exhibits
various patterns i.e* steep drainingy braided and
meandering*
GEOMQKPHIC FEATURES
In the study area the following geoo»rphic features were
observed:
(a) Lateral Accretion Deposits:- These deposits
include the point baxs and margin bars vmich have been
formed as a result of the lateral migration of the channel*
These deposits mostly consist of sand and occupy the marginal
boundaries of an active channel*
(b) Vertical Accretion Depositsi- These deposits
include natural levee and back* swamp deposits a nd have
been developed as a result of the suspended load of the
available flood water. These deposits are characterised by
fine grained sediiMnts anali occupy the overbank flood plains*
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..»
(e) Splayst> Splays axe also included in
ovezbank flood plains deposits* These deposits are formed
as the bed load materials accumulate locally and spread
from channels onto adjacent flood plains*
STUDY AREA
The present area of investigation lies in Mathura
district of Uttar Pradesh between 77®40 to 77°43' east
longitude and 27**30* to 27**45* north latitude falling
within the Survey of India toposheet no.54 E/lO covering
159 sq« km between Magla Garhi village (situated in the
northeast at a distance of one kilometer) to Mathura city
(Fig. 1) showing the meandering patterns*
SAMPLING AND /U4ALYIXCAL TECHNIQUES
The method employed in the present investigation
to study the various characters of Yamuna sand was to dig
trenches with the help of a showel and Khurpa at different
localities* A total of 25 trenches were dug* The trenches w«
were made to expose the primary ^sedimentary structures*
The width of the trenches ranges between 1*25 to 4 m and
length from 3 to 4 m* However, this depth width ratio was
either decreased or increased depending upon ^ e height of
the river deposits* Most of the trenches wese dug parallel
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(}
to th« direction of flovv of river but three dimensional
trenches were also dug wherever needed* The trenches were
made si&ooUi with the help of a chopper and were left
exposed to air and sunlight to dry them* The process of
making them dry proved helpful in observing the stratifi
cation and other sedimentary structures* Samples from both
the banks of river as well as from the point bar deposits
were collected to determine the e^chanical and mineralogi-
cal characters of the sediments* The whole area was
divided into six sectors* Each sector was comprised of at
least 2 to 3 localities a nd stratigraphical section were
measured at each locality* The study of the sedimentary
structures present was made in the light of their shape»
orientation* size asn6 li^ology constituting them* * The
vertical and lateral relationship of the structures was
determined* Further* to study their characteristics, photo
graphs and sketches were also aade* Ttie azimuth of the
planer cross stratificati(m were measured with the help of
a clinometer compass* in ease of trough cross stratifica
tion the azimuth of the acute bisectrix of the curved
surface was taken a s the true azimuth and the data
collected were grouped into 30^ classes* The vector mean
(GV)t vector magnitude (£ .) and standard deviation for each
sector and locality were calculated using vector sumndtion
method (Curry* 1956}* The rose diagrams were also plotted
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with the help of dip azimuth of cross stratification
forset to show the direction and modality of the current.
For the grain size analysis the samples were collected
from both bank as well as from bar deposits at a regular
interval of 50 m. At some places distance was changed
according to requirements* As a whole 15 samples were
selected for grain size analyses* The size analysis was
carried out by a seiving 0^2 i^entworth scale using ASIM
22 cm diameter sieve* In each sample 100 gm sand was sieved
for 20 minutes using Eo tap sieve shaker and fractions ircm
different sieves were collected* The weight percentage
frequency and cumulative weight percentages were computed
and frequeniy cumulative curve and histogramc;es were plotted
for each of the 15 samples* To compute the characteristics
of size frequency dletributlon the parameters given by
Folk and MarA (1957) were used* Out of 15 samples, 10
sasqples were selected for heavy mineral analysis* The heavy
mineral separation was carried out from the fraction next
to the modal class by using the centrifuge method defined by
Taylor (1938)* The bromoform of specific gravity 2*67 as
the separating liquid was used* The heavy mineral crop
was weighed ami permanent mounts were prepared for all the
samples for further mineralogical study*
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
Bio author is gxateful to Or. Bi^-^ Bhardwajt
D«par1»«nt of Qaology, AyM«U« Aligarh for suggesting
tho probXwi and supervising the investigation* He is
very much thankful to Prof. V»iC. Srivastava, Chairman»
Department of Geology, A.M.U. Aligarh, for providing
the laboratory facilities. Thanks are also due to all
his colleagues who helped him in various ways*
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cs ,fV1^
A
Fig.2 5howin3 Lithofacies Distr ibution In Yamuna River Sediments .
cl
cs|
c cs!
^M/Msismm/M
^W^MA
c
A & B BANK FACIES
C POINT BAR FACIES
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C H A P T E R - II
IKe lithofacl«8 r«cogni8«d in th« Yamima riv«z
S9dliB«nt8 ar« mainly sandy and aiudcty* each of tiimm is
definad in tazmt of iithology and aedioantary structuraa*
Thasa facias viT9 ax«siinad in ovarbank daposita and in the
channel deposits separaUily (Fi^* 2 AB).
OV£aSAf#; DEPOSITS
1* Sandy Facias S* The sandy facias is made up of
sand bads and present in every trench dug on ^ e banks of
YaiBuna river (Fig* 2 A)« The reaults of the grain size
analyses show that the sand cosipriaing the sandy facias is
not coarse but very fine* The individual sand beds are
25 to 3U era thick* However, the thicker units are also
present* Most of the sand beds ar9 separated by a thin
layer of raud» giving an idea about the varioua cycles of
depositions* The sandy facias occupies the lower portion of
the bank deposits and shows a decrease of grain size
towards the top of the sequence* The primary sediisentary
structures present are crosa bedding* horizontal bedding*
ripple drift cross laminations and wavy l«aination at the
top* The crosa bedding are of planar and trough type* Both
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u
Xarg« and small scale cross biding occur in size from
few nm to 40 cm* Bie thickness of sand beds co: prising
horizontal bedding is 2 to 3 m» The coarse sand occur at
the basal part of the bed and coioprised of trough cross
bedding followed by finer material having small scale
cross bedding* ripple drift cross lamination and convolute
bedding in turn (Fig* 2A)* 4o8t of the sand shoiRis a grey
colour with siiea flakes and organic matter at the base* The
sandy fades has been traced up to 2 ksis laterally*
Xnterpretationt
The sandy facias gensrally occupy the lower part
of the bank deposits with 8ilt» clay or laud deposition at
the top* The presence of thick sand beds representing minor
crevase splays or exceptional floods*
Muddy Fades t- Muddy fades is mainly comprised
of silt and clay which is brown to grey in colour* This
fades exhibits rootlets and organic materials with the
occurrences of the sand beds which are 4O-20 cm thick. The
brown grey colour of the mud is because of mixing of organic
Ciaterial with silt and clays* Muddy fades occupies the top
portion of the bank deposits and generally lying above the
sandy fades* The thickness of the muddy sequence is up to
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5 IB but no v^«re th«y ar9 greater than 5 ra* A nuni;>«r of
sediBuintary s true tiaras has bean observad in tha E»jddy
faeiaa* Hm^evmr, the siasaiva units are alao preaent* Among
the aedicientary atructuxea are convolute bedding* ripple
drift eroaa laiaination «nd wavy lamination* The convolute
be hiding occurs in t^e upper part of the deposits where the
sediment is clay or silt size and individual units in which
the convolute bedding are foui a ranging in size between
20 to 30 cm* Th9 other prosdnent aedii&entary structure w^ieh
is frequently seen is ripple drift cross lamination
occurring in phase and out of r^aae* Bie individual units in
which this stricture is piresent is 30 to 40 cm tttick* Hie
muddy fades is also charaeteriaed with a decrease in
grain size from bottom to top and generally occurring as the
sheet deposits and has been traced laterally for a conside]>>
able diatance (Fig. 2B)»
In terpre tation t
The sediments of muddy facias have been deposited
from the suspended load after the flood* Ihey can be
interpreted aa overbank flood sediments of minor distribu
tary channels and the intercalated beds of the sandstone
laay be (Ascribed as minor crevase splays and mud layers
give an idea about the number of flood epiaodes occurred
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A '•>
during th« deposition of a particular sediiaantary unit*
POXNT BAR DEPOSITS
Point bars are th« i^tt s»rominent geCMEiorphic
foaturoa of a Bwandoring etr«am and maxioura sodiaontation
tak«ts placa on th« point bars* Tho siza and ahapa of a point
bar is largaXy dapandant on tiia siza of moving stroaffi* In
the BEialler straams point bars are the aienpie depositional
features on the convex aide of the nieanders dipping gently
towards the channel* On the other hand in the large rivers
point bars cosipoaed of the scroll bars alternating with
awales* In ttya point bar ctepoaita sandy faciea and audldy
faeiea have been identified (Fig* 2C)*
Sandy Faeieai- Sandy faeiea in point bar deposits
are exeluaively made up of the sand «fhich ia larger in aize
ae coi (>ared to sandy units preaent in the b«nk deposits.
The strueutng preaent in the sandy faeiea of point bar
depoaits are also larger in size than preaent in the bank
deposits*
The generalized sequence (Fig* 2C) reconstructed (m
the baais of various trenches dug in the point bars show
that the b«ial 4 m thick aequence of the sand is aarked by
the cross bedding* The trough cross bedding of large scale
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is th6 co{amon@8t typ« primary s«diiaentary struetura
occurring in eosets and occupies ilia baaal part of the
^int bmr <^po«its. Th@ othar atructteraa praaont ara
planer cross badding* horizontal badding and rippla drift
cross laminations* Tha planar cross bedding generally
overlies the trough cross bex^ed units and at varioua
localities sfid chase two types of cross bedded units ate
separated by an intercaXated bed of horizontal bedding«
Ihe size of the sandy unita corriprising the cro&s bedding
of either types is greater in the basal portion s» coiapared
to the units presents in the upper part of the point bars*
Hie lower 4 m of the sand is isainly represented by the
structures such as trough croaa beddingy planar cross
bedding and horizontal bedding* However* the upper 1 m of
the fine sand is represented by ripple drift cross laiaina-
tions or by oassive units showing general fining upward
sequence* Ihe topmost part of the facias is occupied by fine
silt and clays repreaenting the mud facies of a point bar
depoaita (Fig* 2 C)*
Interpretations
Sandy facies of point bar was deposited vii9n the
channel migrates laterally* Moat of the aand which is prea«it
in the form of cross bedded unite was deposited due to
rdgraticm of sand on the gentler slope of the longitudinal
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and transverse bar8» or by infilling of the trough shaped
seourst or by migrating bedforos during the {>eriod of
rapid sedioumtation*
Muddy Faeiets* The overXying 3 to 4 m thick
sequence eosfurised of silt and clay is represented by muddy
facies of point bar deposits* Ihe sediments of muddy facies
are Iwninated and the most cociton sediaentary structures
present are ripple drift cross laminations either in phase
or out of phase and small scale cross bedding of both
trough and planer types* Ihis fMsies generally present as
the thin venear on the top of a point bar a nd lasrk the top
of a genetically related sequence* Thn individual beds in
this facias are IQ to 20 cm thick, ^in the lower part of
the iBu dy facies the small scale trough and planar cross
bedding is observed as overlying on the ripple drift cross
laminationsr occurring in the single sets* The top of tt»
facies is marked by laassive beds which do not show any
sedinentary structure* The total thickness of the mud facies
Show large variaticm and the thickness rnriges between 2 to
3 m (Fig* 2 C)*
Interpretatient
niis facies represent the upper part of the point bar
deposits and show a general fining upward cycle of sedioken-
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1.1
tation* Th9 structur* present in thoa diigg««t that most
of th« d«po8iticm took placo by a moving eurront of low
volocity and 8i«p«naion«
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o —-»•, t .J
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- T ~
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PLATE-I
Fig !
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EXPLANATION Cff THE PLATE
Fig. - I Showing rippl© drift cross lasinations in which the ripple laminae are in phase
rig* - 2 Figure showing the in drift nature of the laminae
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C H A P T E R - III
SEDIMHNTARY STHUCTUHES AMD FLOsV PATTEIihS
STRUCTIME MORPHOryPE
I1i« river Yarauna* in the area under study displays
a meandering pattern in the plane view (Fig* 1)« The
Rain feature of a laeandering r iver are point bars (deposi -
t ional feature) and scour pool (erosional f ea ture) . This
nature of siraultaneous deposition and erosion maintains the
cieanciering in the channel* Bie point bars build l a t e r a l l y
and downstream across the flood plan «^i le the scour pools
are formed due to erosion on t^e inner part of the loops*
The river Yiuaimna transport a huge quantity of sand» s i l t
and clays* Most of the sand i s deposited as a point bar
deposits while the f iner material i s deposited on bank
deposits* /^ong the most coniuon sedimentary structures
present are ripple d r i f t cross laminations» cross-bedding*
convolute bedding* wavy laminations and massive units
( f ig* 3 and 4)*
RIPPLE DRIFT CROSS LAMINATION
The structure produced by c l icking ripples had
generally been referred to as 'ripple dr i f t cross laminaticms"
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li H
tmiter (1963 and X969)» Jopling and vvalker (1968) ,' sup^r-
ituposed ripple laminae in rhyl im" Mckoe (1^5), or
cliiTDing ripple cross laciinations Allen (1971a and 1973a)•
Hippie drift cross l ioiinations are the internal
structures developed as a result of the forward aiigration
and simultaneous upv^axd gro«rth of the ripples* Their develqp-
cent requix^s a continuous supply of excess sedioMint to a
current or wave Eucher (1919)> Heniek (1961), Allen (1963)
and nalker (1963). .ckec (1965) also suggested two types
of the ripple drift cross laminations*
1* Hippie iMiinae in phase
2* Hippie laminae in drift*
in ripple drift laednae in ^^hase* ihm crests of the
successive clioybing ripples lie directly above the others*
Aitnough there may foe a slight shift of the crests that is
always in down current direeticn (ilate 1» Fig* 1)*
In the fieldt the ripple drift in phase are
frequently <^served and occupying the top positions in the
banks deposits as well as of the bar deposits* they do not
sho«v any shifting of the crests and lie directly abo^m one
another* The thickness of the individual units ranges
between 3 as to 6 cm* However» the eraplitudes of the individual
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rippl«s is 4 cm and wave langth up to 10 cm or raora
(Plate 1, Fig. 1}«
In the ripple lausd-nation in drift» the crest of the
successive ripples do not lie directly above the others
and exhibits a shifting of the crest in dotftnn current
direction (Plate 1» Fig* 2)* The lacdnae are not continuous«
This type of laminae is developed in an environment w.'hero
the less sediaent is available to a comparatively high
velocity current* G@nerally the stoss side of the ripple la
eroded and lee side is preserved*
on the basis of the preservation of the stoss side*
the ripple drift can be divided into two types*
Type - A • are those in which both sides lee* and stoss are
preserved*
Type » B t are those in which only lee side is preserved*
All the variations exist from cases where the stoss
side laminae are completely preserved through a partly
preserved stoss side into the forms wdth the stoss side
completely absent* In the field the ripple laminae in drift
of both types are observed* they occur mostly together in
point bar deposits and also in bank deposits occupying the
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i ^
upper portion. c^n«rallyt they are underlain by a muddy
layer* The thiclcness of the individual units ranges froia
2*5 cm to 6 cm and the forset laminae inclined at an angle
of 13^• The drift laminae of type-A generally pass©8 into
tlte lamination of type-i*
interpretations
Buchor (1919), Heniwk il9i»3b) and Kck«e (1965) have
observed that the ripple drift cross lasninationa are
developed where the excess suspended sediment is conti
nuously available to a current or weve«which is in turn
deposited above the earlier forraed rippled layer. Field
observations reveal that the ripple laminae in drift and in
phase both asQ developed simultwieously. A slight change in
the depth of flow» supply of sediment and in the velocity
of current results in th9 different arrangeraent of the crest
of the rippled layer. The continoous supply of the sediEients
helps in the fonaation of ripples in the sand which irdgrate
continuously without makirg any permanent structure« are
burried by suspended sand and preserved to give rise a
series of superiisposed ripples. They may developed in phase,
if the velocity of the water is less and depth is more or
in drift if the velocity of the prevailing current is
slightly higher and depth is less.
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Rippl.« la> ina« in phase aire deposited v/hen th«
rlppXo foxi ed in sand by wm® ara not eroded and both $toss
and lee sides are preserved as they were formed originally,
before starting of a ne^ cycl@t the suspended sand is
deposited taui eompletely covers the earlier foriaed rippled
layer without shifting the crest of the ripples. Coleman
(1969), tUenek and Singh (1962) describes that this
phen<»aena takes place in an environn^nt of the lower flow
regime vvhere the velocity of the prevailing current is
coE^aratively slow*
Jopling and talker (1968) expressed tlw origin of
the rippla drift cross latrdnation in t ria of the suspensions
bed load ratio* They concluded that if the nuch sediment in
suspension is available there will not be erosion of the
stoss side of earlier toxm96 rippled layer artd v<iixi completely
be preserved under a cover of sand* This overlying sand is
again rippled and shows a slight shift of crest in down
current direction to represent the ripple drift of type-A«
un the other handp the ripple drift cross lamination of
type^B are formed when the ratio of the stispended load/bed
load decreases* Unoer such conditions stcos sidas of ttiO
ripples are eroded away before they aro preserved*
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PLATE-2
Fig.— I
Fig— 2
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EXPLAMATION OF IliE PLATE
F i g . - I Planar c ross bidding bounded by ho r i zon ta l bedding bo low and i^ov^^
Fig» - 2 figux® shomlm tlio trough cross bodding occuring in cosets
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f^ .«.
CBOSS BEDDING
A QXOS9 b«d is defined as a single layer or a
sirtgle sedimentation unit ccmsisting of intezt^al laoninae
(forset laffiinae) inclined to the principal surface of
sediioentation otto (193&)* iXkee and weir (1953) defined
the cross bedoingi as **The arrangeraents of layers at one
or more angle tc the original dip of the fomation" and
the ccosL betiding unites as ona with layers of deposits at
an angls to Uie original dip of the formation*
!• Planer Cross Beddings- A cross bedded unit v hose
boundli^ surfaces are more cr less planar surfsees.
2* Irougtt Cross Beddings- A cross bedded unit whose
bounding surfaces are trou^ shaped*
un the basis of theix thickness they are further
divided into two typest
1* ctoall Scale Cross Beddings- In which the thickn^s
of individual units is less than 5 cm.
2. Large Scale Cross Beddings- The thickness of the
individual units is greater tiian 5 cia* Ihey laay either be
trough or planar* Both types of cross bedding f very much
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common in Yamuna sodiswnts.
PLAJtim CBCtSS BEDDING
Planar cross bodding is very ouch ccmoiKm in Yamuna
8ediA»nts and occurring both in cosats a« well as in
inciividual bads. Thay ara ciostiy overlain by ripple drift
cross laminaticms convolute bedding or by massive units
(Fi9«3 and 4), The thickness of individual unit set
ranges be^een 3 cm to 30 era* But generally they axe 2& cm
thick* The thickness of individual Iseiinae in small scale
cross bedding is 2 m^ to 3 isca with an inclination of 18^ to
the basal surface while in large scale planar cross bedding
the thickness wid inclination oi laiainae is greater. The
individual units are 3 to 5 cm thick and lamin^Mi inclined
at an angle of 30^ (Plate 2, Fig. 1).
Interpretations
Planar cross bedding are formed in different ways,
Allen (1963) concluded that the planar cross bedding is
deposited by the migration of straight crested parallel
symmetrical xippios ofid the thickness of the individual set
is controlled by the araplitude <^ the ripples concerned*
Exceptionally thick coluon of the planar cross bedding tjem
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u ••)
deposited as a result of acretion on oblique ot longitudinal
baxs* However* Harms (1975) described theia tc be foriaed by
the ndgration of sand waves under unidirectional flow.
The planar cross bedding of large size in the present
area seeam to have been <^poeited due to the migration of
sand on the gentler slope of the longitudinal and txansverse
bars* The sand taigrates continuously in the fona of climbinsi
exceeds the gentler slope and sand starts slipping d<Mn on
the steeper slope or on the (Wala»ehe face of the bar
concerned. lh» aaigrating sand is deposited in down current
direction parallel to the slope avalanche face and latter
is preserved as large scale cross bedding* /hile the sniall
scale planar cross beddinq is produced due to n^ration of
straight crested sraall riindies or in other v«>rds v e can say
that the size of ripple controls the size of cross bedding.
Reniek mitk Singh (1980) concluded that small scale cross
bedding is formed by the niigration of current ripples*
THftOUQK CfiOSS BEDDINQ
Trough cross bedding is frequently encountered in
sediments of Ymiuna river in bank deposits as well as in
bar deposits either in coset or in single set* In a section
transverse to the direction of flot t observations reveal
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that the sets are arranged in a nested pattern in which
each set ie bounded below by a concave upward* eroeional
surface to i~/rdch t\w laioinae are approximately parallel*
n the ott^r hand» the boundaries of the set® are parallel
to the flo\.' direction* if they are observed in a section
parallel to the flov./ direction* Bie infillod trough may be
eyoTuetrieal or aeeymetrical and the thickness of the
individual yets are variable in their size and geon^etry.
Trough crusa bedding occurs frequently in the area
und@r study gonerally overlain by ripple drift cross
laainationt horizontal lamination and mud layers (i ige* 3
and 4 ) . Imjividual units are 2 mm to 40 mt. titick as the
large scalo trough bedding is concerned while the small
scale cross boading is 1«5 cm to 5 era thick* In large scale
trough cross bedding the inclination of the lamination sets
is of uniform thickness ami is gentler in the upper part and
steeper in tite lower portion of a single unit* They all dip
in d<mnstreaBi direction and the inclination of the laminae
it 5^ to 25^ and the forset laminae are f ew EK. to 2 cm thidc •
On the other hand in the snail scale trough cross bedding
the laminae dip in down current direction with an inclination
of 3^to 15^ «id the individual forset laminae are few to
0*f> eia thick (Plate 2, Fig* 2>*
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('•:
Xnt«rpr«tationi
!ti@r« is a gen&ral agreanient araong sediie^ntolegists
that tha large seal® trough cross boduing are deposited by
infilling of scours* Those result when piles of brush or
stumps becoroe stranded in shaXlc ' streams and subsequently
filled by sandi) Allen (1963, 1965c) • Harms and Fahnstock
(1964) and Land and Hyat (1966) concluded that the large
scale trough cross bedding axe forised by the infilling of
large trough shaped scours by nsigrating dunes* Jopling
(1963* 1965) was of the opinion that the large scale trough
beddif^ i© fon^d by infilling of scour pockets with lee
face of advancing dunes* Jopling (1963) and Harms, @t al
(1963) accounted tor t^e aechanism of the infilling*
According to th ra the infilling of the scour pocket and the
develoi:^ent of trough cross bedding is favoured by a
relatively high velocity and a high dspth ratio (shallow
basin)* However* Sundborge (1963) related ;hese structures
to the tranquil Horn rather than high velocity flow* Allen
(1963) believed that the small scale trough bedding were
developed by forward migration of the lingoid or lunate
asymmetrical ripples* Field observations revealed til\at the
large scale trough cross bedding in Yamuna sediments \*wre
SiOstly developed as a result of scour filling* These scour
are generally developed in mott of the river bed due to the
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PLATE-r3
Fig. _ I
Fig. -2
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EXPLANATIOM ( IHE PLATE
Fig* • 1 Gonvolut« bedding •> both troughs and crcistG axe rounded
Fif|» - 2 Convolute bedding - crests are pointed and troughs are roumled
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erosion by a high velocity current* The small scale
trough cross bedding is produced by the migration of the
small current ripples and their shape and sise are contro
lled by the type of ripple producing them. The sfaall
trough cross bedding is produced by small lingcid ripples*
They may also be developed by the laigration of ripples in
which one ripple clings onto the back of ^ e next ripple
downstream*
catNoWTE aBmim
B)e convolute bedding are the internal structure in
which the laminae seein to hove been folded usually with
broad syncline and narrow anticlines* In Yamuna sediments
two types of the convolute be>uding were observed in v^ich
the either both trough and anticline are broad or with a
corfibination of sharp and broad anticlines (Plate 3» Figs* 1
and 2)* In a tiuree dimensional view convolute laminations
generally appear a s a more or less regular pattern of synirae-
trical or inclined isolated cones separated by depressions*
The laminae in convolute bedding may be intensively folded
but they always are ccmtinuous*
Originally the term convolute bedding was proposed
by Kuenen (1932) to describe the ** laminae showing destruction
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f-4 !••
that gradually incraasec up«»ard to intensiva but rathar
regular fold and then dies out gradually*** In geologic
literature the convolute bedditm is known by different
names. Fearnsides (191u) described as curled bedding»
ivdglorini (195a) m crinkled bedding, Richi (1950) as
intrastratal contortion, Ksiazhiewoz (1951) as slip
bedding. Teen Haff (1956) as ccmvolute lamination* K.unen
(i953a)t Potter and Petti John (1%3) defined the convolute
bedding » internal struc^ire showing marked crumpling ox
complicated folding of laaiinae of rather well defined
sedimentation unit*
The convolute beddir^ in the field is generally
observed in fine sediments occupying the top portion in the
bank deposits* These generally underlain or overlain by a
massive and undisturbed layers (Fig* 3)^ however, soaetiiaes
show an erosional upper contact (Fig* 4)* On the basis of
the nature of their axial planes they can be divided into t»
two types •— Type A and Type 0*
Type - A I- The convolute landnations in which
the anticlines and troughs, both are rounded snd axial
plane is vertical (Plate 3, Mg* 1)« The anticlines are not
so broad and rounded as the trough* The thickness of the
individual unit of the convolute bedding ranges from 10 cm
to 30 cm* The individual laminae show large variation in
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f^''}
and alternato v ith dark and JLightar colourad laminae*
Typa - B •* In typa~B« the axial plana la
inclined dipping in dovm current direction (Plate 3> Fig«2).
The laminae have been folded intenalvely and show no Blgn of
faultily)* The troughs are broad and rounded and the
anticlinea Are sharp and pointed. The individual units of
convolute bedding ranges frooi 10 cm to 30 cm in thickness
and generally overlain by a mudd layer or by ripple drift
cross laminations (Fig* 3)*
Elnsele (1963), Wunderllch (1979) and DeBoer (1979)
described the convolu e bedding from the present day @
environsient of tidal zone deposits* Oeober (1979) also
described them from intertidal shoals* In fluvial environ
ment they are c oijnonly found in flood plain deposits and
even in upper point bar deposits Mckee (1966) and Coleman
(1969). Coleman and Oagliano (1965) reported them from the
natural levees of distributary channel of the mlsslsippl
delta*
interpretation!
The convolute bedding is a complex and polygenetic
structure* Howaver» irrespective of dlffounces in interpre
tation and diversity exhibited by the structure Itselft It
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appears that l^a struMStur* ariaea in raeponaa to a vaxtieal
pattarn of {urtssura acting upon easily daformad plaatie and
laminated sediiMHit. SeteraX explanation have been proposed
for the gienesis of eonvolute bedding* Kuen@n (i953a)
believed that convolute bedding developed from the defonaa-
tion of the ripple marica* iiiilli«B (I960) auggested that
convolute beddlt^ is produced by differential liquefaction
of a sedimentation unit* Lateral intrastratal flow ci these
liquefied units produces contortion* Mckee et al (1962) and
i4ekee siid Gold Serg (1969) developed eonvolute bedding in
laboratory by placing differential load fxcm above and
concluded that vertical forces reaulting from overloading
are important in the generation of convolute bedding* Sander
(1965) .ias of the opinion that Uie convolute bedding is
produced by the action of great shearing on an cohesive
sedlioent layer* v unci rlich (1967a) believed that the
convolute bedding resulted frocsi the liquefaction of the
eediiaents* The liquefaction is achieved by overloading» by
aeisciic tyaves or by other shocks cauaing a disturbance in
the sediaent packing* Lava (1974) and Allen (1977) suggested
that within a layer with an initial stable denaity gradient
the process of liquifaction and reaedicientatifm into a
lighter packing might result in a short lived denaity
instability which could be relevant to the formation of
convolute lamination* Lave (1975) regarded the convolute
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PL A T E - 4
Fig I
F,g._ 2
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EXPLANATION OF TliE PLATE
Fig# - i Horizonta l bedding
Fig* - 2 Massive u n i t ov@rlyir^ convolute bedding
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f", '
boddlng as th« »vat«r Escape structura producsd during
dtwatorlng and consolidation* Reneik and Singh (196Q)
descxibad that under the action of localised differential
forces a hydrostatic sediotnt layer is throvnn into
convolution prociucing convolute t>edding» Hoivever» Collinson
and Th<»kpson (1982) regarded that the convolution involves
the plastic deformation of partially liquefied sedisHint
soon after deposition. The literature available reveals
that the convolute bedding may be developed in several ways*
But in the laresent area it looks that it has been developed
by escape of water after the exposition of the sediismts*
or by differential loading*
HmiZmVAL BEDDINQ
Horizontal bedding is made up of parallel and aliaost
horizontal sand layers* Each layer may range from few imx to
1 CIS* Hanas anc Fahnatock (1965) described that horizontal
bedding consists of the tabular sets of laminae in sand
s i z ^ siaterial within which the laminae are horizcntal or
nearly so* The sand is well scorted and laminae are excep
tionally thin (appr* 1 mm)*
In the field t horizontal bedding is observed mainly
in bank deposits and also as pockets in the point bar
deposits* The horizontal nature of the bedding has been
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ti t.
developed due to deposition on an earlier hoxisontal
surface* The horizontal bedding is overlain by large acaXe
plan ir cross bedding and underlain by finer material* Most
of the units cos^^rised the sandvith .ica flakes and some
organic tiiaterial at the base* The units are 30 era to 1 m*
thick although some exceptionally thick units are also
observed ranging in thickness up to 3 and 1/2 loeter*
noBiBtimeB the laminae show v^uriation in colouTf alternating
light and dark bands and are 1 era to 4 cm thick (Plate 4,
Fig. 1).
Interpretations
^imon and iiiehardson (1962) concluded that the
horizontal bedding i as developed in the upper or shooting
flow regime specially in that part of the upper flow regime
with plane bedfoj^os* Allen (1964) vvas of the opinion that
the horizontal bedding are t e product of high flow regime*
However* Jopling (1964b) proposed that the down current
UiOvement of dunes under essentially steady flow conditions
lead to the formation of t e horizontal bedding*
The mode of the deposition of the horizontal bedding
is not well understood* Kumar and Singh (1978) described
that horizontal bedding inay develope in two ways and can be
divided at follovt«t
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f}
!• Horizontal Bedding of High mexgy (upper flow regime)t-
This type of horizontal bedding occurs in seferal deciraeter
thick iaiaination is very fine but rather indistinct. They
are associated «vith parting lineation and represent a p-
product of deposition under high velocity currents*
2* Horizontal Bedding of Low Energyt- This type of
horizontal bedding is produced as a result of deposition
ttom suspension cloud® diue to reduction in the turbulance
of flew* In such cases lamin«i;ion is fine to thick and very
distinct* Differentiation between adjacent laminae is well
siaxked*
^AVY UUaNAriOfd
Mck^e anc keir (1953) «iS0d the term lamination for
those bedding or layers whoso thickner s ranges from 1 lm
to 1 era* Pettijohn (197S) f-ar the structures produced by
rippling* Heinak and Singh (198U) used the terra wavy
bedding for the catitinuous alternating mud and sand layers*
The individual seta of la inae are developed in very fine
material such as silt and clay*
Wavy laesination in the field are observed in point
bar deposits as well as in the bank deposits and occupy the
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.•i J
upper portions of the sequenco (Fig«« 3 and 4) . The
individual units are 5 cm to 20 eta thick with &n aispXitud«
of 3 or 4 cia. Th« individual X«bin«e ar« alternating with
darker and lighter colours having a thickness of 0.5 ma to
2 VSBlm
Interpretation:
The literature available reveals that the wavy
laciination i s developed v4ien the deposition of the fine
material take place in a calm and quiet environioent* s the
flood receeds iiie velocity of the tran8|>orting aediura
beccraes nearly etraight and i t l>eccNRU(8 unable to transport
further and deiNMiited and becccae sett led* the pest^-depesi*
tional condition disturb the previously deposited lacdnation
and thus wavy lamination i s produced*
The term massive bedding i s 9<»3stises used to
describe taote or Je u& homogenous looking sedioents and
apparently do not show any v is ib le structure* How#yerf they
may show internal lamination i f they are exposed to x-rays»
Hamblin (1965}« The massive bedding can be developed in fins
sand as well as in coarse grained sedimmmts* The massive
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FigS —DfstriDution Of CrossSedding Dip Azmcth Around Br r idabon-
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uni ts ax« coBQ^iised of s i l t , fin* sand M%6 SOB« post-
<i«}>oaitional products l ike clay ba l l s and kankairs* Itie
thickness of th9 individual beds irango batv^aan lo to
30 em and shc^s l a t e r a l variat ion in t he i r thickness for a
consiaaxa£>l€! distance* Ihey occupies the top portion of the
sequence and occur as the separating layer (Plate A,
Fig , 2 , 3 , 4)*
Gonad of the oassive beds are also produced by thm
strong Oioturbation act iv i ty* Ani&als also play an
important rola In the developiacmt of massive bedding by
destroying the prioiaxy layering of sedlcmnt and thoroughly
Lix t em up to produce aiassive units* j*erner (1963) found
tha t loany {Aicro~organisi& living in the pore spacer of
sediaients can destroy the primary bedding Mid produce
hoiaogeneous looking sand* Massive bedding may also be produced
when water i s dxainad out during ec^^action or v^&n genera*-
t ion of gas bubbles moving upvvaxd causes destruction of
bidding Forstner ot a l (1965). Eenlek and Singh (19@0)
described the massive bedding as the oiixtuie of unsorted
sedisMWit without any well defined s tructure*
¥Lm PATTERN
Xh< direction of current flow existing in an area
can be deterndned with the help of systematic measurMoent of
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cross beciaing ancl oth^r current generated sedimentary
etruetures* Further* a detailed study of these oieaeureiiiefite
makes possible to determine tbe conditions prevailed during
the deposition of the fSomation and the existing flow
patterns*
Hie present area under study was divided in to s ix
sectors (A9 B» C* Dt £ and F) ^kd each sector was divided in to
several loca l i t i e s to determine the local flow pat terns*
AS a whole the three hundreds measuriMBent of the cross
bedding aziuiuth were taken and the data was plotted in t^e
form of c i rcular histogram (Fig* 5)«
The vector mean (QV) arid vector iiagnitude CU<) for
each sector a nd each loca l i ty v^re calculated separately by
follov^ing vector suisnition method (Curray* 1956). The
r e su l t s are presented in Table •
Vector Mean (QV) t - the table-1 shmvs that the
QV values detenuined for tlie sectors as vwll as for the
l o c a l i t i e s are not saiae* The QV values for the a l l aectors
ranges between 13S* to 225® (Table - 1)*
Vector Strength (L^:) t - Vector strength i s a lso knomi
as tite consistancy r a t i o . The vector strength was calculated
a t the local i ty level as well as at the sector l e v e l . The
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M vaJluis deterialnecl for aXl sector ranges b«twd«n
67«71;w to 87«3^:« Hoimv9i^, at local i ty level i t ra^ee
between 83.66;. to 99*9%> (Table - 1)«
Variance (S^) i - The variance of the foreset dip
aiimuth varies at the sector level as well as at the
local i ty levels* The S^ values deterrained for the a l l sectors
ranges between 762.22 to 2431*19 (Table - 1) .
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Table v 2 7 Si£Q f requency D i s t r i b u t i o n ( P e r e e n t ; of Vaimina Sands*
u u a n U t v Dianieter i n PHI (# ) S c a l e A J - I Q I U ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ' III r I T -- - • - • • - • - - - r - - - • II Til I I I I I
^„"T*" t a k a n lUuh f^^sh Moch i esh lk&&h ^iesh m&h iA&Bh num©©! i n gfcis. . 5 to 1 ,0- 1 , 5 - 2 , >- 2 . 5 - 3 . 0 - 3 . 5 - > 4.0
I .O 1.5 2.W 2 . 5 3.U 3 . 5 4 . 0
1 l o o O.UU 0 . 0 0 O.IB 4 . 9 8 62 .92 14 .77 11 .50 5 . 5 1
2 IOC 1.99 5 .88 1.99 1.857 3 .163 3 .954 lQ.905 70 .224
3 100 0 .036 0.S76 2 .536 43 .492 33.439 15 .83 3.674 2 0 . 4 7 1
4 10. O.C/4 0 .041 0 .271 2 .599 48.4153 19 .248 17.17 12 .148
5 IOC 0.052 0 .195 0 .822 1.296 8.555 22 .913 46 .744 1 9 . 3 9 1
6 lOCi 0 .008 0.072 0 .34 0 .838 4 . 2 4 4 .692 10.904 7S .S85
7 100 Q.004 0 .038 0 .57 1.238 10.335 26 .687 40 .677 2 0 . 4 5 1
8 100 0 . 0 0 0 .024 0 .026 0 . 0 5 2 .336 3.764 9.866 B3.432
9 100 U.0II5 0.08*» 0 .374 0 . 5 4 3 6 .452 24 .739 40 .545 27 .202
10 l o o 0 .004 0 .004 a .043 0 . 9 8 1 17.839 19 .348 30 .546 3 1 . 2 4 1
11 100 O. lOl 0 .582 4 . 7 1 5 13 .042 5 7 . 9 5 15 .043 6 .448 2 . 0 9 1
12 100 Q.OC' 0 .002 0 . 0 0 3 0 . 7 6 0 .412 1.216 4 . 8 1 9 3 . 4 9
13 100 0 .05 0 .203 3 .137 11.166 52 .097 16 .32 8.87 8 . 1 5 1
14 100 0 . 1 1 1 0 .133 0 .25 2 .624 38.714 12 .443 10.399 3 5 . 3 2 1
15 100 0 . 0 7 0 .226 1.136 1.662 8 .369 21 .219 3 9 . 8 2 6 . 9 8 3
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C H A P T E R - IV
GRAIN SIZE ANALYSIS
£»ize distribution of sodisiontry particles has
be&n described in several ways and many sediioentologist
have mads useful contributions to decipher t)vs environ
ment of the sediiiientry colous.ns* Task (1932) established
a system of iseasureis^nts based on the millimeter scale*
Kruasbein (1934) established the system of phi notation in
which 0 equals the Ic^ of the ratio of grain diameter
(car..) to standard diameter (nsi). itere» following Folk
and iiiard (1957) the s ta t i s t i ca l parameters of yat>una
sediments were calculated and the results are shc^n in
Table 2 ami 3« The grain siM analysis of modern sediioents
i s of great importance as i t provides informations
regarding the affects of ths known processes prevailed
during their deposition*
The Table 3 indicates that the six samples out of
f ifteen contain maxirauoa sand in 2*5 to 3p class and their
weight percentage ranges between 38*71 to 62.92. The other
four samples contain maximisa sedimMut in 3*5 to 40 c lass
and carry 39*8 to 46*77 percent of the sediment by weightt
Howevert maximum sediment i s present in > 40 class with
31*24 to 93*49! . of the total by weight* The data was plotted
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CM ( ^
CM
M I I I I I I K ~) in '- in c^ in n .n O in o4 in ro in
D I A M E T E R IN P H I ( < / ^ ) 5 C A L E
Fig.6A Hrstogrames Showing Mechenical Composition
Of Yamuna Sands.
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D I A M E T E R IN P H I ( ( ^ ) S C A L E
Fig.6 B — H'istogrames ShowingMechanicdl Composition Of Ydmuna Sdnds.
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CD LD in CN ip ro in A
IN PHI i^) S C A L E
Fig,6 C Histogrames Shov/ing Mechanical Composition
Of Yamuna Sands.
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fi- C<J rt ' ^
D I A M E T E R IN PH\ ( ( ^ ) S C A L E
Fig.6 D— Histogrames Showing MechanicalCompos'ition
Of Yamuna Sands.
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z o
a
o
Lu >
3
5 «) 1 - 5 ^ Jo 2 ^ S5 3% 5tr
PARTICLE SIZE IN PHI( ^ )UNIT
Pig.7—Cumulative Curve* Showing Mechanical Composrtior Of Yamuna Sands.
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r\ )
in the form of Histogrames and cumulative curves
(Fig&« 6 A^D and 7) represent the average mechanical
composition of the sac^lae* tAoBt of the histogrames show
a unisiOdel seciiment distribution except two samples
repretenting a blraodel distribution (Fig* 6 ABCD)* The
graphic csean values calculated tor all samples range
between 2.8 to 4«1&* uf the fifteen samples» ten sar ples
are ii^derately sorted, three samples are very well sorted
and the remaining two samples are well sorted* The
frequency distribution in five samples is very negatively
skev^ed, four sacaple® axe very positively skewed, three are
nearly ey®:.etrical, ti»Q are positively skived, while only
one is negativ&ly skewed* The graphic kurtosis values show
large variation* Of fifteen sasiples analyzed, five san^lee
are very leptokurtic, four are very platykurtic, two samples
are i esokurticy two saiaples are leptokurtic while one
sasaple is extremely leptokurtic and platykurtic respectively*
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^ E ^^^ i ^ ^ k ^^^ ^^^ r"^ r^^ r™' ^r f"~ f ^
W iv 4J M I - C ^ W - 4 0 ^ t f i t i ^ ( j d t O
ro K> to I M I I I c.) ro »- i i I lo
I - I H * ! * . ! I W H - t O M N J l I I -
U W t O P O I - O i U f o r o t O t o H * » - 4 ^ U >
CO C*> 05 <l I - t t lo ^ - c
M O > N > 4 ^ . ^ ' r O M r O U t - ' » - < C a U I - « ' > 4
i <o i t I c^ I Ci I I I I I i
I 0> -^ i <: I CO Cx' M H» I K> I K* to
t i ~ > i ^ u i r o H > i I . ^ o j i - « M w o T
w M ^ - • ^ - « » ( A ^ < A > ^ - • l » ^ i I » - ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ > { A J
H* N3 fO fo fr- * - I I i I I I I I K>
t O » . . | » - ' H > | | | | t | i l t l
i i r o H > i c ^ ' H ' r o i t I I I I I
r o t - t i i i i i i i i i i u ) i
K > K > M l r o I M h - M i A J M M t O ^ k K )
( ^ C N I M O J 4 ^ U i t ; i O < > 4 ) k K 3 ( O C > > & J U >
^ - ^ 3 * ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ « • l i i i M M M r o
Plagioclase
Microcline
Kyaalte
Garnet
Tourmaline
Hpidot
Zircon
t i io t i te
Hypersthane
S i l l imin i te
Hutile
<»4Uscovitd
Zo i s i t e
Mornblende
Opaque ivilnerale
Rock Fr&gi&ents
1 o~ © »-o o ^ •0 § •* <• 1* o 9 •• •o o H O 0 9 r C
•<
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*H CH tr 1 -ID
1 Ji.
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O H>
K
1 9 0
0 e» I C9 •
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C H A P T E R - V
i aNEHAL CaViPOSITlQN
tlft@en sasipies vtere analysed to detexmlne th«
mln«raloglcal cotaposltion .f tho Yafiiuna sand* The
raaul ta are sr>o«m in rable«^. The min«ral8 pr«a@Rt ara
feXspartpiagioeiaaat a ic roc l ine , kyanlto* 8il l i ininite»
rutiXe> hyparsthanat apldot* sircorit touriBalina» garnat*
i u8covlte» 2oi8ite» a t e . Apart fxKm thata silnaral soma
opaqua fainarals and rock; fragoanta ara also praaant*
QU/itilZ ~ fho riiinaral occuxs as aubrounded to subangulax in
outline» Hovvever, some roundad gralna are also present ,
fhe surfaces of the gralna are e i ther smooth or fractured*
The colour of the grains i s l igh t grey* or pink* The
colourless ^ a i n a are also eoGBiaon* Under crossed nlcols
they represent b r i l l i a n t interference colours. They
generally show wavy extinction but the grains showing
s t r a igh t extinction are also found* The inclusions of
ru t i l e» zircon* apat i te* and opaque ininerala are present*
irELSPAtiS " IWo types of felspars have been ident i f ied
l .Plagloclaae S-> The otineral occurs as prismatic or
subrounded grains with charac ter i s t ic lamellar thinning*
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PLATE 5
7
* -
8
I 10 II 12^ 13
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EXFLANATlOri Oi HIE PLATE
Fig» - I quartz - subrounded to round©d grain*
Fig» •« 2 Kyenlte - subroundc-d ©Icngated ant rectangular in outl ine ^hcmitig ci®avag©8.
Fig. - 3 Oarnet « subangular to subrounded and hae high relief*
Fig* - 4 Tounoalir^ - <^rismatic c rys ta l
Fig . - & Zircon - ©uhedral form long cyl indr ical
Fig» « 6 Muscovite - PrisKiatic grains with subrounded outl ines•
iig» - 7 Biot i te - long prismatic c rys ta l v^'ith broken end^«
f i g . • 8 Hypersthene - Long prisiaatic crys ta l
Fig» - 9 Si l l imini te - Long cyl indr ica l with curved outlines.»
Fig* - 10 Hutile - Prisiaatic form and shcming dark boundaries•
Fig* - 11 Zoisite * subrounded to rounded grain
Fig* - 12 Hornblende - Elongated platy or lath shaped
Fig* « 13 piagioclaee - Prisinatic subrounded grains*
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'ill
The colour is gr«y or a variety of grey colour (Plate 5,
Fig, 13),
2» Mcrocllne S- Mlcrocline occurs In the fona of
prismatic and rounded broken grains. Ihey are colourless
or jrey coloured and representing cross Hatch twinning*
Ki^^JtiE- Kyanite occurs as cylinderical prismatic grains
with rectaiHJular outlines* Majority of ijie grains is
colourless but s(»se grains have a light pink or blue
colour* Ihe coloured varieties are weakly pleochoric and
showir^ inclined extinction* The grains show two perfect
sets of cleavage* Relief of mineral in high (Plate 5» l'ig*2)*
QAriiCT - Garnet is the cosiaonest aineral in Ywmina sand*
Beside the coloured varieties the colourless grains are
also represent* l.o8t of the grains are brown to pink coloured.
Ihe grains are subangular to subrounded in outlines* The
mineral is isotropic (Plate 5, Fig* 3)*
TQUiivtALlNE - Tourmaline occurs as prismatic euhedral to
subrounded grains with inclusions* The colour of the grains
is pale green* pink and show strong pleochorisin from pale
green» pale bro«m to dark green or dark brown* Ihe relisf
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'4-i
is mod«rat« and extinction is parail«tl (Plate 5» Fig. 4 ) ,
EPIDOT - Th« caineraX occurs as prissiatie grainf the grains
are angular to rounded. The colour of the grains is pale
green. HovrnveXf some of the grains are colourless. The
coloured grains show pleochorism frc i pale green to
pistachio green* The relief is moderate to high*
ZIHCUH " The grains are 8ui>rounded ixt rounded* euhedral
to subiiedral colourless and of light pink coloured. The
relief is high and extinction is parallel. Sosie of the
grains bear inclusions (Plate 5» Fig. 5 ) .
MUSCOVITE - The grains are long cylindrical, rounded or
flaky. The mineral is colourless and transparent (Plate 5,
Fig* 6)«
BIOTITE * The shape of the grains is prismatic or sub-
rounded with irregular outlines* The colour is pale brown
or greenish grey* The basal section show weak pleochorism
in shades of brown. The flakes of uiotite bear inclusion of
other minerals (Plate &» Fig* 7)*
(lYPEHSTiiENE •> Ihe raineral occur as the prismatic grain
displaying Pleoehorisai* The grains are greenish yellowish
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'A
OX girednish brovm* Cleavage is perfect anci extinction
is straight (Plate 5» Fig* 8 ) .
SILLIlvtl^aT£ - Xhe grains are Icmg cylincirical or prismatic
with curveci outlines* They are light yellow or colourless
and show nK>derate to higti xx'lief• The extinction is straight
(Plate 5, fig* 9)*
AUTILE » Hutile occurs as the brisk red or yellow in
colour with dark boundaries. Ti\9 grains are subangular to
subrounded in outlines* The relief is high and show a
parallel extinction* The Pleochorism is vtwak (Plate 5» Fig*ie).
ZOISITE " The grains are prismatic und show two sets of
cleavage* The coloyr is reddish to brownish green> under
crossed nicols it shows deep blim interfer<mce colour
(Plate 5, Fig* 11).
HuHNBLENDE -> The mineral occur as elongated platy or lath
shaped. The colour is dark green* brown groen and black*
Die grains show perfect cleavage* It displays oblique
extinction and pleochorism (Plate b, Fig* 12}*
OPAC^UE MINERALS « The minerals which remain dark even in
plane polarised light are said to be opaque* Following
opaque varieties were observed!
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! • XU4EN2IE -> Ihe salnexal i s opaquo in plain pclarisad
l igh t and occurs JB roundftd brokan fragmants* Under
atrong ral lacted l igh t the rainaral ahcma a dark purple
colour and subtoataliic lusture*
2 , t»iAGMHTIT£ "> Tha grains ara octahedral t r iangular and
6MOW broken i r regular outlines* In reflected l ight* i t
shows a Dluish grey colour and a e t a l l i c lusture*
3* HEAivlAIITE - The grains »^B rounded to aubangular in
outline* In reflected l i g ^ t they show a cherry f^ to
reddish colour And submetallic lusture*
The rock fragments are c^ sandstone, >hales, quartzite»
schia t and gneiss* 1Rie grains are mostly angular and show
large variation in the i r sizes*
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V C H A P T E R - V I
FLUVIAL MODEL
Th« various typ® of f JLo r«9im«® and th«ir primary
sodifiiwntary 8tru6tiar«$ can bo used to dttfimi tha flov^
raod«i of a riv9f* Ali«n (1963) ffi«d« a diroet att9n.pt in
intorprtt lng a Davonlan firming upwarci cyeiotham in tarns
of f iow ra@iii»i tfhicii providaa usaful knov9l«»€iga to under-
stamS the f luv ia l oM dal* Hare art attempt has bean
made f o r eona true t ing a f luv ia l model of a meandering
r iver which may be useful in sc lving the probleB» of the
SMoe environnenta• To develope a generalized f l u v i a l
s^odel a to ta l of twelve se lected treivshes vmr^t examined
both from bank deposits and point bar deposits (Figs 8« 9)«
Th9 trenches dug in the bank deposits are characterised by
a finnintj upi ard sequence ^ ith large sca le trough cross
bedding at the base and ripple drift cress laiainationt
convolute bedding or massive unit at the top* The represen*
tative trenches of bar deposits are eiiaracteristically
doniinated by sand with occasional fine sediisents at the top
of bar deposit* The structures observed in them a re cross
bedding cmapriaing sand overlain by fine a i l t and clay
ahowing ripple dri f t cross laminations*
on the basie of lithology and seiiaentary structures
observed, two depositional laedelat Model-A for bank depositB
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I ,
and Mod«l-4) for point bar deposits have baon davelopad
in tha study araa (Figs 10 and U)«
/4C)DEL -> A
Tha 9anarai saquanca dv^mlopeti from the study of
various tranehas dug in bank daposlts consist of nlna
units ocfforing In colour, lithoiogy awi sedieientary
structuraa* The lowar part of this modal is raprasanted
by a thick COIOUKJ) of larga seala trough cross badding
followed by larga scale planar cross baduing both eon^jrising
comparatively coarse fiand. .Abcva this ic a thick saquenca
of horixontal baddlng ccMsiprisad of sand than small scsia
cross badding followad by a bed of rippla drift cross
laminations over this lias convolute bedding ami finally
amssiva units co!s$»rising imjd* Although, inassiva units are
encountered evan in lower part of sooa of the depoaits but
not frequently* occasional occurence of wavy lamination is
also encountered in the upper parts of the bank deposits*
The organic matter and rootlets intercalations are observed
generally in them* The grain size analysis of tha sediments
indicate that the sequence startsw ith coarse grained
sedlBients and ends with laasalve clays in most of the
trenches* in this way it can be astabliahed that a finning
upward in tha size of sedlauHits occurs throughout the course
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^6!
of rivor* fhe pxrestnc® of the different structures in the
sas^ sized material in<^lcate$exlsteiK;e of different flow
regimes during their deposition* The presence of large
scale cross bedding in coarse Sand is suggestive of
high velocity of current which reduced Its intensity
upward and resul s in giving the staall scale cross bedding*
un the other h«nd» ripple drift cro is lj»&inatlon in the
upper part con [>rlsed of fine material Indicate the further
fall In the velocity of the current* i hile mud layers at
the top representing nearly stagnant .iater condition
possibly after flood time* The convolute bedding is not a
result of the current activity and developed as a result of
post depositional processes*
This model represents a upv^ard decrease in the
grain &lze» scale and type of sadliaontary structures,
indicating a change in*e doposltlonal environment from
bottom to to.* It fvrth&T suggest that various cycles of
deposition representing finning upward @ev-}u«ncG were
responsible for the deposition of this thick sequence on
the bank of Yainuna in the study area*
ihe g«mieral sequence of the bar deposits consist of
large scale trough cross bedding at lower
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(IV
part foXXowed by large scal« pXaiiax cross b«iMliig again
trough cross bciilding of coi^>aratiyaXy smaller size and
of finer laateriaX follor/#d by a thin Xayer of fine
materiaX containii^ rippXe c&rift cross Xwnination in them*
Ho¥;ever» this layer is generally ercdded away or is repre
sented by eoassive units. An over ali decrease in the
size of sediments is also observed. At the tiau^t coarse
sand with utlca flakes or organic matter is found which
passes into fin© aands silt or structureless units or
overlain by a ciud layer at the top. The huge accumulation
of the coarse sand in the foria of large scale trouqh or
planer cross bedding indicate that their development has
been taken place as a ro&ult of a high velocity current and
a rapid acci^nulation. The overlying fine sand silt and
clay ere the result of tho periodic flooding and the
strideture such as ripple drift cross lamination ere
develo|>ed because of the fluctuations in flcw v velocity
during the deposition. Th© patches oi the trough cross
bedding are the result of local infilling of the scours
and the change in the floi- ragliae conditions produces even
horizontal configuratlen of the beds*
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C H A P T E R - VII
CUICLUSION
An itegrated study of seaiiDentary structures»
Xithologyt siechanical coi^posltion and the mineral ccKSposi-
tion has enables the writer to develope the fluvial models
for a alluvial meandering river systeia*
The study of the sedicaents in various trenches dug
in the bank deposits as well as in the point bar deposits
of Yasuna river shows a systematic change in grain size and
sediioentary structures from bottom to top*
Ihe sediiaents are on an average moderate to well
sorted and show general decrease in grain size from bottt^
to top* The grains are mostly angular to subrounded* The
K ineralogical study reveals that a nuiBber of rock forming
minerals are present and quartz being the dominating raises
fz(m 38 to ttlsf' by nui^ber* The other lainerals present are
kyanitop garnett tourmalinet biotitOt rauscovite* hypersthene»
hornblende» etc«» Bosm opaque minerals and rock fragments
are also present*
Flow pattern in the study area is based on the
QMiasurMwnts of cross bedding dip azi&MJths* The flow patterns
show a general direction from north to south* The distribution
of sediments is unimodal and bimodal* The frequency size
distribution shows that the sediments are very negatively
skewed to very positively skewed* The grai^ic kurtosis values
show large variations in the sediments, which are very
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platykuxtic to oxtreiaely leptokurtlc.
On th« basis of th« above studios, two separate
models hswe been cieveXoped» iWxiieX-A for bank deposits
and i4odeX-B for point bar deposits*
Model-A consist of nine units starting with large
scale trough cross bedding at the base overlain by large
scale planar cross bedding which in turn is overlain by
horizontal bedding* Above the horizontal bedding small
scale trough cross bedding are present which are overlain
by ripple drift cross laiainationt convolute bedding then
wavy laniinaticm and massive units at the top* The model
show a general decrease in the scale of the ^ tuctu jfte
and grain size from bottom to top.. Model-B has been
constructed for point bar deposits which also starts with
large scale trot^h cross bedding at the base sand massive
units or ripple drift cross laminations at the top»
although s^ie intercalated patclMis of horizontal bedding
are present* This model also shovvs a decrease in the scale
of sedimentary structures and in the grain size from bott(»B
to top*
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I N D E X T O T H E F I G U R E S
A - Hippie drift crod® laisination
a - Large scale planar cross bGdding
C - Sisall scale planar cross bedding
D - Large scale trough cross bedding
Sotall scalo trough cross bedding
F - Conovolute bedding
G • Horizontal bedding
H - t,vavy lamination
X - Massive unit
s c cs
»
-
-
For Lithology
Sand Clay Clay and silt
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a E I E a E N c E s
Alient Jiilill.. 1963
Assyaietrical ripple marks and th«
origin of the wat»x laid coset of
cross strata - Liverpool and
manchaet&r* Goelf JriV* 3, P« 187*-236*
Allen» JiiRiL,» 1964b
Studies in f l u v i a t i l e sedicrt^ntatlon.
Six cyelotheim from the lower old red
sandstone* ^ g l o Aelsh Basint
Sediflientology 3» P« 163-198.
Allen* J . a . L . , 1965a
Sediiaentation in the Lee of small
imder water sand v«avess an oxperlmantal
study, J . Geol., 73 , 95-116.
1965c A review of the origin and character
i s t i c s of rc;C€!nt a l luv ia l sedit .ents,
SeciiBtentsiogyr 5 , 39-195.
Allen, JmRmL*$ 1970
Physical processes of sedimentations,
Allen aivi iinwin* London, p« 248*
Allen, J*H*L*, 1971a
Instantaneous sediinent deposition
r a t e s deduced frosi climbing - r i pp l e
cross lamination., J* Geol. S o c ,
London, 127, p . 553-385.
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.1 :
1973a A clasaifieatlon of cliiobing rippl«
crose lamination» J« Gaol* Soc*»
London* 129» 337-541*
AllOHf J*E«L*» 1977
Tha poasibla s^chanica of convoluta
laolnaticm in gradad sand bads.t J*
Gaol* Soc« London» 134, 19-31•
Bucher» w*H.t 1919
on ripplaa and ralatad aadii^ntary
surfaca fonna and their paleogaogxaphic
intarpretatiorit A • Jour. Sei*. V* 47,
p. 149-210 and 241--269.
ColaiMny J«M*» 1969
Erahmputra rivar channel procassas and
aadimantationt Sadimant*, Gaol* V* 3»
p. 129-239•
ColaiBan» J*M* and 3adimantaxry atrueturas* Misaissipi OaglianOf S.M., 1965 Daltaic plain* Int Middlaton* G.V.
9dm 9 primary aadie-antary atriKituras and
thair hydrodynamic Intarpratation* Sec*
£eo« Pala* Mine* ^pec* Pub* 12, 133-148.
Curray» J*H*» 1956
Collinaony J*0* Ihoiapaont D*B* 1982
Analyaia of two dioianaional orientation
datat J* Gaol*, V* 64, p* 117-131.
SadiBientary atrueturea
George Allen and Unwin (Pubs.) Ltd* M C X A 1 LU, U.K.
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Jr,
F«ajrnside
1979 Convolute lacination in modern sand
of the study of the posters - Chelde»
the netherXafid» formed as the result
of entrapped air*» Sedliaentologyt V* 26*
283-294.
learnsidesy ii.Q., Iremadoc slates and aeeociated rocke 1910
of southest Carnarvonshire*» Qurt*
Qeo4« Soc* London* V*66> 142<»187.
For8tner» U»» duller» G«y Heineek* H«£«» 1968
Sedinente und. Sedia»mtgefugedes
Hheindeltas in Bodensee Neuest Jahrb.
Mineral. Abhandl.t 109# 33-62.
¥oXkt fi.L. and )iKard> W.J.9 1957
Brazos river bart A study in the
signifieanee of grain size parameters.
J. S, P.» 27t 2--2i$»
Friediaan» G«M.» 1961
Distinction between dunes beach and
river sands from their texture1
charactc^risties, JiSi|P. , 31, 3-27.
Friedman, G.M., 1967
Dynaiidc processes and statistical
paxaiaeters compared for size frequency
distribution of beach and river sands,
J.S.P., 37, 327-354.
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, i >.5
1979 Diffox«nces in s ize d is t r ibut ion of
populations of pa r t i c l e s a£»ong sands
of various origins* ^Hldress of the reti-^
r ing President of the Internat ional
^Association of Sed^s^ntologists. ^•dl'»
raentology, 26, 3-32.
Qees» R«A«» 1965
Moment measures in relation to the
deposit!onal environments of sands.
Eclog. Geog* Helv* 58» 209-213.
Harmst J«C*» 1975
S t ra t i f i ca t ion and sequence in
prograding shoreline deposi ts . Soc.
Eeo. Pala@» i«iin6ral. Short Course 2$
81-lw2.
HarsQSf J.C.y S t ra t i f i ca t ion in fsodern sand, tVtacKenziet D«B* and McCubbin,D»G«, Sands of the Red River> Louisiana< 1963
Journal of Geology* 71» 566-580*
Harmst J .C. and Fahnstockf R«K., 1965
Stra t i f ica t ion« bedformst and flow
phenomena (with an example frosi the
Kio Grande). Soc. Econ. Palae* Mine*
Spec* Pub, 12, 84-115*
Hasiblin, vv*K*t 1965
In te rna l s t ructures of*homogeneous*
sandstones. Kans* Geol* Surv* Bul l .
175, 569-582*
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1952 tma&\iT9s tor describing the size
distribution of sediiaents. Jour. Sed.
Pet. 22, p. 125-145.
Joplin^f .i.V.» Hydranlic studies on the origin of 1943
bedding* Sediraentologfi, V.2, p.115-121.
Jopling, A«V. and Morphology and origin of ripple drift vvalkert ^•J** 1968 cross lamination with exaon le from
the pleistocene of Marsaehusetts•
J.S.P., V. 38, p. 971-984.
Kloven, J.E.f 1966
The use of factor analysis for
determining depositional environments
fr<»ii grain size distributions.,
J.S.P., V. 36, V. 115-i:».
KxuBtbeint i »C., Size frequency distributions of 1934
sediiaents.t J.S.P., V. 4, p. 65-77.
KsiazKiewiez, M. 3lip bedding in Carpathian, FlyschS 1951
Soc. Geol. Palogue Ann., V.19,
493-5Q1.
Kumar, S. and Singh, I.B.» 1978
Sedirasntological study of Gomti river
sedinents, UttaxPradesh , India.
Example of a river in alluvial plain*
SencKenbergiana marit> 10, 145-211.
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f •
Kuenen, Ph. H. i933a
Signif icant feature df graded beduing
Bull* fim* Assoc* Petro l . Geologists»
37, 1044-1066•
Land, L*S* and lloyt, J*H.t 1966
Sodistantation in a cieandering estury
sedimantology* V*6, 191-207*
McKoa, £*D*, 1965
Exporimants c^ rippla lamination* In .
middlaton, G.V* ad* Pri^iary sedlo^ntary
strutcturaa and thair riydrodynamic In ter -
pre ta t ion . , Soc* Eco* Palaeontologists
/viinoralogiats, Sp* Pub* No. 12, 66-83*
Mcke^i £*D*tand weir, G* '*, 1933
Terrilnology for s t r a t i f i c a t i o n and cross
s t r a t i f i c a t i o n in sedimentary rocks*
Gaol* 3oc* Atfi* Bull* 64 , 381-390*
tmK»99 £*D*, HeynoldSy M«A* and Baker» C*H*, 1962
l»aborato^ studies on deforeoation i n
uncoiwoUdated sedimefit*, U*S* Geol*
^urv* Profess* Papers*, 450<-0, D131, D19&
McKee, £*D*, 1966
Dune structures» Sediraentology special
Edition 7, 1-67*
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Soc* Am* Bul l . 80, 231-244*
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J'J
1976 PaXa«ocurr«nt and palaeohydrantic
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deposits» Banks, Hand, Aratie* Canada.
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Mal« A*0«, 19T7
A r@view of tia braided river
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Otto, a«H*» 1938
Hie aediiaentation uni t and i t s uae in
f i e ld sdfi^ling*, Jour* Geology, 46,
pp. S69-581.
1962 Problem of comparing ancient with recent
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Pettijhon, F«J«» oedii^ntary i^cks, Hms York., Harper 1975
and Brothers, p. 718.
Potter, P*E* and PettiJohn, I .J., 1963
Palaeocurrent and Basin l^nalysisi
Borlin Gottingen, Heidelbers Springer
p. 269»
Beineck, H*E«, 1961
Sedifsentbevvegugon and Kleinripplean in
watt Senckenbexgiana Lethaea, 42, 51-61.
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J #
ii«ineck, H*£** 1963b
0«r Kast«ngr«ifcrt Natur Mue. 83»
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aust, &*R«» 1978a
A elaasiflcation c^ alluvial channal
ayataias. XnS Mial» A«L* ed« Fluvial*
Sadii^mtology* Can* Soc* Patrol* Gaol*
Mam* 5* p. 187<-19S*
Sanders* Jȣ** 1965
Primary atidis^ntary structuraa f02^ad
by turbidi ty currants and ra la ted
raaadismntation iDachanism* Int . iddlaton
(i*V* @d* Primaary aediioantary s tructuraa
atnd tha i r hydro^namic in terpra ta t ion*
Soc* £eo* Pala* Minar* Spec* Publ*
12* 192-219*
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Distincticm of Hawxaaland* beach,
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7«en Half» £•» 1959
Graded beds of northern i ){:M»nninos
Rijksyn inversiteit Groningen,
thesis, p* IC^*
Ira£k, P*t'*f 1932
Origin and onvircnment of sourco
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Gulf* irubi* Co* p* 67*
Visher, G*S* 1969
Grain uXz^ distribution and deposi-
tional processes* J,S*P* 39, 107-I106i
Walker, H*G*, 1963
Distinction type of r ipp le d r i f t
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p* 173-188*
i erner, F«, 1963
Uber den innev^n Aufbau Von Strand
^iiallcn an ein^m Kusten abachnitt der
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108-121.
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Xntxavtratal flow and Convolute
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'J ^>
k<?und0rXich» F«» i967a
Di@ entetehung Von
•Convoiut© bedding* an Piatenrandern.
SenclC«nb«rglana Lethaoa^ 48, 345«-349*
1979 ii# Inael Mdllura (Sudliche l4ord»99)
Dynamlache F^osessa und Sedinantge-
fuga* I* Sudwatt Ubergangszone Mnd
Hochflache* Sanckenbaxgiana marlt
lit P* 59-Xi3#