Leibniz on Evil - Leroy Howe

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8/17/2019 Leibniz on Evil - Leroy Howe http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/leibniz-on-evil-leroy-howe 1/10  LEI NIZ ON EVIL LEROY T. HOWE* GOd (so they say) could have given happiness to all, he could have given it promptly and easily, and without causing himself any incon- venience, for he can do all. But should he ? Since he does not do so, it is a sign that he had to act altogether differently. '1 Because all theistic affirmations about divine attributes and activi- ties are rooted in the conviction that the supremely perfect source of all things is a benevolent being, the fundamental problem for theology (natural or revealed) becomes that of evil. The problem could be minimized: given that God is supremely perfect, and that evil is absolutely incompatible with the existence of such a being, it would follow that no evil can or does exist, all appearances to the contrary notwithstanding. But even if somehow one could ~ the unten- able proposition that no evil really exists, one could not deny that one's persisting misunderstanding of this state of affairs is itself evil. Another way of avoiding the issue would be to note, rightly, that it is not self-evident that divine perfection does not preclude the exist- ence of real evil; teleios is not necessarily agathon God's supreme perfection may be other than that goodness with which evil in the cosmos and human life is contrasted. Theistic thought, however, cannot rest content with such a metaphysics; in supposing that goodness is predicable, at least analogically, of God, theism must hold also that that goodness is entailed by God's perfection because it holds that a/l predicates of God are so entailed by the divine per- fection. Further, unless from assertions about supreme perfection assertions about God's goodness follow in some sense, the problem of the Good would be incapable of resolution; unless the Good expresses either the divine nature or the divine will, there could be nothing unconditionally obligatory about it for man. Hence the question remains a pressing one: how is it that a supremely perfect being, all-sovereign by virtue of that perfection, permits evil ? The answer traditionally given is: since God is a supremely perfect orderer of all things, there must be good reasons for the evil which does indeed exist. This answer has the merit of confronting forthrightly the reality of evil, while at the same time remaining grounded in prior considerations which do not suppose Southern Methodist University, Dallas, U.S.A. 1Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz, Theodiey, ed. by Diogenes Allen, Bobbs- Merrill, 1966, II, 122.

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LEI NIZ O N EVIL

L E R O Y T . H O W E *

GO d ( so th e y s a y ) c o u ld h a v e g iv e n h a p p in e s s t o al l, h e c o u ld h a v e

g iv e n i t p ro mp t ly a n d e a s i l y , a n d wi th o u t c a u s in g h imse l f a n y in c o n -

v e n ie n c e , f o r h e c a n d o al l. Bu t sh o u ld h e ? S in c e h e d o e s n o t d o

so , i t is a s ign th a t he h ad to a c t a l toge th e r d i f fe ren t ly . '1

Because a l l the is t ic a f f i rmat ions abou t d iv ine a t t r ibu tes and ac t iv i -

t i e s a r e ro o t e d in t h e c o n v ic t io n th a t t h e su p re me ly p e r f e c t so u rc e o f

a l l t h in g s i s a b e n e v o le n t b e in g , t h e fu n d a m e n ta l p ro b le m fo r t h e o lo g y

( n a t u r a l o r r e v e a le d ) b e c o m e s t h a t o f e v il . T h e p r o b l e m c o u l d b e

m in imiz e d : g iv e n th a t G o d i s su p re m e ly p e r f e c t , a n d th a t e v i l i s

a b so lu t e ly i n c o mp a t ib l e w i th t h e e x i s t e n c e o f su c h a b e in g , i t wo u ld

fo l lo w th a t n o e v i l c a n o r d o e s e x i s t , a l l a p p e a ra n c e s t o t h e c o n t r a ry

n o twi th s t a n d in g . B u t e v e n i f so me h o w o n e c o u ld ~ th e u n te n -

a b le p ro p o s i t i o n th a t n o e v i l r e a l l y e x i s t s , o n e c o u ld n o t d e n y th a t

one ' s pe rs i s t ing misunders tand ing o f th i s s ta te o f a f fa i r s i s i t se l f ev i l .

An o th e r wa y o f a v o id in g th e i s su e wo u ld b e t o n o t e , r i g h t ly , t h a t i t

i s n o t s e l f - e v id e n t t h a t d iv in e p e r f e c t io n d o e s n o t p r e c lu d e th e e x i s t -

ence o f rea l ev i l ; t e le ios i s no t necessa r i ly aga thon G o d ' s s u p r e m e

p e r f e c t io n m a y b e o th e r t h a n th a t g o o d n e ss w i th w h ic h e v i l i n t h e

c o smo s a n d h u m a n l i fe is c o n t r a s te d . T h e i s t i c t h o u g h t , h o we v e r ,

c a n n o t r e s t c o n te n t w i th su c h a me ta p h y s i c s ; i n su p p o s in g th a t

goodness i s p red icab le , a t l eas t ana log ica l ly , o f God , the ism mus t

h o ld a l so th a t t h a t g o o d n e ss i s e n t a i le d b y G o d ' s p e r f e c t io n b e c a u se

i t h o ld s t h a t a / l p r e d i c a t e s o f Go d a r e so e n t a i l e d b y th e d iv in e p e r -

f e c t io n . F u r th e r , u n l es s f ro m a s ser t io n s a b o u t su p re me p e r f e c t io n

asse r t ions abou t God ' s goodness fo l low in some sense , the p rob lem

o f t h e Go o d wo u ld b e i n c a p a b le o f r e so lu t io n ; u n l e s s t h e Go o d

e x p re s se s e i t h e r t h e d iv in e n a tu r e o r t h e d iv in e w i l l , t h e r e c o u ld b e

n o th in g u n c o n d i t i o n a l ly o b l ig a to ry a b o u t i t f o r ma n .

He n c e th e q u e s t io n r e ma in s a p r e s s in g o n e : h o w i s i t t h a t a

su p re me ly p e r f e c t b e in g , a l l - so v e re ig n b y v i r t u e o f t h a t p e r f e c t io n ,

p e rm i t s e v i l ? T h e a n swe r t r a d i t i o n a l ly g iv e n i s: s in c e G o d i s a

su p re me ly p e r f e c t o rd e re r o f a l l t h in g s , t h e r e mu s t b e g o o d r e a so n s

fo r t h e e v il wh ic h d o e s i n d e e d e x is t . T h i s a n sw e r h a s t h e me r i t o f

c o n f ro n t in g fo r th r ig h t ly t h e r e a l i t y o f e v il , wh i l e a t t h e s a me t im e

re ma in in g g ro u n d e d in p r io r c o n s id e ra t io n s wh ic h d o n o t su p p o se

Southern Methodist University, Dallas, U.S.A.

1Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz, Theodiey, ed. by Diogenes Allen, Bobbs-

M errill, 1 966 , II, 122.

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LEIBNIZ ON EVIL

n a i v e l y th a t t h e p r o p e r i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f e v il is s o m e h o w t o b e r e a d

o f f t h e s h e e r g i v e n n e s s o f e v i l i ts e lf . P r i o r t o h i s g i v i n g a n y a c c o u n t

o f e v il ( a n d p e r h a p s e v e n p r i o r t o h i s n o t i c i n g e v il

as

e v i l ) , t h e

t h e i st h a s a l r e a d y o r i e n t e d h is th i n k i n g a r o u n d t h e i d e a o f a c r e a t o r

a n d s u s t a i n e r

t h a n

w h i c h n o n e m o r e p e r f e c t is c o n c e i v a b l e ;

hence , ev i l cannot c o n s t i t u t e n e g a t i v e e v i d e n c e a g a i n s t h i s b e l i e f i n

G o d . E v i l c o n s t i tu t e s a p r o b l e m f o r p o s i ti v e c l a i m s a b o u t G o d n o t

b y c a l li n g in t o q u e s t i o n th e i r t r u t h , b u t b y p r o v o k i n g f u r t h e r i n q u i r y

i n t o t h e i r m e a n i n g , m o s t s p e c i f ic a l ly o f c l a i m s a b o u t t h a t d i v i n e

g o o d n e s s p r e s u m e d t o p r o c e e d f r o m G o d ' s p e r f e c ti o n . W h a t s o rt o f

p e r f e c t i o n i s i t w h i c h i s a t o n c e w o r t h y o f p ra i s e a n d t o l e r a n t o f

e v i l ? T h i s e s s a y s e e k s t o d e v e l o p a n a n s w e r t o t h i s s p e c i f ic q u e s t i o n

b y r e f e r e n c e t o t h e w o r k o f L e i b n i z , w h o s e

T h e o d i c y

s t i l l r e m a i n s

t h e m o s t p r o f o u n d a t t e m p t i n C h r i s t i a n l i te r a t u r e t o j u s t i f y t h e

w a y s o f G o d t o m a n . T h e a r g u m e n t to b e a d v a n c e d i s L e i b n i ze a n

i n s p ir i t if n o t i n f a c t a n d w i ll b e d e v e l o p e d , t o s o m e e x t e n t d i a l e c -

t ic a l ly , w i t h p a r t i c u l a r a t t e n t i o n t o th e t r e n c h a n t c r i t ic i s m s o f J o h n

H i c k . 2

( 1 ) On the ex is tence o[ a supremely per[ect being:

T h r o u g h o u t t h e T h e o d i c y L e i b n i z s t at es r e p e a t e d l y ( a n d r i g h t ly )

t h a t i t i s G o d ' s g o o d n e s s a n d n o t G o d ' s p o w e r w h i c h i s i n q u e s t i o n

w h e n e v e r e v il is c o n s i d e r e d ; a n y j u s ti f ic a t io n o f t h e w a y s o f G o d t o

m a n m u s t s h o w f u n d a m e n t a l l y h o w e v i l i s n o t i n c o m m e n s u r a t e w i t h

t h e d i v in e g o o d n e s s ( c f . e s p . 1 , 6 ) . A n d a t s p e c if ic p o i n t s i n t h e

Theodicy , h e h i n ts a t th e k i n d o f a r g u m e n t w h i c h th i s p r e s e n t e s s a y

p r o p o u n d s e xp l ic it ly . I n th e P r e l i m i n a r y D i s se r ta t io n , p a r a g r a p h s

3 3 , 3 4 , a n d 3 5 , L e i b n i z a r g u e s t h a t, k n o w i n g w h a t w e a l r e a d y d o

l n o w a b o u t G o d , i t is n o t i m p o s s i b le t h a t h e c o u l d h a v e r e as o ns f o r

t o l e r a t i n g e vi l. B a s i c t o th i s a r g u m e n t is h i s v i e w t h a t o n l y w h a t i s

l o g i c a ll y i m p o s s i b le c a n b e r e i e c t e d o u t r i g h t a s a tr u e a s s e r ti o n a b o u t

G O d ) A t p a r a g r a p h s 4 2 a n d 4 4 , L e i b n i z m a i n t a i n s th a t , g iv e n a

p r i o r p r o o f o f a w i se a n d g o o d c a u s e o f a ll th i n g s , i t w o u l d b e

p o s s i b l e t o a r g u e a posteriori t h a t , f r o m t h e f a c t t h a t e v i ls d o e x i s t,

t h e y h a v e t o b e p e r m i t e d . 4 T h i s l in e o f a r g u m e n t , h o w e v e r , r e m a i n s

2John Hick, Evil

a n d t h e o d o f L o v e

New York: Harper and Row,

1966).

3C f. II , 145: there is n o obl igat ion to do that w hich is impossible fo r us

in ou r existing s tate. I t is sufficient for one to p oin t ou t tha t there is

noth in g to prevent the con nect ion o f a cer ta in indiv idual ev il wi th w hat i s

bes t on the whole . This incomplete explanat ion , l eaving something to be

discovered in the l i fe to come, is sufficient for answering the object ions,

t hough no t fo r a comprehens ion o f t he mat t e r .

4Compare on th i s poin t , I , 10 :

It

is t rue that one may imagine possible

wo rlds wi thout s in and wi thou t unhappiness , and o ne could ma ke som e

l ike Utopian or Sevarambian romances : but these same worlds again

wo uld be very infer ior to ours in goodness . I cannot show y ou th is in

deta il . Fo r can I know and can I present inf in iti es to you and c om pare

them together? But you must judge with me ab ef fectu , s ince Go d has

chosen this world as i t i s .

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SOPHI

u n d e v e l o p e d t h r o u g h t h c T h e o d i c y b e c a u se t h e o n l y e x p l i c i t p r o o f

o f f e r e d f o r t h e c o n t e n t i o n t h a t t h e r e i s i n d e e d a w i se a n d g o o d c a u se

o f al l t h i n g s i s d e v e l o p e d i n a m o s t i n a d e q u a t e m a n n e r , a t 1 , 7 .

God i s t he f i r s t reason o[ t h ings : f o r su c h t h i n g s a s a r e b o u n d e d ,

a s a l l t h a t w h i c h w e s e e a n d e x p e r i e n c e , a r e c o n t i n g e n t a n d h a v e

n o t h i n g i n t h e m t o r e n d e r t h e i r e x i s t e n c e n e c e s sa r y , i t b e i n g p l a i n

t h a t t i m e , s p a c e a n d m a t t e r , u n i t e d a n d u n i f o r m i n t h e m s e l v e s a n d

i n d i f f e r e n t t o e v e r y t h i n g , m i g h t h a v e r e c e i v e d e n t i r e l y o t h e r m o t i o n s

a n d s h a p e s , a n d i n a n o t h e r o rd e r . T h e r e f o r e o n e m u s t s e ek t h e

r e a so n f o r t h e e x i s t e n c e o f t h e w o r l d , w h i c h i s t h e w h o l e a s se m b l a g e

o f

con t ingen t

t h ings , and seek i t i n the subs tance which ca r r i e s wi th

i t t he r eason fo r i t s ex i s t ence , and which in consequence i s necessary

a n d e t e r n a l . M o r e o v e r , t h is c a u se m u s t b e i n te l l ig e n t : f o r t h i s

e x i s t i n g w o r l d b e i n g c o n t i n g e n t a n d a n i n f i n i t y o f o t h e r w o r l d s b e i n g

equa l ly poss ib le , and ho ld ing , so to say , equa l c l a im to ex i s t ence

w i t h i t , t h e c a u se o f t h e w o r l d m u s t n e e d s h a v e h a d r e g a r d o r r e f e r -

ence to a l l t hese poss ib le wor lds in o rde r to f ix upon one o f them.

Th i s r e g a r d o r r e l a t i o n o f a n e x i s t e n t su b s t a n c e t o s i m p l e p o s s i b i l i t i e s

c a n b e n o t h i n g o t h e r t h a n t h e u n d e r s t a n d i n g w h i c h h a s t h e i d e a s o f

t h e m , w h i le t o f ix u p o n o n e o f t h e m c a n b e n o t h i n g o t h e r t h a n t h e

a c t o f t h e

wi l l

wh ich chooses . I t i s t he

p o w e r

o f t h i s su b s t a n c e t h a t

r end er s i t s wi l l e ff icac ious . Po w er t ends tow ard being, w i s d o m o r

u n d e r s t a n d i n g t o t ru th , and wi l l t o good. And th i s in t e l l igen t cause

o u g h t t o b e i n f i n i t e i n a l l w a y s , a n d a b so l u t e l y p e r f e c t i n

p o w e r ,

in

w i s d o m a n d i n goodness, s ince i t r e l a t es to a l l t ha t wh ich i s poss ib le .

F u r t h e r m o r e , s i n c e a l l i s c o n n e c t e d t o g e t h e r , t h e r e i s n o g r o u n d f o r

a d m i t t i n g m o r e t h a n one. I t s u n d e r s t a n d i n g i s t h e so u r c e o f essences,

and i t s wi l l i s t he o r ig in o f existences. Th e r e i n f e w w o r d s i s t h e

p r o o f o f o n e o n l y G o d w i t h h i s p e r f e c t i o n s , a n d t h r o u g h h i m o f t h e

o r i g i n o f t h i n g s .

A t 1 , 8 , h o w e v e r , t h e r e i s p r e su p p o se d a m o r e p r o m i s i n g o n t o l o g i -

c a l a r g u m e n t f o r t he c o n t en t io n t h a t s u p r e m e w i s d o m u n it e d t o a

goodness tha t i s no l e ss in f in i t e canno t bu t have chosen the bes t .

Here , Lc ibn iz c l a ims spec i f i ca l ly tha t t h i s i s t he bes t o f a l l poss ib le

w o r l d s :

For as a l e sse r ev i l i s a k ind o f good , even so a l e sse r good i s a k ind

o f e v i l i f i t s t a n d s i n t h e w a y o f a g r e a t e r g o o d ; a n d t h e r e w o u l d b e

so m e t h i n g t o c o r r e c t i n t h e a c t i o n s o f G o d i f i t w e r e p o s s i b l e t o d o

b e t te r . A s in m a t h e m a t i c s , w h e n t h er e is n o m a x i m u m n o r m i n i -

m u m , i n sh o r t n o t h i n g d i s t i n g u i sh e d , e v e r y t h i n g i s d o n e e q u a l l y , o r

w h e n t h a t i s n o t p o s s i b l e n o t h i n g a t a l l i s d o n e : so i t m a y b e s a i d

l i k e w i se i n r e sp e c t o f p e r f e c t w i sd o m , w h i c h i s n o l e s s o r d e r l y t h a n

m a t h e m a t i c s , th a t i f t h e r e w e r e n o t t h e b e s t ( o p t i m u m ) a m o n g a l l

p o s s i b le w o r l d s, G o d w o u l d n o t h a v e p r o d u c e d a n y . I c al l 'W o r l d '

t h e w h o l e su c c e s s i o n a n d t h e w h o l e a g g l o m e r a t i o n o f a l l e x i s t e n t

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]

L I I I N I Z O N V I L

t h i n g s , l e s t i t b e s a i d t h a t s e v e r a l w o r l d s c o u l d h a v e c x i s t e d i n d i f f e r -

e n t t i m e s a n d d i f f e r e n t p la c e s. F o r t h e y m u s t n e e d s b e r e c k o n e d a l l

t o g e t h e r a s o n e w o r l d o r , if y o u w i ll , a s o n e U n i v e r s e . A n d e v e n

t h o u g h o n e s h o u l d f i l l a l l t i m e s a n d a l l p l a c e s , i t s t i l l r e m a i n s t r u e

t h a t o n e m i g h t h a v e f i l l e d t h e m i n i n n u m e r a b l e w a y s , a n d t h a t t h e r e

is a n i n fi n it u d e o f p o s si b le w o r l d s a m o n g w h i c h G o d m u s t n c e d s h a v e

c h o s e n t h e b e s t , s i n c e h e d o e s n o t h i n g w i t h o u t a c t i n g i n a c c o r d a n c e

w i t h s u p r e m e r e a s o n .

B u t t h e c a s e h e r e c l e a r l y r e s t s u p o n t h e p r i o r a r g t u n e n t a t i o n f o r t h e

e x i st e n c e o f a s u p r e m e l y w i se a n d g o o d b e i n g a t 1 , 7 , f r o m c o n t i n -

g e n c y ; i n L e i b n i z ' v e rs i o n it is t h e b e i n g a n d t h e f o r m o f t h e w o r l d

w h i c h r c q u i r e s s o m c t h i n g e x i s t i n g n e c e s s a r i l y .

G i v e n t h a t f o r L e i b n i z , a s f o r A u g u s t i n i a n s g e n e r a l l y , b e i n g a n d

p e r f e c t i o n ( b o t h i n t h e s e n se o f t h e c o m p l e t e n e s s a n d t h e w o r t h i n e s s

o f b e i n g ) a r e i d e n ti c a l, h e c o u l d h a v e g r o u n d e d h i s a r g u m e n t f o r t h e

e x i st e n c e o f G o d m e r e l y b y a p p e a l t o th i s i n tu i ti v e i n si g h t, t h e r e b y

a v o i d i n g t h e p e r i l s o f c o s m o l o g i c a l p r o o f s g e n e r a l l y b y o p t i n g f o r t h e

r e l a ti v e s e c u r i t y o f a n o n t o lo g i c a l a r g u m e n t f o r G o d . I n s t e a d , h o w -

e v e r , h e a t t z m p t s w i t h o u t s u c c e s s t o d e d u c e e n s p e r [ e c t i s s i m u m f r o m

e n s r e a l i s s i n z u m 5

I n 1 , 7 , t h e i n t e l l ig e n c e o f t h e n e c e s s a r y b e i n g

f o l lo w s f r o m t h e i d e a t h a t a n i n f i n i t y o f o t h e r w o r l d s i s p o s s i b l e : t h e

c a u s e o f t h is w o r l d m u s t b e a s o r t c a p a b l e o f r e g a r d i n g s u c h a l t e r-

n a t iv e s a n d s e l e c ti n g f r o m a m o n g t h e m , a n d s i n c e t h e r e a l m o f

poss ib i l i t y i s i n f i n i t e , God ' s i n t e l l i gence mus t be i n f i i n i t e a s we l l .

A n d i t is f r o m t h e i n f i n i ty o f G o d ' s i n t e ll ig e n c e t h a t L e i b n i z f u r t h c r

d e d u c e s t h a t G o d is a b s o l u te l y p e r f e c t in p o w e r , w i s d o m , a n d g o o d -

n c ss . T h e d i f fi c u lt y is t h a t L e i b n i z c a n n o t a r g u e i n th is m a n n e r f o r

d i v i n e p e r f e c t i o n b e c a u s e h e h a s n o t e s t a b l i s h e d t h e i n f i n i t y o f G o d .

O n L e i b n i z ' o w n t e r m s m a n d o e s n o t a n d c a n n o t h a v e a n i d e a o f

a n i n f i n i t y o f p o s s ib l e w o r l d s a s s u c h . H e h a s a n i d e a o f i n f in i t y , a s

w c l l as a n i d e a o f w o r l d , o f p o s s i b i li t y , a n d t h e r e f o r e i d e a s o f o t h e r

w o r ld s . B u t o n l y G o d c o u l d h o l d in u n d e r s t a n d i n g t h e i n fi ni te n u m -

b e r o f id e a s n e c e s s a r y t o e x p r e s s a n i n f in i te n u m b e r o f a l te r n a t i v e

p o s s i b le w o r l d s . M a n c o u l d t h i n k s u c h , i f a t a ll , o n l y i n G o d .

S i n c e G o d ' s i n f i n i t e u n d e r s t a n d i n g i t s e l f w o u l d h a v e t o b e

u n d e r s t o o d a s a c o n d i t io n f o r u n d e r s t a n d i n g t h e v e r y id e a o f

a n i n f i n i t y o f p o s s ib l e w o r l d s , t h a t i d e a o f a n i n f i n i t y o f p o s s ib l e

5Nicholas Rescher , The Phi losophy of Leibniz (Englewood Cl i f fs , Nex

Jersey: Prent ice-Hall , Inc. . 1967), p . 45, argues persua sively that Leib n: /

insis ted here on necessary being rather than supreme perfect ion becau'~c

his desire is to preserve the freed om of Go d. As a nece ssary being, God's :

perfect ion wou ld be metaphy s ical only , and no t moral . I t might a l so ~e

noted in pass ing that obvious ly l ,e ibniz feel s no problemat ic character

ab ou t dedu ct ions gene ral ly; the evil spir it clou ding m em or y had alread}

been d i spel led in Descar tes ' ph i losophy, and the development of a moJe

r igorous deductive procedu re by Leibniz h imsel f seemed to have ove rcom e

an y rem ainin g uncertainties abo ut the possibilit ies o f ac cu rate deduction.

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~ 2

S O P H I A

w o r l d s c a n n o t i t s e l f f u n c t i o n a s a n i n f e r e n c e - t i c k e t y i e l d i n g p o s i t i v e

a s s e r ti o n s a b o u t t h e i n f i n it e w i s d o m o f a n a l r e a d y e s t a b li s h e d n e c e s -

: a r y b e i n g . 6 L e i b n i z h a s s h o w n i n t e ll ig e n c e t o b e p e r t i n e n t t o t h e

J te c es sa r y b e i n g b y s h o w i n g t h a t a l t e rn a t i v e w o r l d s a r e c o n c e i v a b le .

B u t h e h a s n o t s h o w n t h a t a n i n f i n i t u d e m u s t b e a s c r i b e d t o t h i s

i n t e l l i g e n c e , w h i c h i s p r e c i s e l y w h a t m u s t b e s h o w n i n o r d e r t o e s t a b -

f is h t h a t s u c h a b e i n g i s a ls o s u p r e m e l y p e r f e c t . A n d e v e n i f h e c o u l d

! ~ro ve a n i n f i n i t u d e a b o u t G o d a t t h e i d e a - l e v e l , g i v e n h i s o w n

~ m d e r s t a n d in g o f p e r f e c t i o n a s e q u i v a l e n t t o in f i n it y ( I I , 2 2 5 ) , h e

w o u l d s t i l l n e e d a n o n t o l o g i c a l a r g u m e n t i n o r d e r t o e s t a b l i s h t h e

, xistenc e a s w e l l a s t h e i d e a o f a s u p r e m e l y p e r f e c t b e i n g w h o b y

d e f i n it io n , t h e n , w o u l d a c t f o r t h e b e s t ( t h e i m p l i c i t th r u s t o f 1 , 8 ) .

~ -Iis l a c k o f s u c c e s s i n t h i s r e g a r d i n d i c a t e s t h e f u n d a m e n t a l d i f f ic u l t y

91 ith c o sm o l o g i c a l a r g u m e n t s g e n e r a l ly ; o n c e o n e b e g i ns a w a y f r o m

" ~erfec tion, i t i s imp oss ib l e t o a rg ue on t he b as i s o f som eth ing e l s e t o

t h e in s t a n t i a t i o n o f p e r f e c t i o n .

T h e p u z z l i n g r e l a t io n s h i p b e t w e e n 1 , 7 a n d 1 , 8 i s c h a r a c t e r i s t ic o f

T . e i b n i z ' p h i l o s o p h y a s a w h o l e , w h e r e i n d i f f e r e n t a s s e s s m e n t s o f t h e

c la s si ca l a r g u m e n t s f o r G o d a r e t o b e f o u n d . L e i b n i z ' f u n d a m e n t a l

~ , o s i t i o n i s t h a t t h e v a r i o u s a r g u m e n t s f o r t h e e x i s t e n c e o f G o d

, r ~ e d i a t e d t h r o u g h t h e t r a d i t i o n t o g e t h e r c o m p r i s e a c o g e n t p r o o f f o r

l i v i n e e x i s t e n c e , a p o s i t i o n w h i c h a n t i c i p a t e s K a n t ' s a t t a c k o n a l l s u c h

9 ro ofs. L e i b n i z , h o w e v e r w r o n g l y c o n s t r u e d t h e p r o o f s a s i n t e r -

~ ' e l a t e d , f o r a s K a n t h i m s e l f s a w , t h e o n t o l o g i c a l a r g u m e n t i s s u f f i c i -

, n t u n t o i t s e lf a n d t h e f o u n d a t i o n o f a l l o t h e r a r g u m e m s . 7 A s s u c h ,

: n u n a m b i g u o u s o n t o l o g i c a l a r g u m e n t a t 1 , 7 , b e g i n n i n g w i t h a n d

' n p a c k i n g th e i d e a o f a s u p r e m e l y p e r f e c t b e i n g , w o u l d i t s e lf m a k e

: ~ o s s i b l e t h e c r u c i a l c l a i m s w h i c h L e i b n i z m u s t a d v a n c e a t 1 , 8 , t h a t

f o r t h e G o d w h o c r e a te s a n d s u s ta i n s t h e a c t u a l w o r l d , t h e r e a r e

: u f f i c i e n t r e a s o n s f o r p e r m i t t i n g t h e e v i l s i n t h a t a c t u a l w o r l d .

( 2 )

Supreme per[ec t ion and the bes t wor ld

T h e n e x t t a s k

t h i s w o r l d i s t h e

i n t h i s c l a i m t h e

i s t o e l u c i d a t e w h a t c a n b e m e a n t i n t h e c l a i m t h a t

b e s t w h i c h G o d c o u l d h a v e c ho s en . J o h n H i c k s ee s

s e r io u s w e a k n e s s o f t h e w h o l e Theod i cy :

C'"For God could not g ive the creature a l l wi thout making of i t a God;

there fore there m ust needs be different degree s in the perfe ct ion o f things,

and l imitations also of every kind." (I , 31). "A tru th is abo ve reason

when ou r m ind (o r even every c rea t ed mind) canno t compreh end it. S uch

is , as i t seems to me, the Holy Tr in i ty ; such are the miracles reserved for

God a lone, as for ins tance Creat ion: such i s the choice of the order of

the universe , which der~ends upo n universal harm on y, and upo n the c le ar

knowledge o f an

i n f i n i t y o f t id i ngs a t o nce .

Prelim. Diss., 23; (bold typ e

mine.)

7On th is i ssue , see my " One G od , O ne P roo f , " S ou thern Jou rn a l o f P h i l o -

sophy (6: 235-45), Winter , 1968.

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1 3

E E I B N IZ O N- N I L

T h u s w i t h t h e d e v e l o p m e n t o f t h e t h e s i s t h a t t h i s i s t h e b e s t o f a l l

p o s s i b le w o r l d s t h e A u g u s t i n i a n t r a d i t i o n o f t h e o d i c y f a c e s a p a i n f u l

d i l e m m a . I f i t i n s is t s ( w i t h L e i b n i z ) t h a t t h i s i s i n d e e d t h e b e s t

p o s s i b l e w o r l d , i t t h e r e b y i m p l i e s t h a t G o d w a s p o w e r l e s s t o m a k e a

b e t t e r o n e a n d s o d e n i e s hi s o m n i p o t e n c e . B u t i f o n t h e o t h e r h a n d

i t a s s e rt s ( w i t h T h o m i s m ) t h a t t h i s i s n o t t h e b e s t p o s s i b l e w o r l d i t

c a l l s i n q u e s t io n G o d ' s g o o d n e s s a n d l o v e w h i c h w e r e n o t s u f fi c ie n t t o

i n d u c e h i m t o b u i l d a b e t t e r o n e .

o p . c i t . ,

p . 1 7 2 )

A n d L e i b n i z ' o w n a c c o u n t i s i n d e e d f r a u g h t w i t h d i ff ic u l ti e s,

e s p e c i a l l y w h e n i t is n o t e d t h a t t h e v e r y i n t e l l i g i b i l i t y o f h i s i d e a o f

b e s t w o r l d r e s t s u p o n t h e in t e l l i g i b i li t y o f t h e n o t i o n o f i n c o m -

p o s s i b i l i t y , a n o t io n b y n o m e a n s c l ea r , s T h e p r o p e r w a y t o d e a l

w i t h t h e p r o b l e m is t o d e d u c e w h a t th e t e r m b e s t i n t h e e x p r e ss i o n

b e s t w o r l d w o u l d m e a n f r o m a p r i o r u n d e r s t a n d in g o f w h a t t he

t e r m p e r f e c t i o n i n t h e e x p r e s s io n d i v i n e p e r f e c t i o n m e a n s : G o d

i s t h e s o u r c e o f th e g o o d a n d c a n b e s a i d t r u l y t o b e g o o d b e c a u s e

w h a t h e d e e m s g o o d ( a n d t h us , b e s t ) i s e x p r e s si v e o f h is o w n

n a t u r e ; t h o u g h d i v i n e g o o d n es s is n o t t o b e c o n c e i v e d a p a r t f r o m

r e f e r e n c e s t o t h e d i v i n e n a t u r e a n d a c t i v i t y , a s a p r e d i c a b l e w h o s e

g r o u n d i s o t h e r t h a n G o d , w h a t G o d d o es i n d e e d c o m m a n d a n d d e e m

g o o d m u s t b e c o n c e i v e d a s c o m m e n s u r a t e w i t h h is n a t u r e . O n t h i s

b a s i s s o m e v e r s i o n o f a n o n t o l o g i c a l a r g u m e n t w i l l p r o v i d e t h e

e x p l i c a t io n f o r w h a t is b e s t a b o u t t h is w o r l d a n d w h y t h e d iv i n e

a c t o f c r e a t i n g t h i s w o r l d is i t s e lf t h e b e s t t h a t c o u l d b e d o n e , t h e

8 As R es ch e r (o p . c i r . , p . 7 9 ) p o i n t s o u t , L e i b n i z d o es n o t a rg u e ad eq u a t e l y

fo r t h e g en u i n en es s o f r e l a t i o n a l p ro p e r t i e s (p ro p e r t i e s n o t wh o l l y r ep re -

s en t ed b y m ere p red i ca t e s ) , an d u n l e s s t h e re a re s u ch r e l a t i o n a l p ro p e r t i e s

i t c o u l d n e v e r b e m a i n t a i n e d t h a t a n y t w o p o s s i b l e s u b s ta n c e s c o u l d b e

i n co m p o s s i b l e . L e i b n i z h i m s e l f was d eep l y aw are o f t h e d i f fi cu lt y ; an d

b e fo re 1 6 8 6 h e wro t e : I t i s y e t u n k n o w n t o m e w h a t i s t h e r ea s o n o f t h e

i n co m p o s s i b i l i t y o f d i f f e ren t t h in g s , o r h o w i t is t h a t d i f f e ren t e s s en ces can

b e o p p o s ed t o each o t h e r , s ee i n g t h a t a l l p u re l y p o s i t i v e t e rm s s eem t o b e

co m p a t i b l e ( a s c i t ed b y B e r t r an d R u s s e l l , A C r i t i c a l E x p o s i t i o n o f t h e

Ph i l o s o p h y o f L e i b n i z , L o n d o n : G eo r g e Al l en an d Un w i n , L t d . , 1 90 0, p .

2 0) . G . H . R . P a r k i n s o n p u t s t h e m a t t e r q u i t e s u c c i n c t l y a l s o : s i n c e f o r

L e i b n i z a l l c o n c e p ts s o m e h o w d e r i v e f r o m s i m p l e s a b o u t w h i c h t h e r e is

n o l i m i t o r n e g a t io n , n o p r o p o s i t io n a l l o f w h o s e t e r m s e x p r e s s p r i m i ti x c

co n cep t s co u l d b e n eg a t i v e . A n d s i n ce a l l p ro p o s i t i o n s a re r ed u c i b l e lt~

s i m p l e o n es , n o n eg a t i v e p ro p o s i t i o n co u l d b e t ru e . T h a t n o u n i v e r s a l

n eg a t i v e p ro p o s i t i o n can b e t ru e co n f l i c t s w i t h L e i b n i z ' v i ew t h a t n o t a l l

wo r l d s a r e co m p o s s i b l e ; t h e l a t t e r can n o t b e a s s e r ted . T h e i m p l i ca t i o n is

t h a t t h e re c a n b e n o n o n - e o m p o s s i b le w o r l d s b e tw e e n w h i c h G o d c o u l d

ch o o s e : i f Go d c rea t e s a t a l l h e m u s t c r ea t e ev e ry t h i n g wh i ch i s p o s s i b l e .

an d t h i s t o o m u s t b e wi t h o u t l i m i t , s i n ce n o co n cep t o f a f i n i t e t h i n g can

e x p r e s s n e g a t i o n o r l im i t . T h e r e d u e t i o a d a b s u r du n ~ s e e m s e o m p | e t e .

(L o g i c an d R e a l i t y i n L e i b n i z ' M e t ap h y s i c s , Ox fo rd : C l a ren d o n P re s:~ .

I965) .

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S O P H I A

a l t e a 'n a t i v c t o w h i c h w o u l d b e n o w o r l d a t a l l .9

L e i b n i z i s n o t a b u n d a n t l y c l e a r o r h e l p f u l i n d e t e r m i n i n g

h o w t h is w o r l d is t h e b e s t w o r l d i n t h e l ig h t o f G o d ' s o w n

m e t a p h y s i c a l p e r f e c t i o n , b e c a u s e h e d o e s n o t e x p r e s s l y c o n s t r u e

b e s t w o r l d i n t h e li g h t o f h i s p r i o r n o t i o n o f s u p r e m e l y

p e r f e c t b e i n g . U p o n c l o s e r i n s p e c t i o n , h o w e v e r , t h e r e i s n o

i n t r a c t a b l e d e f i c i e n c y i n L e i h n i z t h o u g h t o n th i s q u e s t i o n . A t I I ,

2 0 8 L e i b n i z d e f in e s b e s t a s t h e g r e a t e s t v a r i e t y o f p h e n o m e n a

c o n s o n a n t w i th t h e s i m p l e s t s c h e m e o f a r r a n g e m e n t J ~ F r o m a n

i n f in i t y o f p o s si b le w o r l d s , t h e n , G o d f a s h io n e d a n a c t u a l w o r l d b y

s e l e c ti n g th o s e p o s s ib l e s w h i c h a r e c o m p o s s i b l e w i t h t h e l a r g e s t n u m b e r

o f o t h e r p o s s ib l e s in a s i m p l y c o n s t r u c te d w h o l e . G o d ' s s e l e c t i o n

o f su c h a p r i n c i p l e f o r f a s h i o n i n g a w o r l d c a n b e s h o w n t o b e n e c e s -

. q ta te d , g iv e n L e i b n i z ' u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f s u p r e m e p e r f e c t io n , a s t h e

p o w e r t o p e r s is t se l f - i d e n t i c a l ly t h r o u g h m a x i m a l r e l a t e d n e s s , n P e r -

f e c t i o n is c o m p o s s i b i l i t y w i t h u n l i m i t e d p o s s i b l e a n d a c t u a l s t a t e s o f

a f fa i rs . C r e a t i o n o f s o m e a c t u a l w o r l d i s n e c e s s a r y t o m a ~ r n i z e t h e

m o d a l i t ie s o f b e i n g t o w h i c h t h e p e r f e c t b e i n g c o u l d b e r e l a t e d , a n d

i t is a l s o n e c e s s a r y t h a t c r e a t i o n i n v o l v e a n a c t u a l i z i n g o f a s m u c h a s

c a n b e a c t u a l i z e d w i t h i n a w h o l e t h a t is i d e n t i c a l w i l: h i t s e lf i n a n d

t h r o u g h i t s m a n y - f a c e t e d n e s s . T o b e s ur e , t h e i n f i n i t u d e w h i c h

c h a r a c t e r i z e s L e i b n i z ' s u p r e m e l y p e r f e c t b e i n g i s b y n o m e a n s t h e

o .n ly w a y to s p e c i f y t h e m e a n i n g o f p e r fe c t i o n . T h e r e a r e i n c o m p a t -

i b le a l te r n a t i v e s p e c i f ic a t io n s w h i c h n e i t h e r p e r m i t t h e o n t o l o g ic a l

a r g u m e n t n o r y i e l d g u i d a n c e a s t o t h e n a t u r e o f b e s t w o r l d a s L e i b -

'~ I t c an n o t b e o v e r l o o k ed , h o wev e r , t h a t L e i b n i z h i m s e l f r e fu s es t o p e rm i t

a n y d e d u c t i o n o f G o d ' s g o o d n e s s f r o m h i s p e r fe c t io n ; h e r e m a i n s s t e a d f a st

i n i n s i s ti n g u p o n t h e p u zz l i n g b u t i n e rad i c ab l e d i s ti n c t i o n b e t ween G o d ' s

m e t a p h y s i c a l a n d m o r a l p e r f e c ti o n . T h u s , b e f o r e e m p l o y i n g a n o n t o l o g i c a l

a r g u m e n t i n t h e i n t e r e s t o f a L e i b n i z e a n t h e o d i c y , i t w o u l d b e n e c e s s a r y

t o e x a m i n e w h y L e i b n i z a r g u e d i n th i s m a n n e r a n d w h y h e n e e d n o t h a v e

d o n e s o. S u c h a n e x a m i n a t i o n w o u l d n e e d t o c o n f r o n t a l s o t h e c o n se -

q u e n c e s f o r a L e i b n i z e a n t h e o l o g y o f d e n y i n g t h e d i s t i n c t i o n . I h a v e

a rg u ed t h i s p o i n t a t l en g t h e l s ewh ere , h o wev e r , an d wi l l n o t r ecap i t u l a t e

t h e m a t t e r h e r e . S e e m y T h e N e c e s s i t y o f C r e a t i o n , I n t e r n a t i o n a l

J o u r n a l

f o r h i l o s o p h y o f

R e l i g i o n , f o r t h c o m i n g . L e t it s u ~ c e f o r p r e s e n t

p u r p o s e s t o c i te J o h n W . N a s o n , L e i b n i z a n d t h e L o g i c a l A r g u m e n t f o r

In d i v i d u a l Su b s t an ces (M i n d 5 1 , 19 4 2, p p . 2 18 -1 9) : In s h o r t , G o d m u s t

a c t u p o n s o m e r e a s o n . B e i ng p e r f e c t ly w is e a n d p e r f e c t ly g o o d , h e m u s t

ch o o s e t o c r ea t e t h e b es t p o s s i b l e wo r l d . T o s ay t h a t h e w i ll n o t f a i l t o

c rea t e t h i s s o r t o f wo r l d , b u t t h a t h e i s n o t co n s t r a i n ed t o d o s o (p a ra -

g r a p h 4 5 ) i s t o s a y w h a t i s n o t t ru e . G o d c a n n o t a c t c o n t r a r y t o h is o w n

n a t u r e . I t w o u l d b e c o n t r a r y t o h i s n a t u r e i f h e c r e a t e d a n y b u t t h e b e s t

wo r l d . T h e re fo re , t h e b es t w o r l d , an d t h a t m e an s fo r L e i b n i z t h i s wo r l d ,

i s n eces s a ry ; an d wh a t i s m o re i t i s n eces s a ry wi t h ab s o l u t e o r m e t a -

p h y s i ca l n eces s i t y , fo r i n t h e l a s t r e s o r t t h e a s s u ran ce t h a t t h i s i s t h e b es t

o f a l l p o s s i b le wo r l d s m u s t r e s t an d can o n l y r e s t o n t h e p ro p o s i t i o n t h a t

G o d i s p e r f e c t i n e v e r y r e s p e c t c o m b i n e d w t h t h e p r i n c i p l e o f c o n t r a -

d i c t i o n .

1 0See a l s o t h c Di s co u r s e o n M e t ap h y s i c s , p a rag ra p h 6 .

l J F o l l o w i n g C a r t e s i a n p h i l o s o p h y g e n e r a l l y , w h o s e t h in k i n g a b o u t B e i n g

ro o t ed i n P l a t o ' s So p h i s t 2 47 , w i t h an em en d a t i o n o f en e rg e i a fo r d y n am i s .

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  6

S O P H I A

Th o u g h s o me a c tu a l e v il c o u ld c o n c e iv a b ly b e e l im in a t e d , t h e n ,

t h e r e i s n o r e a s o n to s u p p o s e t h a t t h e r e s u l t wo u ld n o t r e s t r i c t c o rn -

poss ib i l i ty and fo rec lose fu r th e r ac tua l izab le poss ib i l it i es , wh ich w ould

be to suppose a s ta te o f a f fa i r s the sus ta in ing o f which would con-

t r a d i c t t h e d iv in e e ss en ce . G iv e n G o d ' s me ta p h y s i c a l p e r f e c t i o n , h e

c o u ld n o t h a v e c h o s e t o a c tu a l i z e a wo r ld wh e re in c o mp o s s ib i l i t y i s

n o t a s g r e a t a s p o s s ib l e ; t h u s , f o r a n y e v i l, t h e n o n -o c c u r r e n c e o f t h a t

e v i l m u s t e n t a i l a wo r ld le ss f u l l t h a n t h is o n e . T h e c o s mo s m u s t

s o me h o w b e b e t t e r i f i t i s f o r t h e s a k e o f t h e g r e a t e s t a c tu a l i t y

p o s s ib l e c o n c o mi t a n t w i th s imp l i c i t y o f s t r u c tu r e , t h e c r e a t e d ima g e

o f t h e d iv in e p e r f e c t i o n .

( 3 )

C o n c l u d i n g a p p r o p r i a t i o n

F o r J o h n H i c k , t h e f u n d a m e n t a l p r o b l e m i n t h i s A u g u s t i n i a n - L e i b -

n i z e a n t h e o d ic y i s t h a t i t r e d u c e s t h e c o n c e p t io n o f Go d ' s r e l a t i o n -

s h ip t o t h e wo r ld t o imp e r s o n a l a n d s u b -p e r s o n a l ca t e g or i es . I n

s u p p o r t o f t h is c o n t e n t io n , H ic k a d v a n c e s a s i x - fo ld a rg u m e n t : ( 1 )

Go d ' s g o o d n e s s a n d lo v e a r e s e e n me re ly a s c r e a t i v e f e c u n d i ty : ( 2 )

Go d ' s mo t iv e s f o r c r e a t i n g a r e me re ly t h e s e l f -d i f fu s in g n a tu r e a d

i n t ra

a n d n o t l o v e : ( 3 ) M a n i s n o t v a lu e d fo r h i s o wn s a k e , b u t

mere ly as a l ink in a g rea t cha in : (4 ) S in as a pe rsona l ac t i s los t

s igh t o f : (5 ) Ev i l a s p r iva t ion i s seen as impersona l and hence i t s

ex is ten t ia l se r iousness i s un jus t i f iab ly de f ined away ; and (6 ) Th ings

in g e n e ra l a r e l o o k e d a t me re ly a e s th e t i c a l l y r a th e r t h a n mo ra l l y

op. cir . ,

p p . 1 9 9 -2 0 1 ) . I n t h e l i g h t o f t h e fo r e g o in g e x p o s i ti o n , i t

s h o u ld b e p o s s ib l e i n t h e s e c o n c lu d in g r e ma rk s t o ma k e a n a d e q u a t e ,

b u t b r i e f , r e p ly t o H ic k ' s c r it i ci s ms . P o in t s ( 4 ) a n d (6 ) a r e d e a r ly

i r r e l e v a n t t o Le ib n i z ' o wn p o s i t i o n : Le ib n i z n e v e r d e n i e s t h e r e a l i t y

o f mo ra l e v i l r e s u l t i n g f ro m f r e e c h o i c e s , a n d t h e r i g o ro u s me ta -

p h y s i c a l e x p o s i t i o n o f t h e p r in c ip l e o f t h e b e s t , wh ic h e x h ib i t s u n d e r

th e c o n d i t i o n s o f f i n i t e a c tu a l i t y t h a t s u p re me p e r f e c t i o n wh ic h i s

G o d ' s u n l im i t e d c o m p o s s ib il i ty , is b y n o s t r e t c h o f t h e im a g in a t i o n

re d u c ib l e t o a wa y o f l o o k in g a t t h in g s g ro u n d e d in

aes thes is .

P o i n t

(5 ) r e q u i r e s r e s t a t e me n t , a t t h e v e ry l e a s t , s i n c e Le ib n i z h o ld s o n ly

th a t p r iv a t i o n i s t h e es sence o f e v i l , n o t t h a t e v i l i s n o t e x p e r i e n c e d

in e x c e e d in g ly p o s i ti v e a n d p e r s o n a l t e rms a s p a in a n d s u f fe r in g . I t

is d if fi cu l t t o f e e l t h e fo r c e , i n p o in t s ( 1 ) a n d (2 ) , o f t h e t e rm

m e r e l y : c o u ld o n e a sk

m o r e

o f G o d th a n t h a t h i s g o od n e s s, lo v e , a n d

mo t iv e s f o r c r e a t i o n a r e h i s c r e a t i v e f e c u n d i ty , wh o s e s e l f - e x p re s s io n

h a s n o e n d f ro m e v e r l a s t in g t o e v e r la s t i n g ? P o in t ( 3 ) is H ic k ' s m o s t

se r ious c r it i c i sm, to the e f fec t tha t m an ' s w or thwhi leness in the la rge r

s c h e me o f t h in g s i s c o m p ro m is e d . T h e c ru c i a l p a ss a g es i n t h e

T h e o d i c y

p e r t i n e n t t o t h e s e c r i t i c i s ms o c c u r a t I I , 1 1 8 a n d 1 1 9 :

. . . t h e m o ra l o r p h y s i c a l g o o d a n d e v i l o f ra t i o n a l c r e a tu r e s d o e s

n o t i n f in i t e ly e x c e e d th e g o o d a n d e v i l wh ic h i s s imp ly me ta p h y s i c a l ,

n a me ly t h a t wh ic h l i e s i n t h e p e r f e c t i o n o f t h e o th e r c r e a tu r e s .

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1 ]

L E I B N I Z O N E V I L

T h u s o n e c a n e s t e e m f i t t in g l y t h e g o o d t h in g s d o n e b y G o d o n l y

w h e n o n e c o n s id e r s t h e i r w h o l e e x t e n t b y r e l a t i n g t h e m t o t h e e n t i r e

u n i v e r s e .

T h e f u n d a m e n t a l i ss u e h e r e i s w h e t h e r p l e n i t u d e is a t t h e e x p e n s e o f

p e r s o n h o o d , w h e t h e r i t c a n b e a f f ir m e d t h a t g o o d f o r t h e c o s m o s i s

b e t t e r t h a n g o o d m e r e l y f o r m a n . I f t h e p r e c e d i n g l i n e o f a r g u m e n t

i s c o g e n t , i t w i l l f o l lo w t h a t t h e o n l y a p p r o p r i a t e m e a n s f o r dec id ing

t h i s q u e s t i o n w o u l d b e t o r e f e r a g a i n t o t h a t c o n c e p t o f s u p r e m e

p . rf e c ti o n i n i ts e l f, w h i c h w i l l b e r e g u l a t i v e o f m a n ' s u n d e r s t a n d i n g

o f t h e c r e a t e d o r d e r a s a w h o l e. S e t i n th i s c o n t e x t , th e q u e s t io n i s

r e a d i l y a n s w e r a b l e : G o d ' s n a t u r e a s u n l i m i t e d c o m p o s s i b i l i t y r e q u i re s

t h a t h e c r e a t e a w o r l d s t r u c t u r e d n o t f o r t h e s a k e o f a n y o n e s p e c i e s

o f it s m e m b e r s , b u t f o r t h e s a k e o f t h e u n i t y o f th e w h o l e . W h e t h e r

o r n o t s u c h a w o r l d i s a l t o g e t h e r p l e a s in g to m a n c a n n o t b e a r e l e -

v a n t c o n s i d e r a t i o n , i f n o o t h e r w o r l d w h i c h a l so c o u l d t r u l y e x h i b it

t h e n a t u r e o f i ts c r e a t o r i s p o ss i b le , t* O n e m i g h t , w i t h V o l t a i r e ,

p r e ss t h e m a t t e r o f w h y t h i s w o r l d is n o t d e v o i d o f h u m a n s u ff e ri n g,

a s i f s u c h mu s t b e a b e s t w o r l d , b u t t o d o s o w o u l d r e q u i r e a m o r e

r i g o ro u s a c c o u n t o f w h a t m e t a p h y s i c a l a n d m o r a l p e r f e c t i o n c o u l d

b e sserted t o b e t h a n e i t h e r V o l t a i r e , o r J o h n H i c k , i s p r e p a r e d t c

s u p p l y .

1 4 - . . . i t m u s t b e b o r n e in m i n d t h a t w h e n o n e h a s f o re s e e n th e e v il a n d

h as n o t p rev en t ed i t a l t h o u g h i t s eem s a s i f o n e co u l d h av e d o n e s o wi t h

eas e , an d o n e h as d o n e t h i n g s t h a t h av e f ac i l i t a t ed i t , i t d o es n o t fo l l o w

o n t h a t a cco u n t n eces s a r i l y t h a t o n e i s acces s o ry th e re t o . I t i s o n l y a

v e r y s t r o n g p r e s u m p t i o n , s u c h a s c o m m o n l y r e p l a c e s t r u t h i n h u m a n

a f fa i r s , b u t wh i ch wo u l d b e d es t ro y ed b y an ex ac t co n s i d e ra t i o n o f t h e

fac t s , s u p p o s i n g t h a t we were cap ab l e o f t h a t in r e l a t i o n t o Go d . (P re l i m .

Diss. , 33).