LECTURE 09

DATA COLLECTION

Mazhar Hussain

Dept of Computer Science

ISP,Multan

Mazhar.hussain@isp.edu.pk

RESEARCH

METHODOLOGY

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ROAD MAP

Introduction

Chosing your research problem

Chosing your research advisor

Literature Review

Plagiarism

Variables in Research

Construction of Hypothesis

Research Design

Writing Research Proposal

Writing your Thesis

Data Collection

Data Representation

Sampling and Distributions

Paper Writing

Ethics of Research

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DATA COLLECTION METHODS

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Data Collection

Primary Sources Secondary Sources

Observation Interviews Questionnaire Records

METHODS OF DATA COLLECTION

Primary Sources

Secondary Sources

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METHODS OF DATA COLLECTION

Primary Sources

Information must be collected

First-hand information

Examples

Attitudes of community towards health

services

Determining job satisfaction of employees

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METHODS OF DATA COLLECTION

Secondary Sources

Information required is already

available and need only be extracted

Examples

Use of census data to obtain information

on the age-gender structure of a population

Use of hospital records to find out

mortality patterns in a community

Use of an organization’s records to

ascertain its activities

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COLLECTING DATA USING PRIMARY SOURCES

Observation

Interviews

Questionnaire

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OBSERVATION

Watching and listening to an interaction or

phenomenon as it takes place

Examples

Learning about the interaction in a group

Study the behaviour or personality trait of an

individual

In situations where full or accurate information

cannot be collected by questioning

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OBSERVATION

Two types

Participant observation

Non-participant observation

Participant Observation

The researcher participates in the activities of the

group being observed in the same manner as its

members, with or without their knowing that they

are being observered

Examples

Study life of prisoners – pretend to be a prisoner

Examine the reaction of general public towards people in

wheel chair – observe by sitting in wheel chair9

OBSERVATION

Non-participant observation

The researcher does not get involved in the activities of

the group but remains a passive observer, watching and

listening to its activities and drawing conclusions

Examples

Study the functions carried out by nurses in the hospital –

Watch, follow and record their activities

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PROBLEMS WITH OBSERVATION

When individuals or groups become aware that

they are being observed, they may change their

behaviour.

Positive or negative – may increase or decrease

productivity

Also known as Hawthorne Effect

Possiblity of observer bias

Interpretations drawn from observations may

vary from observer

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RECORDING THE OBSERVATION

Narrative

Researcher records a description of the interaction in

his own words

Brief notes while observing the interaction – makes

detailed narrative notes soon after the interaction

Advantage – Deeper insight

Disadvantage

Observer biased

Different observers – Comparability is difficult

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RECORDING THE OBSERVATION

Scales

Observer develops a scale in order to rate various

aspects of interaction or phenomenon

Recording is done on the scale

Does not provide in-depth information

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-5 -4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 5

Netural PositiveNegative

RECORDING THE OBSERVATION

Error of central tendency

If the observer is not very confident, may tend to

avoid extreme positions on the scale using mostly the

central part

Halo Effect

Error introduced when the way an observer rates an

individual on one aspect influences the way he rates

that individual on other aspects

Teaching – Performance in one subject may influence

the impression on other subjects

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RECORDING THE OBSERVATION

Categorical Recording

Record observations using categories

Type and number depend on the problem

Examples

Passive/Active

Sometimes/Never/Always

Strongly Agree / Agree / Uncertain / Disagree/ Strongly

disagree

Same problems as with Scales

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RECORDING THE OBSERVATION - TOOLS

Paper and pencil

Cheap, limited to writing speed

Audio

Users speak what they are thinking

Video – accurate and realistic

Advantage: Play back many times before

drawing conclusion

Users may not behave naturally in front of

camera16

RECORDING THE OBSERVATION - TOOLS

Computer logging – automatically done

Large amounts of data difficult to analyze

User notebooks – User takes notes

himself

Coarse and subjective

Good for longitudinal studies

Mixed use in practice

Audio/video transcription with paper

record of significant events17

OBSERVATION – PHYSIOLOGICAL METHODS

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Eye Tracking

Physiological Measurements

EYE TRACKING

Head or desk mounted equipment tracks the

position of the eye

Eye movement reflects the amount of cognitive

processing required

Measurements include

Fixations: Eye maintains stable position. Number

and duration indicate level of difficulty with display

Saccades: Rapid eye movement from one point of

interest to another

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EYE TRACKING

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PHYSIOLOGICAL MEASUREMENTS

These may help determine a user’s reaction to an

intervention

Measurements include:

Heart activity, including blood pressure, pulse etc.

Activity of sweat glands

Activity in muscles

Activity in brain

Difficulty in interpreting these physiological

responses - more research needed

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COLLECTING DATA USING PRIMARY SOURCES

Observation

Interviews

Questionnaire

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INTERVIEWS

A person to person interaction between two or

more individuals with a specific purpose in mind

Can be:

Flexible

Interviewer has the freedom to formulate questions as they

come to mind around issue being investigated

Inflexible

Strictly keep the questions decided before hand

Interviews are classified according to the degree

of flexibility

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INTERVIEWS

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Interviews

Unstructured Structured

Flexible Rigid

Different levels of flexibility

UNSTRUCTURED INTERVIEWS

Almost complete freedome in terms of content

and structure

Freedom in sequence, wording and explanation of

questions

Forumalate questions on the spur of the moment

depending upon the context of the discussion

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STRUCTURED INTERVIEWS

Pre-determined set of questions

Same wording and sequence of questions as

specified in the interview schedule

Written list of questions

Open ended

Closed ended

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COLLECTING DATA USING PRIMARY SOURCES

Observation

Interviews

Questionnaire

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QUESTIONNAIRE

Written list of questions – answers are recorded

by respondents

Respondents

Read the questions

Interpret what is expected

Write the answers

Contrary to interview – No one to explain the

questions

Questionnaire must be clear and understandable

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INTERVIEW VS. QUESTIONNAIRE

Nature of Investigation

An issue - respondents may feel reluctant to disucss

with an investigator – Questionnaire ensures

anonymity

Examples: Drug use, criminal activities, personal info

Geographical Distribution of study population

Potential respondents – scattered over a wide area

Interviews – Too expensive

Type of study population

Illiteraute, very young or very old, handicapped –

Interviews are a good option

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QUESTIONNAIRES

Opening

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In order to gain an understanding of the situation

of employment in the country, we would like to

ask some questions about your work history

………….

Example paras in your text book

ADMINISTRATING A QUESTIONNAIRE

Mailed questionnaires

Send by mail – most common

Assumption – access to addresses of respondents

Also send a pre-paid self addressed envelope with the

questionnaire

Accompanied by a covering letter

Problem – low response rate

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ADMINISTRATING A QUESTIONNAIRE

Collective Administration

Captive Audience – Students in a

class, people in a function,

participants in a conference

High response rate

Explain the purpose/questions

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ADMINISTRATING A QUESTIONNAIRE

Administration in a public place

Shopping centers, parks etc.

Slightly time consuming

Similar advantages as collective administrative

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COVERING LETTER WITH QUESTIONNAIRE

Introduce yourself and institution

Objectives of study

General Instructions

Assure about anonymity of information

Provide contact number

Give a deadline/return address

Thank them for participation

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ADVANTAGES OF QUESTIONNAIRE

Less expensive

Save time, finances and human resource

Convenient and inexpensive

Collective administration – least expensive

Greater anonymity

No face to face interaction

Sensitive questions – likely to have more accurate

responses

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DISADVANTAGES OF QUESTIONNAIRES

Limited application

Study population that can read and write

Low response rate

People do not return questionnaires – 25 to 30%

Effective sample size will reduce

Selection bias

Those who returned may have attributes different

from those who did not return

Findings may not be representative of population

Clarification of issues

Can not clarify the questions36

DISADVANTAGES OF QUESTIONNAIRES

Spontaneous responses

Inappropriate when spontaneous responses are

required

Questionnaire gives time to reflect before answering

Cosultation

Respondent may consult others – not own opinion

Influence of other questions

Respondent can see all questions before answering

Knowledge of other questions may affect the response

to a question

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FORMS OF QUESTIONS

Open Ended Questions

Possible responses are not given

Answer in words of respondents

Example: What is your average annual income?

Closed Ended Questions

Possible answers in the questionnaire

Respondent ticks the appropriate choice

Example: What is your average annual income?

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Under 10, 000

10, 000 – 19, 999

20, 000 – 39, 000

40,000 +

OPEN ENDED QUESTIONS

Provide in-depth information

Analysis is difficult

Respondent feel free – variety in information

Respondents may not be able to express

themselves

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CLOSED ENDED QUESTIONS

Information lacks depth and variety

Researcher’s Bias – Only those choices are listed

which researcher thinks are the possible answers

Ease of answering – ready-made list of responses

Ensure that required information is obtained

Analysis is easy

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CONSIDERATIONS IN FROMULATING

QUESTIONS

Use simple and everyday language

Avoid technical terms

Example: ‘Is anyone in your family dipsomaniac?’

Do not ask ambiguous questions

Are you satisfied with your canteen?

Which aspect: Service, prices, quality of food?

Do no ask questions based on presumptions

How many cigarettes do you smoke in a day?

Do not ask leading questions

Unemployment is increasing, isn’t it?

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CONSIDERATIONS IN FROMULATING

QUESTIONS

Do not ask double-barrelled questions

Question within a question

You do not know which particular question the user

has answered

Some respondents may answer both the questions,

others may answer only one

Example:

How often and how much time do you spend on each visit?

Does your department have a special recruitment policy of

minorities and women?

YES – for both categories?

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COLLECTING SENSITIVE INFORMATION

Direct Manner

May be offensive

Indirect Manner

Showing cartoons

Asking to pick up cards

Asking to complete sentences etc.

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COLLECTING DATA FROM SECONDARY

SOURCES

Government of semi-government publications

Census, surveys, economic reports

Earlier Research

Personal records

Historical and personal records

Mass media

Newspapers, magazines etc.

Ensure validity and reliability

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REFERENCES

Research Methodology, Ranjit Kumar, Chapter 9

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The material in these slides is based on the following resources.