LEARNING UNIT 3: DYNAMICS OF

ORGANISATIONAL COMMUNICATION

That is: “Who speaks to whom in an organisation”

NETWORKS

20x Learning Unit Objectives; 8x sessions; Important for your TEST, ASSIGNMENT and EXAM

Angelopulo & Barker 2013: 75-109

CEO

HR Manager IT Manager Financial

Manager

Secretary

NETWORKS AND COMMUNICATION NETWORKSANGELOPULO & BARKER 2013: 76

Definitions:

• Networks: Lines or channels that the organisation uses to convey information from one person to another.

• Communication networks: specific lines/ channels of communication used to convey information from one person to another; between three (3) or more people. Organisations traditionally used channels of communication in a monologue to give instructions to employees. Today, communication channels are used to create a dialogue between employees and employers.

#1 INTERNAL & EXTERNAL-; FORMAL & INFORMAL-; AND UPWARD, DOWNWARD & LATERAL NETWORK SYSTEMS IN AN ORGANISATION- ANGELOPULO & BARKER 2013: 77

Internal External

Carry information within the organisation through interdepartmental routes

Example: __________________________________________________

Carry information from the organisation to the outside and visa versa

Example: __________________________________________________

FORMAL- AND INFORMAL COMMUNICATION IN AN ORGANISATION- P75 IN INTEGRATED ORGANISATIONAL COMMUNICATION -

Formal InformalCommunication is used according to rules, regulations and procedures endorsed by management. E.g. officially written or verbal channels such as interviews, training programmes, memo’s or annual reports

Communicating through interpersonal relationships; exchanging unofficial information. E.g. a conversation between colleagues about work issues.

Possible assessment question: Distinguish between formal and informal communication within an organisation [5 marks]

DIRECTION OF FLOW OF COMMUNICATION IN AN ORGANISATION- P. 75 IN INTEGRATED ORGANISATIONAL COMMUNICATION -

Within an organisation, information can flow downward (from top management to subordinates), upward (from employees to top management), lateral/ horizontal (between employees on the same hierarchal level), or informally (through interpersonal relationships).

Downward flow of information: Also referred to as ‘top-down’ communication; used to give instructions, provide feedback to employees about job performance, etc.

Upward flow of information: Also known as ‘bottom-up’ communication; used to give criticism, complaints and suggestions from employees, or to provide feedback on tasks completed

Lateral/ Horizontal flow of information: Used to share information between departments; e.g. the Production Manager and the Human Resources Manager discussing bonuses for staff.

#2 FOUR (4) FUNCTIONS OF COMMUNICATION WITHIN AN ORGANISATION- ANGELOPULO & BARKER 2013: 77-78

1. Information dissemination function – communication provide information which helps employees to do their job;

2. Control function – the rules and regulations that govern the operations within the organisation (e.g. a code of conduct). It is usually downward communication;

3. Persuasive function – communication is used to gain compliance and agreement from employees to perform tasks… explaining to employees how their work contributes to the success of a project; and

4. Integrative function – here, communication is used to help new employees feel part of the organisation to create unity and cohesion; e.g. induction programmes.

#3 SEVEN (7) NETWORK ROLES- ANGELOPULO & BARKER 2013: 78

Thus, the functional role people/ members of an organisation play regarding communication (communication has its function (inform, persuade, control, integrate), while individuals play the following roles)

I. Members: these employees are senders and receivers of information

II. Isolates: these employees are individuals or groups that seldom communicate with the rest of the organisation – e.g. people working from home, scientists in a laboratory, etc.

III. Liaisons: these employees act as the link between different groups to facilitate communication and information flow between them – e.g. admin staff

IV. Bridges: these employees ‘connect’ groups with one another by being part of both – e.g. a manager sharing duties within the production and communication departments

v. Cosmopolites/ boundary spanners: these employees communicate with groups outside of the organisation – e.g. sales representatives

vi. Gatekeepers: these employees decide which information is disseminated and which are not. Managers often communicate certain information to employees, while keeping sensitive information a secret

vii. Opinion leaders: these employees influence others in a network to take/ not take certain actions. The influence of opinion leaders can function either formally or informally

Examples of opinion leaders include Chad Le Clos & Ryk Neethling for Virgin Active; and Nelson Mandela (Madiba) for the ANC

TEST YOUR KNOWLEDGE:1. Explain what is meant by ‘Dynamics of

organisational communication’.

2. Differentiate between Upward, Downward and Lateral/ Horizontal network systems in an organisation.

3. Briefly explain each of the network roles. Provide an example of each.

#4 FIVE (5) TYPES OF NETWORKS IN ORGANISATIONS (NB!)- ANGELOPULO & BARKER 2013: 78-82

Chain network (also referred to as the line network); I

Y-network; Y Wheel network; X

Circle network; and All-channel network.

* refer to print-outs

Centralised Networks; more formal

Decentralised Networks; more informal

#5 COMMUNICATION CHARACTERISTICS OF NETWORKS- ANGELOPULO & BARKER 2013: 82

These six (6) characteristics can affect communication in networks:

1) Size: the more people (links) there are in the network, the bigger the chance of miscommunication

2) Content/ function: Different networks have different purposes – e.g. an all-channel network is better equipped for social tasks, whereas the Y-channel is used for executing tasks effectively

3) Formality: whether the channel is used for formal or informal reasons4) Centralisation/ dominance: whether one person is responsible for the

gathering and dissemination of information; or whether every participant in the network have access to one another

5) Multiplexity: this occur when different networks overlap with one another – e.g. you might be part of an even management team reporting to one leader (Y-channel), but also be part of a brainstorming team to solve communication problems (All-channel)

6) Network openness: Open networks include external influences, while closed networks are internally oriented

CONFLICT- ANGELOPULO & BARKER 2013: 82-83

Definition:Conflict can be defined as the interaction of

interdependent people who perceive opposition of goals, aims and values, and who see the other party as potentially interfering with the realisation of these.

I.e. People who have to work together, but have different ideas about reaching the intended outcomes.

The characteristics of conflict are: (1) incompatible goals; (2) interdependence; and (3) interaction.

#6 FIVE (5) LEVELS OF CONFLICT (I.E. WHERE IT OCCUR) AND TWO (2) TYPES OF CONFLICT- ANGELOPULO & BARKER 2013: 82-84

Levels of conflict:i. Intrapersonal conflict – conflict that occur when a person has to

make a tough decisionii. Interpersonal conflict – conflict between two peopleiii. Intergroup conflict – different teams experience conflict; e.g. two

departments within an organisation competing for a projectiv. Intragroup conflict – conflict occurring within a groupv. Interorganisational conflict – when two or more organisations are in

competition/ conflict with one another

Types of conflict:

s

1) Functional or Constructive conflict (1) (aka task-related/ cold conflict (1))

2) Dysfunctional or Destructive conflict (1) (aka socio-emotional/ hot conflict (1))

Conflict is used functionally (1) to share opposing ideas (1), seek information (1), etc.

Conflict is used as personal attacks (1) and the aim is not to find a solution to problems (1).

#7 TEN (10) STRATEGIES TO MANAGE ORGANISATIONAL CONFLICT- ANGELOPULO & BARKER 2013: 84-86

1. Avoiding

• People ignore or withdraw from conflict• A lose-lose strategy of conflict

2. Accommodating

• People are concerned with other’s goals, but not their own• People are not assertive; a win-lose strategy of conflict

3. Compromising

• People try to modify their own goals and persuade others to do the same• Also a lose-lose strategy to conflict

4. Forcing

• Known as the ‘competitive’ strategy• One person tries to dominate or intimidate the other – to force them to accept his/

her resolution

5. Confronting

• Also known as ‘collaborating’ – this strategy actively seeks to solve a problem• Problems are discussed – a win-win strategy of conflict

6. Negotiation

• People discuss conflict to produce a resolve to the conflict• Good communication skills are required

7. Third-party

interventions

• A neutral person is tasked to assist parties with their differences

• In this case, fairness is an important factor

8. Dictation

• Decisions are made (by one party) and given as an instruction to another

9. Mediation

• A neutral party facilitate the communication process between two conflicting parties

• The conflicting parties are motivated to solve their conflict

10. Arbitration

• An arbitrator listens to both parties and makes a final and binding decision

ORGANISATIONAL CULTURE (NB!)- ANGELOPULO & BARKER 2013: 86-89. *SUMMARY ON PG. 89

Definition:Organisational culture is the moral (1), social (1) and behavioural

norms (1) of an organisation (their unique way of doing things), based on the beliefs and attitudes of its members (1). Most organisational cultures emerge passively (on its own) over time (1). It is described as the glue that holds an organisation together (1).

Organisational culture Organisational climate

What an organisation “is”.A strong culture is important because it creates unity and cohesion from all employees and gives them a sense of belonging.

The “feelings” employees have about the atmosphere of an organisation.An organisation will only be successful if the right climate is created – i.e. if people feel that their expectations of the organisation is met.

#9 DIFFERENTIATE BETWEEN THE FUNCTIONALIST- & INTERPRETIVIST APPROACHES TO STUDYING ORGANISATIONAL CULTURE (INDIVIDUAL EXERCISE; 5 MINUTES)- ANGELOPULO & BARKER 2013: 90

Functionalist approach Interpretivist approach

Definition:

Explain:

Example:

Definition:

Explain:

Example:

TWO (2) APPROACHES TO ORGANISATIONAL CULTURE (SUMMARY)

Two approaches to the understanding of

organisational culture

(1) The FUNCTIONALIST

paradigm

Concerning the administration and

control of an organisation

Seek to understand the organisation –

manipulating variables to improve

performance

(2) The INTERPRETIVIST

paradigm

Concerned with how people experience

their working environment

THREE (3) SCHOOLS OF THOUGHT ABOUT ORGANISATIONAL CULTURE- ANGELOPULO & BARKER 2013: 90

A school of thought refers to how some researchers view and describe organisational culture.

i. The first school sees the organisational tasks in terms of specific and measurable traits, variables or processes – i.e. one can measure it;

ii. The second school believes that organisational culture happens when people come together and is impossible to measure; and

iii. The third school believes that organisational cultures can be used to look at organisations as microsocieties

#10 THREE (3) VIEWPOINTS IN DISCUSSING ORGANISATIONAL CULTURE- ANGELOPULO & BARKER 2013: 91

a) Corporate culturalism: organisational culture is seen as a variable that applies to the whole organisation

b) Organisational symbolism: organisational culture is seen as explaining things that happen in an organisation – e.g. an industrial strike action is seen as a result of an organisational culture of de-motivation of employees

c) Postmodernism: Concerned with the research of organisational culture

#11 ELEMENTS (7) OF ORGANISATIONAL CULTURE (NB!)- ANGELOPULO & BARKER 2013: 91-94

We can collect information about the culture of an organisation, by looking at the following elements:

Artefacts – tangible objects, e.g. brochures, furniture, office layout, etc.)

Language – the unique language used (think about journalists-, advertising executives- or public relations practitioners’ jargon)

Behavioural concepts – the rituals of an organisation, e.g. Friday braai days OR Tuesday report meetings OR orientation for new employees

Heroes – significant models to the organisation, e.g. Richard Branson to Virgin; Nelson Mandela to the ANC; Roland Ackerman to Pick-’n-Pay. Usually the founder of the organisation

Symbols – Words, gestures, pictures or objects that carry a specific meaning for the organisation, e.g. Logo’s; acronyms; mascots

Psychological phenomenon – beliefs, values and attitudes, e.g. Chartered Accountants (CA’s) from PriceWaterhouseCoopers (PWC) act differently than the Journalists from SABC or the Advertising Execs from Saatchi and Saatchi

Organisational aspects – i. type of business such as banking or retail (business environment) and ii. How new employees are integrated, e.g. training (cultural network)

#12 NAME & EXPLAIN FOUR (4) FACTORS TO BE CONSIDERED IN MANAGING ORGANISATIONAL CULTURE- ANGELOPULO & BARKER 2013: 94

1) ______________________________________:____________________________________________________________________________________________________

2) ______________________________________:____________________________________________________________________________________________________

3) ______________________________________: ____________________________________________________________________________________________________

4) ______________________________________: ____________________________________________________________________________________________________

TEST YOUR KNOWLEDGE:1. What is conflict? How can conflict be managed in an

organisation?

2. Draw a comprehensive A4 mindmap about what you’ve learned concerning organisational CULTURE. Your mindmap should include:- What is organisational culture?- What are the approaches in studying organisational culture?- What are the elements in understanding organisational culture?- What should be considered when managing organisational culture?

#13 & #14 FORMAL AND INFORMAL GROUPS IN AN ORGANISATION- ANGELOPULO & BARKER 2013: 98-99

Formal groups Informal groupsThese groups are formed by organisational appointment. These groups work in cohesion with other formal groups. Members of these groups are guided by organisational regulations.

The members of these groups join voluntarily. Informal groups are bound by similar values, attitudes and conformity.

Advantages of group behaviour Disadvantages of group behaviour

Two heads are better than one – more knowledge More options for action Better quality solutions to problems Effectiveness It is more pleasurable to work in a group

Conflict is inevitable Conflict could destroy morale Some group members could lay back and let others complete tasks Decisions take a long time to make when everyone has to agree Some people could try to dominate the group

TWO (2) PARADIGMS OF DECISION-MAKING IN ORGANISATIONS

A paradigm explains how events/ processes (and in this case ‘decisions’) occur.

1. Rational models of decision making

- Decisions are made according to rational and logical opinions to ensure effective outcomes

2. Alternative (to rational) models

- Decisions are made that would satisfy the whole situation (not

just produce an outcome); also, often

managers make decisions intuitively

(based on their instinct)

#19 & #20 INFORMATION COMMUNICATION TECHNOLOGY (ICT) AND GLOBALISATION- ANGELOPULO & BARKER 2013: 105-107

Effects of organisational communication technologyNew technology affects how organisations communicate.

Some of the effects are: On communication content: less face-to-face

communication On communication patterns: too much information can

lead to overload On communication outcomes: loss of individuality (lack

of leadership, lack of group identification, and lack of group cohesion)

On organisational structure: cost-cutting, compress time and space

Globalisation and organisational communication

What is Globalisation?It is the increased interaction in trade (creating wealth through free

trade) and communication between a global citizenry and the evolution of technology. E.g. a South African trader selling shoes to a Japanese buyer online.

Miller (2003) describes two eras: the modern era (industrial age) and the post modern era (information revolution); in the informational revolution everything moves faster and is less consistent.

Globalisation can either be seen as positive (sharing information) or pessimistic (undermining political and social institutions).

Globalisation leads to the compression of time and space; enhanced sense of global consciousness; and the disembeddedness of people and organisations.

The two (2) patterns that arise in viewing the challenges of globalisation is convergence (organisation must adapt) and divergence (cultural differences have to be acknowledged)