LEARNING Prof.Dr.Rana ZEN KUTANS 1. THE CONCEPT OF LEARNING AND ITS DEFINITION Learning is a quite permanent change in behavior as a result of reinforced repeating or experience. There are 4 points There are 4 points which are emphasized in this definition. 1. Learning is a change in behavior. This change may be in a positive or negative way. 2. In order to define a change in behavior as permanent, this change has to be quite permanent. 3. For learning, there should be some kind of repetition or experience (experiencing the event). 4. In order to make learning happen, there should be repetition or reinforcement of the experience in any way. 2. RESEARCH MADE ON LEARNING The process of learning is under the influence of many variables. In order to understand learning, it is necessary to know which variables are influential in the learning process and under what conditions they are influential The most widely used learning exercises are word lists, problem solving and word pairs. The most widely used learning exercises are word lists, problem solving and word pairs. 3.THEORIES OF LEARNING 3.1. Behaviorist Learning Theories : According to the behaviorist learning theories, learning is a relationship between the stimuli and behavior. Therefore, in order to clarify learning, it is necessary to know the quality of the relationship between the stimuli and behavior. Classical Conditioning: Classical Conditioning: The basis of Pavlovs experiments of forming a relationship between the stimuli and response is determining the fact that external stimuli may be influential on the emergence of reflexive behaviors. In the experiment Pavlov conducted on dogs, he examined whether the stimuli which are normally ineffective (neutral) in terms of saliva reflex such as bell ringing or turning on lights will cause saliva reflex or not. Food (Unconditioned Stimulus) Saliva Release (Unconditioned response) Bell ringing (Conditioned Stimulus) Saliva Release (Conditioned response) When food (unconditioned stimulus) is presented, the unconditioned response emerges because in order that this reflex emerges, the experimental subject does not need to experience an event and learn it. However, in the second condition, there is a bell (conditioned stimulus) and a conditioned response, because the experimental subject here (the dog) has been conditioned by the experience of food-bell matching constantly and has learnt it. Also, even fear can be taught. Experimental Neurosis: If the experimental subject is under stress while the experiment is conducted, certain kinds of overreaction may occur. Operant (Instrumental) Conditioning: It has been stated that the stimulus does not trigger a reaction all the time while learning a behavior, these are mostly voluntary behaviors and as a result of these trial-and-error kind of behaviors, the events are repeated. The cats which are put into an experimental box form a relationship by the method of trial-and- error between the environmental effects (opening the box by pushing buttons) and desired outcome (the reward) to get out of the box and reach the food. After a while, they repeat only the behaviors which lead to the conclusion (pushing the button), not the others (e.g. touching the walls). The influence of these outcomes on behavior is called Law of Effect. The Differences Between Classical Conditioning and Operant Conditioning: 1- While classical conditioning is applied to reflexes, operant conditioning is applied to voluntary behaviors. The first kind of behavior is called reactional behavior and the second one is called operant (instrumental) behavior. 2- Although the operant behavior is not a reaction to a stimulus within the environment, it is related to some factors within this environment, especially to rewards and punishments. Superstitious Behavior: The behavior and the outcome are independent. 3.2. Cognitive Learning Theory According to the defendants of the cognitive learning theory, learning occurs systematically and purposefully. Associations between the stimulus and reaction occur with cognitive processes. Stimulus Organism Reaction In an experiment, two groups of mice were put into a labyrinth. The food was given to the group that exited the labyrinth, not to the other group. The next time they were put into the labyrinth, the group that was given food exited the labyrinth within a shorter period of time and with less mistakes. While explaining the mouses learning of the labyrinth,Tolman stated that the mouse creates a cognitive map in its brain While explaining the mouses learning of the labyrinth,Tolman stated that the mouse creates a cognitive map in its brain 3.3. Social Learning Theory Social learning theory consists of the combination of environmental factors and experience by which the behaviorist approaches explain learning and internal factors on which the cognitive approach focuses. Stimulus Organism Reaction Outcome(Reward/Punishment) Feedback Feedback A new concept brought by the social learning approach is self reinforcement. When an individual acts in a specific way, he/she rewards himself/herself. 4. TYPES OF LEARNING 4.1. Learning by the Trial-and Error Method In this type of learning, when the individual is confronted by a problem, he/she tries all the ways that are strained from the information filter of the brain to solve the problem and finds the solution. This solution then becomes permanent. That is, the learning occurs. For example, Edison, who invented the lightbulb, had tried many materials and finally got the desired result by using carbon. This type of learning is valid when a problem has many solutions. However, it is not a quick way of learning and requires too much effort and time. 4.2. Learning by Observation It is a type of learning which occurs by observing the behavior-outcome relationships of others, without any direct experience. For example, by watching television, reading a newspaper or from the sayings and acts of others around us, we can get information. Learning by observation is also called learning by imitation. However, it is not just a simple imitation, it is about envisaging and the evaluation of the behaviors of the model. Learning by observation is summarized under three groups: The Characteristics of the Observer: The Characteristics of the Observer: The observer should have a developed cognitive capacity enough to envisage the behaviors of the model and he/she should be able to pay attention to the behaviors of the model. The Characteristics of the Model: The more a models condition resembles the observers, the more easily the observer imitates the behaviors of this model. For instance, children can learn some skills more easily by taking their peers as a model rather than the adults. The Characteristics of the Model: The more a models condition resembles the observers, the more easily the observer imitates the behaviors of this model. For instance, children can learn some skills more easily by taking their peers as a model rather than the adults. Reinforcement of the Modelled Behaviors: If the behaviors chosen as a model result in positive reinforcement, it becomes more probable that the observer will imitate these behaviors. 4.3. Learning by Insight For this type of learning, the qualities of the intellect are very influential. The individual is confronted with a problem. For a while, the individual cannot make any progress in solving the problem. However, after a while, he/she suddenly recognizes the solution by reorganizing his/her perceptions related to the problem. In other words, he/she gains an insight. In the experiment W. Kohler conducted, it was determined that chimpanzees in a cage can reach a stick placed at a reachable distance outside the cage and they manage to get the bananas outside the cage with this stick. 5. LEARNING PRINCIPLES 5. LEARNING PRINCIPLES 5.1. Learning Curve On the learning curves, the vertical axis shows the measured performance of learning and the horizontal axis shows the number of repetitions and experiences. In each repeated trial, reaction power gradually increases Decreasing Efficiency Curve This curve shows decreasing efficiency and acceleration. If the activity is known beforehand, in the first trials the performance increases rapidly, then, this speed decreases. The learning of mental and kinetic activities is as stated in this model, especially, the learning of routine activities. LEARNING PERFORMANCE PERFORMANCE TRIALS AND TIME TRIALS AND TIME Increasing Efficiency Curve It represents positive acceleration. It is not frequent. It is encountered especially in situations where the individual learns an issue and activity about which he/she has not known anything previously. At the beginning, learning occurs slowly. After a while, it becomes accelerated. Engineering, market research, works regarding senior positions and works regarding lower positions which require many skills are learnt in this way PERFORMANCE PERFORMANCE TRIALS AND TIME S Curve: All types of learning have this kind of curve. It is encountered while learning very difficult, unknown works which require cognition (technical works which require many skills), when the learner does not bring any knowledge to the environment of learning. PERFORMANS PERFORMANS DENEMELER VEYA ZAMAN DENEMELER VEYA ZAMAN Learning Plateau In most learning cases, learning progresses at a specific speed, then, it reaches a point from which nothing new can be learned. There occurs a plateau. It is encountered in low position jobs and monotonous work which have a dead end. PERFORMANS PERFORMANS DENEMELER VEYA ZAMAN DENEMELER VEYA ZAMAN Skill Acquisition Curve This curve shows the most complicated form of learning. After the plateau, an increasing activity is recognized. The individual makes a sudden progress in learning and this enhances his/her performance further. The individual may remember the skills he/she gained by perpetual repetition; driving skills are an example. In this skill, even if the individual suspends driving, he/she will retrieve his/her skill again within a short period of time. PERFORMANCE PERFORMANCE TRIALS AND TIME TRIALS AND TIME 5.2. Fading Away of Behavior If the conditioned reaction is not reinforced, it fades away over the course of time. If the satisfactory event (that is, the reinforcer) is retracted, the frequency of the conditioned behavior decreases and inclines to fade away. In the course of time, the behavior will not be repeated. The repetition of the desired behavior in the work environment is possible only when the individuals are constantly awarded with premiums and praise. If there is no reward, the individuals will be inclined not to behave in the desired way, over the course of time. 5.3. Self Retrieval 5.3. Self Retrieval After taking a break, the individual will again start to display conditioned reaction on a specific level. If reinforcement continues this time, conditioning occurs again. Otherwise, it fades away. This shows that the conditioned reaction does not disappear completely over the course of fading away, but is suppressed. CONDITIONING FADING AWAY DNLENME ARASI RECONDITIONING CONDITIONING FADING AWAY DNLENME ARASI RECONDITIONING The amount of The amount of self retrieval self retrieval REINFORCED REPETITION REINFORCED OR REINFORCED REPETITION REINFORCED OR NON-REINFORCED REPETITIONS NON-REINFORCED REPETITIONS 5.4. Generalization A stimulus generalization is formed towards a stimulus resembling the stimuli encountered previously and a reaction generalization is formed by displaying different behaviors to get the same result. The negative aspect of the generalization is that it may lead to mistakes. (An individual who had a bad experience with a doctor may generalize it to all doctors.) 5.5. Differentiation Differentiation is the opposite of generalization. Not similarities but differences between the stimuli and reactions are taken as the basis. In differentiation, displaying different reactions to different stimuli or behaving differently to get different results is learned. It is the most important principle of learning. According to the Law of Effect developed on this issue, From the reactions displayed in the same situation, the ones which are reinforced are repeated and the ones which are punished are not repeated. The Law of Effect tells that to make learning occur, constant reinforcement is required. However, in the latent learning there is not any direct reinforcement. The Law of Effect tells that to make learning occur, constant reinforcement is required. However, in the latent learning there is not any direct reinforcement. (Latent learning: The learning occurs but it is not recognized, the informations are stored in memory and they direct the behaviors when it is required). The reward which accompanies behavior in the course of learning or follows it is called the reinforcer. 5.6.Reinforcement Types of Reinforcer: Positive-Negative Reinforcers: If the desired result is obtained by behaving in a specific way, this result is a positive reinforcer and it enhances this behavior. If an undesired result is obtained by behaving in a specific way, this behavior is avoided or altered in order not to get this result again. For instance, an individual who touches hot objects such as a stove or a fire and gets burned, he/she will not touch them again. Undesired behavior non-reinforcement Fading away External and Internal Reinforcers: External reinforcer for an external result (candy, good grade, doing homework for a present), External reinforcer for an external result (candy, good grade, doing homework for a present), If there is no external reward, internal reinforcer (self-rewarding internal emotion- playing the piano, learning a new skill) Primary and Secondary Reinforcers: If there is no external reward, internal reinforcer (self-rewarding internal emotion- playing the piano, learning a new skill) Primary and Secondary Reinforcers: Primary reinforcers, reinforcers which are not learned (food, electrical shock), Primary reinforcers, reinforcers which are not learned (food, electrical shock), Secondary reinforcers, learned reinforcers. (Social stimuli: if interest, approval, compassion etc. are repeated, they are positive reinforcers. If there are disinterest, disapproval and dislike, they become negative reinforcers. Secondary reinforcers, learned reinforcers. (Social stimuli: if interest, approval, compassion etc. are repeated, they are positive reinforcers. If there are disinterest, disapproval and dislike, they become negative reinforcers. Reinforcement Application Program: 1) Proportional programs: The reinforcer is given after a specific number of behaviors. 1) Proportional programs: The reinforcer is given after a specific number of behaviors. Fixed proportion : The number of behaviors is fixed. (charge per piece) Fixed proportion : The number of behaviors is fixed. (charge per piece) Variably proportional: The number of behaviors changes. (lottery ticket, slot machine) Variably proportional: The number of behaviors changes. (lottery ticket, slot machine) 2) Timed programs: The reinforcer is given after a specific period of time 2) Timed programs: The reinforcer is given after a specific period of time Fixed time: The time is fixed. (Monthly salary, hourly rate, weekly wage and daily wage etc.) Variable timed: The time is variable. (Receiving a letter, selling act of the marketing staff, pop-up quizzes) Fixed time: The time is fixed. (Monthly salary, hourly rate, weekly wage and daily wage etc.) Variable timed: The time is variable. (Receiving a letter, selling act of the marketing staff, pop-up quizzes) The Results of the Reinforcement Program: The frequency of the behavior in proportional programs is more than that of timed programs. The frequency of the behavior is directly proportional to the number of reinforcement. Variable programs create more resistant behaviors than fixed programs (gambling addiction). The frequency of the behavior in proportional programs is more than that of timed programs. The frequency of the behavior is directly proportional to the number of reinforcement. Variable programs create more resistant behaviors than fixed programs (gambling addiction). Control Factor: Control Factor: In order to make the reinforcer function, behavior and reinforcer relationship should certainly be formed for the experimental subject. This control power of the experimental subject facilitates learning and reinforces the behavior. Learned helplessness; In a situation where an individual carries the sentiment of being unable to control the result he/she got in a certain situation over into other environments, and even if he/she has the possibility to control it, he/she becomes more passive, leading to low self-esteem, depression and unsuccessful performance (flea, fish). 6. COGNITIVE LEARNING AND MEMORY Our capacity to operate with information and make it permanent is called memory. Thanks to our memory, we do not have to learn all the things we learned previously The Main Functions of Memory As the Tool of Information Operation Although memory has a more complex structure than the most developed computer, it operates with information just like other operation systems by carrying out three basic functions. These functions are coding, restoring and recalling of this information. Coding The information related to the place, time and frequency of repetition of some events are restored by our memory automatically although we are unaware of it. For instance, although we do not make an effort to remember what we ate last night, we can remember it easily if we want. However, in order to code the information related to the meaning, relations and organization of the events, it is required to make a conscious effort. For example, in order to keep the subjects related to the course that we study in mind, we need to make an effort. We can remember the subject of these courses only when we act in this way. Restoring Information is stored in two ways within memory. In the short-term memory, the information can be stored for a very short period of time (20-30 seconds). When someone gives his/her phone number to us, we will forget the number quickly if do not make an effort to keep it in mind. However, in long-term memory, the amount of information that can be kept in mind is almost endless Recalling To make recalling easier, we try to use objects and words as cues and we classify and organize the events we want to remember according to their mutual characteristics. In this respect, the events we recall are not a copy of the original events. 7. LEARNING STRATEGIES 7. LEARNING STRATEGIES 7.1. Learning as a whole or by dividing into parts Surveys indicate that when the material is long or when it can be divided into parts easily, this kind of learning is easier and more efficient. When a university student studies a unit in his course book, he has to read it quickly by paying attention to the titles, return to the details which require special attention and study the whole unit again. One of the strategies which is most suitable for university students is the strategy of whole- part-whole. 7.2. Reading and Explaining To make learning permanent and efficient, the reading material should be read actively. One of the easiest ways of comprehending the core of reading material is to repeat and organize the material in our own words Feedback and Programmed Learning Another way of enhancing learning and making it efficient is to give information to the learner about how much he/she learned has learned about the core material. This process is called feedback. In the Programmed Learning Technic, the material to be learned is divided into small steps from difficult to easy, which is not hard to comprehend. THANK YOU...