Hunte te

a

Departm ake

.or

Rece , 19

This rsPleisto ateAge ( ernassem edomanu usiand o spewith e ce aindica by gThe se reranges graLuken f CImpro devtechno d gthe later LSA, while foragers in wetter parts of Africa, including woodlands, riverine areas, andlakeshores, seem to have intensified the procurement of fish and plant foods. The processes ofeconoAfrica

In East(LSA) begbrose 1998LSA markmicrolithicsonal adoizations arusually cmodern cuDeacon 191996). In mthis periodday (Deacton 1982).were morefact, drychallengesout the Pl

Journal of Anthropological Archaeology 18, 165200 (1999)Article ID jaar.1998.0335, available online at http://www.idealibrary.com onmic specialization taking place in both grassland and woodland areas of Later Stone Agemay have parallels in other parts of the Old World. 1999 Academic Press

INTRODUCTION

Africa, the Later Stone Agean as early as 42,000 B.P. (Am-; Manega 1993:103). Because thes the first widespread use oftools, bone tools, art and per-

rnment, and economic special-ound fish and plant foods, it isonsidered Africas first fullylture (Brooks and Smith 1987; J.84; Klein 1992; Robbins et al.ost parts of sub-Saharan Africa,

was cooler and drier than to-on and Landcaster 1988; Hamil-Forests shrank and grasslandswidespread than at present. In

grasslands have posed majorto African hominids through-

eistocene and may have been a

major impetus to technological and cul-tural evolution (Avery 1995).

Ethnographic and ecological studieshave illuminated some of the strategiesof pastoralists and early hominids inadapting to constraints of tropical grass-lands, which include seasonal drought(Blumenschine 1987; Fratkin 1991; Frat-kin and Smith 1994; Harris 1980; Mar-shall 1994; Speth 1987). Little is known,however, about the adaptations of mod-ern hunter gatherers in African grass-lands. During the Neolithic, most EastAfrican grassland hunter gathererswere displaced or incorporated by foodproducers (Bower 1991). Archaeology isthus an important source of informationon grassland foragers. This paper devel-ops models of forager land use in aridAfrican grasslands and evaluates themrGatherer Land Use Patterns in La

Sibel Barut Kusimb

ent of Anthropology, Field Museum, Roosevelt Road at L

E-mail: barut@fmppr.fmnh

ived February 28, 1998; revision received August 17

paper discusses land use patterns of huntergatherecene East Africa, inferred from an analysis of raw m

LSA) lithic assemblages from Lukenya Hill, southblages at Lukenya fall into two groups, one based prfacture scrapers and other flake tools, and the secondbsidian lithic materials to manufacture microliths. Athnographic data on how food and water abundante that the first group of sites had longer occupationscond group of sites had shorter occupations by mo. The paper compares the land use patterns of aridya Hill, with those in woodland and forest areas ovements in the ability to procure food, such as thelogies or better hunting projectiles, allowed grasslan165r Stone Age East Africa

Shore Drive, Chicago, Illinois 60605

g

98; accepted September 8, 1998

inhabiting arid grasslands of laterrial economy in five Later StoneKenya. Later Stone Age lithic

minantly on the use of quartz tong greater amounts of rarer chertcts of raw material use, coupledffects Kalahari forager land use,roups with smaller home ranges.

mobile groups with larger homessland LSA foragers, like those at

entral and Southeastern Africa.elopment of fishing and fowlingroups to become more mobile in0278-4165/99 $30.00Copyright 1999 by Academic PressAll rights of reproduction in any form reserved.

against thfrom Luklargest ea(Barut 199

166 SIBEL BARUT KUSIMBAe LSA archaeological recordenya Hill, Kenya, one of therly LSA localities in East Africa7; Gramly 1976; Merrick 1975;

Fig. 1).environmodernduring

FIG. 1. Location of major LSA sitesexamines the role of grasslandents in the development ofhunter gatherer adaptationse East African LSA.

East Africa.Itm

th

in

THE GOALS OF THIS ANALYSIS

In this paper I review previous archae-ological muse in Afrine the eters in simiEast Africergatherelithic asseexamine traw mateences amothe differeassemblaguse patterchangingHill by exdeterminetionships iespecially1992). Finaat Lukenyraneous Aland usegrasslandments.

ARCHAHUNTER

Giffordhuntergalands moving herdshigh-moblarge homcontact wiable movelookouts omay havebriefly. Aalso beenAfrican RB.P.). Robshelter otouched b

large migratory grazers (Klein 1978, 1980).H. Deacon (1976) proposed that Robbergpeoples were herd followers of migratory

e wionrita

recedseaino a/d

r te).

fenlacwht neyogif Mlowamy hflyrb,

tchs otss tdslloour awernto

igrre

197wthten(San

167LATER STONE AGE HUNTERGATHERER LAND USEodels of huntergatherer landican grasslands and then exam-hnographic literature on forag-lar environments, including thean Hadzabe and Kalahari hunt-rs. I describe variation in LSA

mblages from Lukenya Hill andhe roles of time, function, andrial use in determining differ-ng the assemblages. I then usences in raw material use in thees to interpret prehistoric landns (M. Nelson 1992) and explainland use patterns at Lukenyaamining how water availabilitys mobility and exchange rela-n similar African environments,the Kalahari Desert (Barnard

lly, I compare land use patternsa Hill with those at contempo-frican sites to identify somepattern differences between

s and other African environ-

EOLOGICAL MODELS OFGATHERERS IN AFRICAN

GRASSLANDS

et al. (1980) proposed thattherers in East African grass-ed across the landscape follow-of migratory ungulates. This

ility strategy would requiree ranges and maintenance of

th herds through either predict-ments or visual sightings fromn high terrain. Herd followersinhabited sites seasonally or

herd-following adaptation hasascribed to makers of the Southobberg Industry (18,00012,000berg sites are ephemeral rock-ccupations including unre-ladelets and faunal remains of

anteloppopulatping ter

Somenario ahave nemal fooscavengare left(Capaldto 25 kmter thei1969:329distanceand Loragers pfoods,(but nother, thtechnolthose oples, allarge ggies malonger-multibarepaired154; Mi

Criticstress icautionlow herHerd fowhich w(Schallegroupssocial cahelplesslong mare mo(Burchand Lovores ofseasonson suchho had large group sizes, lowdensities, and large, overlap-

ories.spects of a herd-following sce-plausible. An arid climate mayssitated greater reliance on ani-

(Jacobson 1984:77). Plentiful,ble sick and drowning animalsthe wake of a migration pathnd Peters 1995). Lions travel upay when migrating animals en-rritories (Schaller and Lowther

Some humans might match thisor a limited period. Ambrosez (1990) also argue that LSA for-ed much emphasis on animalich involved higher mobilityecessarily herd following). Fur-argue that the superior huntinges of LSA groups, relative to

iddle Stone Age (MSA) peo-ed them to hunt and eat moree animals. Superior technolo-ave included more accurate or

ing projectiles, more reliableed weapons that could be easilyand poison arrows (Clark 1970:ell 1988, 1992).f the herd-following hypothesisinefficiency. Burch (1972:345)

hat humans are too slow to fol-at this pace over long distances.wing requires moving at night,ld expose humans to predatorsnd Lowther 1969:334). Humanre probably too slow and, likeivores, had young too small and

allow whole groups to followations. Ambushing and driving

efficient hunting methods2:345; H. Deacon 1995; Schallerer 1969:334). Grassland herbi-have little fat, especially in dry

inclair 1975), and a diet basedimals would be physiologically

unsoundOther herpaleo-Indito have suseasons (Recently Hthe possiband suggewere notmigration

ETHNDESER

In spitehunting agists, ethners in drmostly onBoth Kala1992; LeeTanzaniamostly plathe locatiowater souindividual

Cashdan1992) haveter availabtence amohunter gaand groupcock and Eare strong

atwr

andth

sevatenee dun

banuslarussheephrtieasns. !Keahaessim

o

TABLE 1Environment and Territoriality among Four Groups of Kalahari HunterGatherers

Territorial at level of

B

Nharo es!Kung omG/wi es!Xo es

Source. Aft

168 SIBEL BARUT KUSIMBA(Speth and Spielmann 1983).ders of large game, such as theans of the Americas, are knownbsisted on plants during certainBamforth 1991; Meltzer 1993).

. Deacon (1995) has dismissedility of Robberg herd followingsted that large grazers either

migratory at all or culled alongroutes at certain seasons.

OGRAPHIC MODELS OFT HUNTERGATHERERS

of the importance placed onnd animal foods by archaeolo-ographic data show that forag-y, tropical environments rely

plant foods for subsistence.hari huntergatherers (Barnard1979) and Hadzabe of northern

(Woodburn 1968, 1972) eatnt foods. Furthermore, it is notn of animals, but the location ofrces, that determines much ofand group movement.(1983) and Barnard (1979, 1980,shown how differences in wa-

ility affect land use and subsis-ng !Kung, Gwi, Nharo, and !Xotherers. Although band areasize are highly variable (Hitch-bert 1989), settlement patterns

ly linked to the varying surface

water pblesseding foodlongerAmongample,large wlimestodispersten aroNharoband clparticuother clsmall a1989). Thighlywith pa

In arvariatiomarkedRather,range tbands;rial claBands mlapping(Hitchcpersedlarge wmembement ispreadpattern

Rainfall(mm)

Resourcepatches Family?

400 Yes No Y400 Yes No H345 No Sometimes Y325 No Yes Y

er Barnard 1992:236.terns of each group. Groupsith concentrated or self-renew-esources tend to stay in an area

form larger groups (Table 1).e Nharo (Barnard 1980), for ex-eral bands live year-round nearrholes on the Ghanzi ridge, aformation. Nharo families mayuring wet seasons, moving of-d small water pans. Severalds form a social unit called a

ter, which is associated with aterritory rarely shared with

ters. These territories can be as30 km2 (Hitchcock and Ebertbands within a band cluster areemeral and are not associated

cular territorial areas.occupied by !Kung, seasonal

in water availability are moreung do not form band clusters.

ch !Kung band occupies a homet overlaps with that of otherentially, they recognize territo-s but share them (Lee 1976).ve across highly variable, over-erritories of 800 to 4000 km2

and Ebert 1989), being dis-wet seasons and aggregated atr holes in dry seasons. Bandip is fluid, individual move-igh, and kinship groups are

er wide areas in an anucluateellen and Harpending 1972). A

Giftexchangeand?

Bandcluster?

Yes ilaierange Hxaro

NoYes Notockinatershs hov(Y

particular group claims rights to the re-sources of an area, but it can allow otherstemporary forage rights, and indeedrarely reffriendshipwhich sucto land achange orpartners icompleme(Wiessnergifts maysuch visitsemigrate(Wiessnerhxaro amocalled //ai(Table I).

Unlike N!Xo lack laable waterries. In Gwfew and wsmall andThe !Xo livthe Kalahthe !Xo rarLike the Nband clustwith an ex6667; Hearies, unlithe !Kungstrips of nleast, contincluding(Heinz 19treme locaage in thbelongingforced to aboundarieusually mand dialecconclusionfluidity ofare relati

change system is unknown among !Xo(Heinz 1972, 1979).

Barnard (1992) and Cashdan (1983) havee

dihedtioteeareta

lanK

ralegncialthethdonmealiesalitsle

thitithssi, wpa

danfeneninrynganra

ndinthcoin

ha

169LATER STONE AGE HUNTERGATHERER LAND USEuses such rights. Kinship andare the primary means through

h rights may be gained. Rightsre expressed through gift ex-

hxaro (Wiessner 1982). Hxaron far away areas, or in areas ofntary resources, are preferred1986:107). Visits to give hxaro

take from 2 weeks to 2 years;cause about 20% of !Kung to

or immigrate every 10 years1986). Barnard (1992) records

ng !Kung and Nharo (where it is), but not among other groups

haro and !Kung, the Gwi andrge resource patches and reli-holes and do not share territo-i and !Xo areas, resources are

idely scattered. Group sizes areaggregations are short-lived.

e in one of the harshest areas ofari (Table 1). Unlike the !Kung,ely cross territorial boundaries.haro, the !Xo also recognize theer, a group of bands associatedclusive territory (Barnard 1992:inz 1979). Band cluster bound-ke the overlapping territories of, are separated by unoccupiedo-mans land. Among the !Xo, atact with a neighboring cluster,foraging or marriage, is rare

72, 1979:4723). In times of ex-l scarcity, the !Xo prefer to for-

e land of a neighboring bandto their cluster, but they may besk permission. Although clusters are occasionally crossed, theyark distinct land use, kinship,t differences (Barnard 1992). In, then, in contrast to the greater!Kung groups, those of the !Xovely nucleate. The hxaro ex-

used thamongamine tality andistribudefinesof an artrols orronmenMacmilAmongis genetween dabundaterritoramongamong(Barnarthoughenvironterritoriscarce rterritorironmenwaterhoated wiritory, wtems, wand, poologistsaround

Cashthan dedo, defforageboundaincreasicause bfended,other hagreaterthat ofgreatestgreatestthe Kaladata on settlement patternsfferent bushman groups to ex-

relationship between territori-environment, in particular then of food and water. Cashdanrritoriality as the maintenancewithin which the resident con-

stricts use of one or more envi-l resources (Carpenter and

1976:639, in Cashdan 1983:47).alahari huntergatherers, therely a positive relationship be-ree of territoriality and resourcee. In Barnards (1992) scheme,ity and nucleation are least!Kung and Nharo but increase

e Gwi and especially the !Xo1992:234; Cashdan 1983). Al-e can conceivably imagine annt with resources so scarce thatty is absent, environments ofources generally inspire greaterty. The more productive envi-of large resource patches and

s, on the other hand, are associ-greater sharing of rights to ter-h the presence of exchange sys-

less nucleate kinship groups,bly most important for archae-ith longer occupational stays

tches.(1983) notes that !Kung, rather

ding territory itself like animalsd socially recognized rights toparticular areas. This socialmaintenance does not incurcosts with territory size, be-d membership is being de-ther than land itself. On the, benefits of territoriality will be

the harshest environments, likee !Xo, where people face thempetition. Thus territoriality is

the sparest environments ofri. Further, the highly localized,

rich patches of resources in the !Kung andNharo areas make widespread alliancesadvantageous. In situations of local scar-city, resounearby areregional, athe !Xo anfunction o

BarnardcomparisoinformatiEberts (19quantitativgroup sizeresidencemany Kalentship orranchers afood prod1989). Fotrade andplants or aon residMabulla 1relationshwith neigmuch ovegreatly frofield seasSome of tremaininging Kalahexample, dognize relter groupsvironment

In spiterelations bbutions anfrom the ealso prevaenvironmemerges ffluence ofOn the onatively larresourcetional stay

patchy environments, people and ex-change items move across overlappingband territories following the changing

ilitd slikaoft1

esha,tente

ights

. Eso

ND

uks oapihobiesncesittheb

illinus

fratro1

hevJ

r s

ing

lese

170 SIBEL BARUT KUSIMBArces may be abundant in other,as. In contrast, the conditions ofs well as local, scarcity amongd Gwi negate the risk-reducingf gift exchange.s and Cashdans ethnographicns are not based on qualitativeon; indeed, Hitchcock and89) literature review shows thate measures of Kalahari forager

, range size, and length of campare highly variable. Further,

ahari groups practice some cli-exchange with pastoralists or

nd have been coevolving withucers for millennia (Wilmsenr modern hunter gatherers,work opportunities, rather thannimals, are the major influence

ence patterns (Laden 1992;996). Their ethnic identities andips with the environment andhboring groups have changedr the centuries and change

m year to year, despite the shortons of many ethnographers.hese reasons may explain thecontradictions in understand-

ari forager land use. Why, foro both the Nharo and !Xo rec-

atively endogamous band clus-in spite of their contrasting en-s?of remaining questions, the cor-etween food and water distri-d human land use that emergethnographic literature probablyiled prehistorically in similar

ents. The chief pattern thatrom the Kalahari data is the in-

water on human movements.e hand, environments with rel-ge or self-renewing water andpatches allow longer occupa-s (Hitchcock and Ebert 1989). In

availabtime anbehavepationspatchesries, orMabullaresourcrather tand !Xomore ofclusivetheir neronmenchangecause re

LUKEAN

The LKenya iAthiKCommiproughlythe largoccurreknowntion ofexposedof the halong jonumerosuitableconcenthill, are(Gramlya rocksarea [Gopen-ai

Site Dat

Sampfrom thy of resource patches acrosspace. The East African Hadzabee the !Kung in this way. Occu-re relatively long when large

mongongo nuts, baobab, ber-ubers are fruiting (Lee 1976;996). On the other hand, whenare few, small, and scattered,n patchy, such as among /Gwigroups move residences much. Further, they move within ex-rritories, rarely crossing intobors lands. In nonpatchy envi-

, groups do not practice ex-xchange is not beneficial be-urces are uniformly scarce.

YA HILLENVIRONMENTPALEOENVIRONMENT

enya Hill inselberg in southernne of the larger inselbergs in theti plains, a semi-arid Acacia/ra bushland with erratic, butennial, rainfall. The hill is one oft late Pleistocene archaeologicals in East Africa, including five

es spanning much of the dura-LSA (Fig. 2). Weathering has

edrock on the southeastern sideand caused large blocks to breakts and fall downslope, forming

rock overhangs and sheltersor human use. The five sites,ed on the southeast side of theck overhangs [GvJm19, GvJm22973), and GvJm62 (Barut 1997)],lter around 80 m2 in protectedm16 (Merrick 1975)], and anite [GvJm46 (Miller 1979)].

of bone apatite and collagenLukenya Hill sites have been

171LATER STONE AGE HUNTERGATHERER LAND USEFIG

.2.

Loc

atio

nof

LSA

site

son

and

arou

nd

Lu

ken

yaH

ill,K

enya

.

radiocarbotocene (Taracy of sucproblematto contamfrom soilwhich ofteyoung (TaLSA sitesdated, usintocene hausing othea bone rad

a

vJeiu1

r dm

derio

.uge idkThde p

1 Becauserials availablwere sampleCriteria for scompletenesdiocarbon da(Miller 1979)complete LSchosen for anwhich yieldeincluded in ttwo high-denined and radsquare C, wcluded in thapproximatematerial waswhich datedin the analysthe Holocen

TABLE 2Bone Apatite and Collagen Dates for Artifact Levels Selected

for Analysis from Lukenya Hill LSA Assemblages

Site teri

GvJm46 titetite

GvJm62 titeGvJm22 lage

lageGvJm16 lage

lageGvJm19 tite

Source. Ma

172 SIBEL BARUT KUSIMBAn-dated to the late Upper Pleis-ble 2).1 Unfortunately, the accu-h radiocarbon dates on bone isic. Archaeological bone is proneination with modern carboncarbonate and humic acids,

n makes radiocarbon dates tooylor 1987). Other East Africanwhich have been radiocarbong bone, to the late Upper Pleis-

ve yielded much earlier datesr dating methods. For example,iocarbon date from the LSA site

at the N17,550 6from GLeakeyNaisius42,000 640Ar/39Athe LSAcies unLSA rad1993:94)

Althoaccuratproducethey lindating.analyzetwo timand Gvthan 20sites, Gformed

Paleoenv

Marinthat gloat preseper Plethe Las

of the large number of LSA lithic mate-e from Lukenya, some of the collectionsd by square and depth below surface.ample selection included size, degree ofs, and association with a Pleistocene ra-te. Three of 12 excavated pits at GvJm46reached 200 cm in depth, representing aA sequence. One of these, Pit 3, wasalysis. At GvJm62 (Barut 1997), Level C,d the bulk of excavated artifacts, washis analysis. At GvJm22 (Gramly 1976),sity Pleistocene LSA levels were exam-iocarbon-dated. One of these, Level E,as a complete collection and was in-is analysis. At GvJm16 (Merrick 1975),ly half the excavated Pleistocene LSA

examined. At GvJm19, levels 115150,to the latest Pleistocene, were includedis. Upper levels of this site are dated to

e (Nelson and Mengich 1984).

Levels selectedfor analysis

Radiocarbonyears B.P. Ma

0180 cm, Pit 3 19,330 6 945 Apa20,780 6 1050 Apa

Level C, 220315 cm 21,535 6980 Apa135145 cm, Square C 13,730 6 430 Col

15,320 6 450 ColUpper shelter, 0200 cm 17,670 6 800 Col

17,700 6 760 Col115 150 cm 13,705 6 430 Apa

rean 1990:228; Merrick 1975:35.isiusiu Beds, Olduvai Gorge, is1000 B.P., similar to the datesm16 and GvJm22 (Table 2;

t al. 1972:329). However, theBeds site was redated to

000 B.P. based on single crystalating of volcanic tuffs cappingaterials. Such dating discrepan-score the unreliability of manycarbon dates on bone (Manega

h the Lukenya Hill dates are in-n an absolute sense, they wereat only two laboratories, andthe sites according to relativeey clearly demonstrate that thematerials come from roughlyeriods within the LSA. GvJm4662 date to significantly earlier0 B.P. (Table 2). The other threeJm22, GvJm16, and GvJm19,,000 years or more later.

nment of the East African LSA

oxygen isotope records showl temperatures were lower thanduring the last half of the Up-

ocene, reaching a minimum atlacial Maximum (LGM) around

al

Depth belowdatum of

radiocarbondated material

(cm) Lab number

5154 GX-53508790 GX-5350

220230 GX-5774n 190200 GX-3698n 180185 GX-3699n 135140 UCLA-1709n 140145 UCLA-1709

115120 GX-6758Jm,00

v10

iro

ebant

istt G

18,000 20,000 B.P. (Johnsen et al. 1992;Martinson et al. 1987). Land-based evi-dence for this time period shows that low-latitude clperton 199Rognon aDespite adata fromogy, palynAfrican mport a picthan today

From 50quences sing coldercially befowarmer arEast Afristands (PeDuring threached thvegetationericaceousmontane fward in althe expen1967; HamBakker anLGM, moszone drie(Gasse anHecky 191986; Stretures dropLGM, an1015% beand Kutzbrainfall wothe Kalahachardson

In spiteing this pthat someAt LukenGonzalezblages arecies, suchwith hyps

Grevys zebra, both found in dryer envi-ronments today (Marean 1992a:238).Lukenyas Holocene fauna contains more

abe f

cchse

poidun

s londavgsom

pR

sslclu

wikeeravns

nanre

galgr

sodeeon

fersereaslityan

nyhe

Mitseallea m

sth

173LATER STONE AGE HUNTERGATHERER LAND USEimates were cold and dry (Clap-3; Iriondo and Latrubesse 1994;

nd Williams 1977; Vogel 1984).bias toward high-altitude areas,lake level studies, sedimentol-ology, glacial features on Eastountains, and faunal data sup-ture of cold and greater aridity.,000 to 20,000 B.P., pollen se-

how that climate fluctuated, be-and dryer than today, espe-

re 32,000 B.P., but becomingound 25,000 B.P., when severalcan lakes experienced highrrott and Street-Perrott 1982).e LGM, East African glacierseir greatest extent. Underlyingbelts of Afroalpine grassland,bushland and thicket, and dry

orest shifted 7001000 m down-titude, expanding grasslands atse of most forest types (Coetzeeilton 1982, 1987; van Zinderend Coetzee 1972). Around thet of the Rift Valley lakes in thisd up or reached low standsd Street 1978; Haberyan and

87; Richardson and Dussingeret and Grove 1976). Tempera-ped from 5.1 to 8.8C at thed precipitation decreasedlow present levels (Hastenrathach 1983:151). Late Pleistoceneuld have been similar to that ofri today (Butzer et al. 1972; Ri-

and Dussinger 1986:169).of overall cold and aridity dur-eriod, faunal evidence showsareas remained well watered.

ya Hill (Marean and Gifford-1991), Pleistocene faunal assem-dominated by dry-adapted spe-as an extinct small alcelaphine

odont teeth, as well as oryx and

closed hcies. Thimply amentalthe Kisethe proitat bovcene boese II iwoodlacould hroundinsonal clarly, UNaseraarid gra123), intats, asand duareas wthoughconditioical fauences iSome atains,floodedlarge reexploitezabe (L1992). Cnity difand Nalocal aravailabifor hum

Luketween twoodedwell asland arRift VaLukenyregionspresentitat and water-dependent spe-aunas from Kisese II, however,ontrasting pattern of environ-ange. Unlike at Lukenya Hill,sequence shows little change in

rtions of open- and closed-hab-s across the Pleistocene/Holo-dary (Marean et al. 1990). Kis-cated on a large hill of closed

s, where more browsing speciese thrived than in the open sur-

of Lukenya (C. Marean, per-munication, May 1995). Simi-per Pleistocene fauna fromockshelter, presently in semi-and and woodland (White 1983:de species typical of such habi-ell as water-loving reduncinesrs, suggesting more vegetatede nearby (Mehlman 1989). Al-erage later Pleistocene climaticwere cold and dry, archaeolog-

l assemblages show that differ-local habitat were profound.as, such as inselbergs, moun-lery forests, and seasonallyasslands, may have supportedurce patches like those so welltoday among !Kung and Had-1979; Mabulla 1996; Ngwenotemporaneous faunal commu-ences at Lukenya Hill, Kisese,a underscore the importance of

of greater water and resourcethat were doubtless a magnet

s.a Hills ecotonal location be-open Athi Plains and the moreachakos Hills to the south, asrelative proximity to the high-

s surrounding and within they, suggests groups occupying

ay also have inhabited theseeasonally or occasionally. Ate nature of such habitation is

unknown, although Enkapune ya Mutonear Lake Naivasha has occupations con-temporaneous to the Pleistocene LSA atLukenya (Fig. 1). Rehave comPlains andfoods andCentral R1991).

Lukenya H

Obsidiamain rawblages. Oblocated onembeddedcrops overPlains aboMost of thcm in diaules are athe Athi Pthe plainsLukenya Hthe Stony(Fig. 2), alcan be fouthe Athi Pbetween 2

Unlikerelativelyroundingboth thedistributioand obsidthan clumfound in ththe GvJmHill vein qbles or angformity ancrystal.

Chemicrick andsome Lukfrom larg

Naivasha in Kenyas Central Rift Valley,150 km northwest of Lukenya Hill (Fig.3), or from the Kedong Escarpment, 65

t oecyofs pater aicgath

oti86;chmeogil sftoto

nlogfa(

ccdesua

tep

izekn

n tchtz,ereire

IBFR

grn

e tidi

174 SIBEL BARUT KUSIMBAAmbrose 1998; Marean 1992b;sources of both these areas mayplemented those on the Athimay have included more plantsmall browsing fauna in the

ift Valley (Mwajumwa et al.

ill Lithic Raw Materials

n, chert, and quartz are thematerials in the Lukenya assem-

sidian bombs and lapilli weretop of, weathering out of, andwithin a welded tuff that out-several kilometers on the Athi

ut 5 km east of Lukenya Hill.ese bombs are between 1 and 2meter (Barut 1997). Chert nod-lso widely scattered throughoutlains both in riverbeds and on. The chert source closest toill is GvJm298, the dry bed of

Athi River, 5 km from GvJm62though localized chert sourcesnd in similar riverbeds aroundlains. Most chert nodules areand 4 cm in diameter.

chert and obsidian, which arelocalized sources on the sur-plain, quartz is ubiquitous onhill and surrounding plain. Itsn thus overlaps that of the chertian, but it is more diffuse ratherped. Large quartz veins can bee inselberg bedrock adjacent to

62 and GvJm46 sites. Lukenyauartz appears as rounded cob-ular fragments that vary in uni-d grain size, including quartz

al analysis (Barut 1997; Mer-Brown 1984a, 1984b) showsenya obsidians are derived

e flow outcrops around Lake

km wesyield piand thevariety

In thiuse strby watenographhuntersuch asitself mforth 19ever, suprocuretechnolmateriacrops oneededbifaces,(SeematechnoNachikudustrieswere suquartz,Wheremon, asraw mabeddedlarger sofferedibility ilithic teon quarchert wto requtrips.

DESCR

Twobased oand corcal obsf Lukenya Hill. These outcropses larger than the local bombs,are easier to flake into a widertools.aper I have assumed that land

gies are primarily determinedvailability, according to the eth-data reviewed above. For manytherers, however, other factorse need for lithic raw materials

vated human movements (Bam-Gould and Saggers 1984). How-cases of disembedded lithicnt are always associated withes that require high-quality rawources, such as the large out-unflawed chert paleo-Indians

make fluted points and largewhich they made special trips

1994). African LSA microlithicies, however, such as then (Miller 1969) and Lemuta In-Mabulla 1996; Mehlman 1989),essfully made using only veinspite its many fracture planes.itable raw materials are com-t Lukenya Hill, special trips forrial are unnecessary, and em-rocurement is more likely. Theof nonlocal obsidians may haveappers a greater degree of flex-ool design, but, because micro-nologies can be made entirelyit is unlikely that obsidian andessential enough lithic sourcesLSA groups to make special

ING LITHIC ASSEMBLAGESOM LUKENYA HILL

oups of sites were discernedraw material proportions, toolypes, and proportions of nonlo-an (Table 3). Although all site

assemblagvein quarGvJm19 (quantitieshave highrelative toand GvJm

FIG.localitie

175LATER STONE AGE HUNTERGATHERER LAND USEes are dominated by the localtz, sites GvJm46, GvJm62, andGroup 1 sites) have very largeof quartz artifacts. They also

er proportions of vein quartzchert and obsidian. GvJm16

22 (Group 2) have moderate

quantithave hisidiansemblagers ornumberand mi

3. Location of Lukenya Hill, Kedong, and Lake Nas in Kenya.of quartz raw material and thuser proportions of chert and ob-ifacts. Typologically these as-are dominated by either scrap-

icroliths and include smallerf burins, points, percoirs, becs,llaneous tools (Barut 1997:207).

sha (Central Rift) obsidian sourceiesghartesms o

sce

iva

The quartzically scraend, steepconvex enstricted a1979) are t(Fig. 4).oblique truand misceare muchsites from

The twoedly in thBipolar redcommonwhere bipFig. 6); th(Table 4).particularllocal quarway to p(Andrefsk1992; Shotflaking casmall rawian by prfrom smaseem to ha1 sites.

The twoproportioian. Diffeflows canusing eletechnique

(1inen ftinrcrin

TABLE 3Differences in Raw Material Proportions and Tool and Core Types

in Five LSA Assemblages from Lukenya Hill

SiteTo %

GvJm46GvJm62GvJm19GvJm22GvJm16

176 SIBEL BARUT KUSIMBA-rich Group 1 sites are typolog-per-based assemblages. Side,, convex, and fan scrapers (a

d scraper whose sides are con-s though for hafting; Millerhe most common scraper typesMicroliths include crescents,ncations, curved-backed blades,llaneous microliths (Fig. 5) andmore common in the Group 2GvJm16 and GvJm22.groups of sites also differ mark-

e core reduction methods used.uction of cores was much more

in Group 1 than in Group 2,olar cores are very rare (Table 3,is is true of all raw materialsWith plentiful raw materials,

y those of poor quality like thetz, bipolar reduction is an easyroduce unstandardized flakesy 1994; Masao 1982; M. Nelsont 1989). More controlled bipolarn also extend the use life ofmaterials like chert and obsid-oducing many straight flakesll cores. Both these strategiesve been important at the Group

groups of sites also differ inns of local to nonlocal obsid-

rent East African obsidianbe distinguished chemically

ctron microprobe analysis, apioneered by Merrick and

Browndetermobsidiaably discan souof chlo

otal weightf quartz (g)

% Quartzby

number

% Coresas

quartz % Scrapers

201,155 92 83 6164,602 75 49 6047,339 85 65 5325,433 68 25 197,481 46 21 22

FIG. 4.convergeright, chquartz ste984a, 1984b). Barut (1997:264)d using the same method thatrom Lukenya Hill can be reli-guished from other East Afri-

es using quantitative measurese, manganese, and titanium.

Microliths% Bipolar

cores% Nonlocal

obsidian

14 5712 42 3020 6444 10 4760 18 73

rapers from Lukenya Hill. Top, chertcraper from GvJm62; middle, left andfan scrapers from GvJm62; bottom,scraper from GvJm19.Scnt sertep

While proobsidiansites like1984a), innonlocal othan in G

EXPLAI

The GvJassemblagGvJm22 antypologicaat many E

senefe

de

oligesse

2 Data on nGvJm22 is frthis paper, Martifacts fromsource. FurtEast Africansource variaGroup Wnya Hill obsimunication 1an earlier da

FIG. 5 nteright, ob : lemiscella

177LATER STONE AGE HUNTERGATHERER LAND USEportions of local to nonlocalvary through time at singleGvJm16 (Merrick and Brown

general, the proportion ofbsidian is greater in Group 2

roup 1.2

NING THE TWO GROUPSOF SITES: TIME

m62 and GvJm46 scraper-basedes are older than the microlithicd GvJm16 assemblages. Similarl change through time is foundast, Southeastern, and Southern

Africanthat arecludingprepareand somof micrsemblaTheseMumbaese II inMatupiNsaluKalemband De1990). Sin LSAculture-tors areGvJm19of theand rawthe oldeever, thfrom Gnot the

onlocal obsidian from sites GvJm16 andom Merrick and Brown (1984a:143). In

errick and Brown list separately theGroup W, at that time an unknown

her work with chemical signatures ofobsidian, especially looking at within-bility (Barut 1997:269), indicates thatis a chemical variant of the local Luke-dian source. H. Merrick (personal com-992) arrived at the same conclusion atte.

. Microliths from Lukenya Hill. Top row: left and cesidian miscellaneous microlith, GvJm46. Bottom rowneous microlith; and right, crescent, GvJm19.quences. Scraper assemblagesvertheless LSA in character (in-w, if any, MSA types, such ascores, points, or bifacial pieces,times including small numbersths or blade cores) predate as-

containing many microliths.quences include Nasera and

elters (Mehlman 1989) and Kis-rthern Tanzania (Inskeep 1962);ve in Uganda (van Noten 1977);

ave, Zambia (Miller 1979);Zimbabwe (Phillipson 1976);ssion Cave, Botswana (Robbinsper and microlith proportionsemblages thus may have some

storical meaning, but other fac-lso involved. For example, thete at Lukenya Hill, the youngests, shows patterns of typologyaterial use more consistent withroup of sites. Stylistically, how-

GvJm19 assemblage is distinct62 and GvJm46 and is clearlye industry; its microlithic com-

r, obsidian crescents from GvJm62;ft, chert oblique truncation; center,ShnoCaCa,

precraasshi

asi

sitemr gevJmsam

ponent, thdardized (function aculture hiing the tyGroups 1

EXPLAIO

Functionlogical dif

FIG.freehanGvJm19

178 SIBEL BARUT KUSIMBAough small, is much more stan-Fig. 5; Barut 1997:211). Clearly,nd raw material use, as well asstory or tradition, are influenc-pological differences between

and 2.

NING THE TWO GROUPSF SITES: FUNCTION

is also a determinant of typo-ferences between Groups 1 and

2. In faLSA sitof AfricBotswan(1984:48found blith-domthe micing-relasites wprocess

6. Freehand and bipolar cores from Lukenya Hilld cores from GvJm62; right, obsidian bipolar core,. Bottom row: chert bipolar cores, GvJm62., microlith- and scraper-basedhave been found in other areasIn the LSA of the Dobe area ofand the Namib Desert, Brooksand Jacobson (1984:76) havescraper-dominated and micro-

ated sites. They suggest thatlith-dominated sites are hunt-, while the scraper-dominatedresidential bases where foodand manufacturing took place.

op row: left and center, obsidianm62. Middle: chert freehand core,ctesa.a)

othin

rotedereing

. TGvJ

Use-wear1976; MoOdell and218; Phillicate thatwere multtions wereedge anglefficient foangles oftools (Sieshows thaGroup 1 anot alwaysaptation ofor exampof scraperin Holocenwhere hidically, whiin areas wclothing.

EXPLAINSITE

The twoin raw mabut also imaterial.ences indistrategies

(1wped

, tr

aties.teddortdrearryin

Si

prt Gf e

o

TABLE 4Freehand and Bipolar Cores in the Lukenya Hill Assemblages

Site Core type Quartz Chert Obsidian Total

GvJm46 2527

GvJm62 6458

GvJm22 395

GvJm16 537

GvJm19 4951

179LATER STONE AGE HUNTERGATHERER LAND USEstudies (Clark 1977; Clark et al.ss 1983; Odell 1981:330 332;

Cowan 1986; Phillipson 1976:pson and Phillipson 1970) indi-both scrapers and microliths

ifunctional, although their func-probably different. The smaller

es of microliths are much morer cutting, while the larger edgescrapers are inefficient cuttinggel 1985). Although typologyt activity differences distinguishnd 2 sites, these differences doimply broad differences in ad-

r economy. J. Deacon (1984:305),le, has noted that the proportions, particularly convex scrapers,e assemblages is high in areas

e clothing is found ethnograph-le scraper proportions are lowhere bark cloth was used for

ING THE TWO GROUPS OFS: RAW MATERIAL USE

groups of sites differ not onlyterial proportions and typologyn strategies toward using rawThese raw material use differ-cate some differences in site useof the assemblages makers. M.

Nelsonward raused exately ancuratedtured foconservstrategiassociaplannewith shity (An1992; Pgies mablage (B

Group 1

Thequartz acators o1992). Insemblagcardedpear inlarger rrials, pthey wereductionaturalSecondmarker

Freehand 45Bipolar 77Freehand 72Bipolar 87Freehand 66 1Bipolar 20Freehand 67Bipolar 32Freehand 77Bipolar 194992) defined two strategies to-material. A raw material may bediently, that is, used immedi-then discarded, or it may be

hat is, procured and manufac-future use. Transport, caching,on, and recycling are curatedExpedient strategies are oftenwith longer occupations or

reuse, and curated strategieser occupations and high mobil-fsky 1994; Kelly 1992; Nelson

y and Kelly 1987). Both strate-be found in the same assem-ford and OConnell 1984).

tes

ocurement and use of localroup 1 sites show several indi-

xpedient strategies (M. Nelsonther words, quartz in these as-was procured, used, and dis-

the spot. First, quartz cores ap-wide variety of sizes and are

tive to cores of other raw mate-ticularly obsidian, suggesting

discarded in various stages ofas part of a continuously reusedckpile of raw material (Fig. 7).ipolar reduction, a common

f expedient strategies toward

38 10843 147

101 23726 171

109 31410 35

110 23011 5026 15224 269eson

aelaarrensto, bo

poor-qualcommonflake size,ized and v

very little quartz is retouched relative toother raw materials (Table 6), and fifth, norelationship existed between quartz tool

sidal

ximma

ines teehn b

FIG. 7. LeGvJm62 asse50% of the deach box denextending fro25% of the dlower hingenote outliersinner fence,minus 1.5 timfar outliers (hinge spread

a A

Raw materia SD

Quartz 4.84.49.97.1

Chert 6.76.36.67.17.4

Obsidian 6.35.46.35.94.9

180 SIBEL BARUT KUSIMBAity, local raw materials, was veryin quartz cores. Third, quartzlike core size, was unstandard-aried widely (Table 5). Fourth,

size anevidenclengtheChertsmaller(Barutthat somwith cuportedtrips inwas uselittle ashape.

By couse waened thbipolarand obvery smtion mamany sIn manylast stagbecomeheld, frobsidia

ngths of quartz freehand cores in themblage. The box outlines the middle

ata cases. The solid line in the middle ofotes the median of the data. The linesm each box denote the upper and lower

ata spread and are called the upper andspreads. The stars and open circles de-. The stars are near outliers (beyond the

defined as the nearest hinge spreades the box width). The open circles are

beyond the outer fence, defined as theminus 3 times the box width).

TABLE 5Size Ranges for Flakes in the Lukeny

l Site NMean length

(mm)

GvJm46 17 32.31 1GvJm62 102 26.87 1GvJm16 140 20.10GvJm19 33 34.10 1GvJm46 165 17.25GvJm62 183 18.01GvJm22 100 18.60GvJm16 302 17.80GvJm19 216 20.33GvJm46 144 14.78GvJm62 159 13.91GvJm22 100 16.10GvJm16 285 16.10GvJm19 159 16.01extent of retouch, showing nohat use life of quartz tools wasd through continued reduction.apers, by contrast, becomethe extent of retouch increases7:219). While we can assumequartz may have been treated

ed strategies, for example trans-ay from Lukenya on foragingsurrounding plains, much of it

nd discarded at its source, withntion to tool design, size, or

ast, Group 1 chert and obsidianaximized and use life length-

ugh a variety of means. First,duction predominates in chertian cores. When practiced onl raw materials, bipolar reduc-

izes raw material by producingll flakes (Parry and Kelly 1987).dustries, the bipolar core is the

in core reduction after the coreoo small to flake through hand-and flaking. GvJm62 chert andipolar cores are smaller than

ssemblages

Coefficient ofvariation Range

5 .46 14.9076.169 .54 9.1183.820 .49 9.0070.008 .50 14.2082.107 .34 6.8441.303 .35 6.9042.400 .37 7.0033.000 .39 7.0054.007 .37 7.3354.197 .43 5.4846.561 .39 6.0044.330 .39 5.0038.000 .37 5.0044.005 .31 7.1336.50de tnescras

199e

ratawthed a

tte

ntrs mrore

freehandmore, cheof all typecores of onegative flshorter thaquartz corchert andcores contproducedaverage,were notratio of alength tomaterialsobsidian flare the loshowing t

At Grouwas similaappears in7). Nonlocthan locallocal obsidcores andmaterialsgests thatported aslocal obsinonlocal t

os). Ledyom, bny), wroqutr

hoTh

paspolsls,

TABLE 6Percentage of Artifacts as Tools, Cores, and Waste, by Raw Material

Site Raw material Cores Debitage Tools Total

GvJm46

GvJm62, Lev

GvJm22

GvJm16

GvJm19

181LATER STONE AGE HUNTERGATHERER LAND USEcores (Figs. 8 and 9). Further-rt and especially obsidian coress were more reduced relative tother raw materials. The longestake scars on obsidian cores aren obsidian flakes, but chert and

e flake scars are equal in size toquartz flakes (Fig. 10). Obsidianinued to be worked as the flakesfrom them became smaller thanwhile chert and quartz coresworked beyond this point. The

cores maximum flake scarcore length for the three raw(Fig. 11) shows that chert andake release surfaces on coresngest relative to core length,

hey were the most worked out.p 1 sites, the nonlocal obsidianrly conserved. First, much of itthe assemblage as tools (Table

al cores also tend to be largercores (Fig. 12). That many non-ian tools are much larger thanwhole flakes of the same raw(Barut 1997:282277, 278) sug-some nonlocal tools were im-such. While tools made from

dian bombs tend to be small,ools span a range of sizes and

are alm(Fig. 13retouchcient wa1994). Stouchedinto ma(Fig. 14in the Guse ofcuratedeven tnearby.ian, inthe tranlong tomateriariverbedcounterwidelysurrounlarge voat GvJmwere re

Group 2

In thGvJm16raw ma

Quartz 1.5Chert 2.1Obsidian 5.3

el C Quartz 2.2Chert 6.1Obsidian 9.4Quartz 1.0Chert 6.5Obsidian 8.0Quartz 3.0Chert 2.3Obsidian 7.6Quartz 2.6Chert 8.5Obsidian 6.8t always larger than local toolsong flakes and blades, whetheror not, are an especially effi-

to transport raw material (Kuhne blades were not only re-

ut segmented (C. Nelson 1980)smaller, usable blade segmentshich prolongs use life. In sum,

up 1 assemblages, the expedientartz contrasts clearly with theeatment of chert and obsidian,ugh it was easily availablee use life of Central Rift obsid-

rticular, was extended throughort of relatively large cores and

and blades. These latter rawfound in localized settings likewere much less commonly en-

than vein quartz, which isattered around inselbegs andng plains. The expedient use ofmes of vein quartz, particularly6, indicates these occupationsively long-term.

tes

Group 2 assemblages fromnd GvJm22, obsidian and chertrials are more common, and

97.6 0.8 91.694.0 3.8 5.191.0 2.6 3.196.2 1.2 75.286.5 7.3 14.785.5 3.4 9.598.0 0.7 68.283.2 10.0 18.880.0 11.0 12.795.6 1.3 45.792.0 5.7 32.985.0 6.8 20.895.6 1.4 85.079.4 11.6 9.483.3 6.8 5.5s,edscdilu4

lat

Si

eate

strategiesuse indicaFirst, obsiand chertsites. At Gcores wercores, butduction pr(Table 4).very diffecores, alsorange of srial in themean qusmaller th8; one-taiquartz cor

FIG. 8assemb

182 SIBEL BARUT KUSIMBAtoward their procurement andte they were more accessible.dian, both local and nonlocal,are more common in Group 2roup 1 sites, chert and obsidiane reduced into small bipolarat Group 2 sites, freehand re-edominates in all raw materials

Treatment of local quartz is alsorent. In Group 1 sites, quartzmostly bipolar, spanned a wide

izes, just like quartz raw mate-area. In Group 2 assemblages,artz cores are significantlyan Group 1 quartz cores (Tableled t test, p , .10). Group 2es are significantly smaller than

chert c(Tablethoughthan ch

The gian atmore liants hachert soand farley. Acprofligareducedcame toraw mareductio

. Lengths and widths of chert freehand (F), bipolar (lage.s from the same assemblagesne-tailed t test, p , .10), even

artz raw material is much largerand obsidian raw materials.ter amounts of chert and obsid-Jm16 and GvJm22, and their

ral use, indicate their inhabit-greater access to obsidian andces both around the Athi Plainsr away in the Central Rift Val-panying this shift to a more

use of chert and obsidian was amphasis on local quartz, whiche treated similarly to the otherials, especially in terms of coreGroup 2 foragers had equal ac-

and combination (C) cores, GvJm62ore8; oquertreaGvbedur

thecomte

eb

tern.

B),

cess to allin these a

RELATINLSA

Differenand econothat bandmoved moLukenya Hchert andLukenyabands inGroup 1occupationsmaller diwith rarerried some

FIG.GvJm62

183LATER STONE AGE HUNTERGATHERER LAND USEof the lithic raw materials foundssemblages.

G RAW MATERIAL USE TOLAND USE PATTERNS

ces in raw material abundancemy at the Lukenya sites shows inhabiting Group 2 sitesre widely in the areas aroundill, had more contact with rarer

obsidian sources, and stayed atHill for shorter periods thanhabiting Group 1 sites. Thesites, by contrast, were longers by groups that moved over

stances and had fewer contactsraw material sources. They car-obsidian as long use-life, seg-

mentedartifactslogicalof Lukeprodigiexpedie

OneGroupply bynologiechert aning to ters seleten witIndeed,have etions, aare rar

9. Lengths and widths of obsidian freehand (F), biassemblage.ades and large tools, but quartzdequately served their techno-eds. During longer occupationsa Hill, Group 1 knappers used

amounts of local quartz in anway.ght argue that the shift from

Group 2 sites was driven sim-invention of microlithic tech-

which necessitated the betterobsidian raw materials. Accord-

interpretation, huntergather-d these raw materials more of-

ut changing land use patterns.artz, chert, and local obsidiansntially overlapping distribu-

ough chert and obsidian bombsand more localized sources.

ar (B), and combination (C) cores,bla

neny

ousntmi1 tothes,d

hisctehoqu

sselther

pol

However,economy,tween Grothat raw mtwo assemland use. Lone findsable, it wrequired tMpalabwewas a sliquartz for19.7% of m

FIG. 1in quar

184 SIBEL BARUT KUSIMBAthe changes in raw materialespecially core treatment, be-up 1 and Group 2 show soundly

aterial use differences in theblages are a result of changes inooking across the African LSA,

that even when chert was avail-as not necessarily preferred oro make microliths. At Bimbe wa

in Zambia, for example, thereght preference for chert overthe making of microliths. Here,icroliths were of chert, 18.4% of

microlitoverwhmon qubeing cquartz;Lukenyths preobsidia1994).

By anerers, that Luketions to

0. Boxplots comparing lengths of whole flakes andtz, chert, and obsidian, GvJm62 assemblage.were of quartz, and chert wasingly preferred over the com-

tz for scrapers (58% of scrapersrt and 31% of scrapers being

iller 1969:240). Further, atill, the appearance of microli-

tes the selection of chert andfor their manufacture (Barut

gy with Kalahari huntergath-differences in mobility patternsa Hill may represent adapta-o different regimes of surface

gths of longest flake scars on coreshselmarhe

Ma Hdan

aloenytw

len

water avaand moreing Group

huat

allnds can

iesr s

lithenhostedsizanoct cdR

l s

FIG. 11. Hlength/lengtchert, and oblogged.

bs

Source De

Highland/vaRift Valley/oKedong

Total

. LHil

185LATER STONE AGE HUNTERGATHERER LAND USEilability. Less arid conditionsabundant resource patches dur-1 times may have allowed these

earlierperiodsand sm!Kung ahad lessourcesquantitquate fo2 microhave beilar to tthe driecentratGrouplarge,groupsfrequenchert anCentralpationa

istograms showing the ratio of coreh of the longest flake scar, for quartz,

sidian cores from GvJm62 C. Data are

TABLE 7Tool Classes by Source Area, GvJm62 O

Unflaked Cores

riant 11 36ther 1 10

0 2

12 48

FIG. 12Lukenyantergatherers to spend longerLukenya Hill exploiting largegame and plant foods, as doHadzabe (Mabulla 1996). They

ontact with chert and obsidiand preferred to use prodigiousof local quartz, which was ade-craper technologies. The Groupic sites, on the other hand, maypart of settlement patterns sim-se of !Xo and Gwi, who live inpart of the Kalahari, where con-

food and water is lacking.es are small, home ranges ared mobility is frequent. Suchcupying Lukenya Hill had fairlyontact with scattered patches ofobsidian, including those from

ift sources. Because their occu-tays were short, they did not

idian Artifacts

bitage Tools Total

168 6 22138 7 5633 2 37

240 15 315

engths of GvJm62 obsidian cores froml, Kedong, and the Central Rift Valley.

build up lais possiblmigratoryrole in themay havemore effic

Extendina considermight expa !Kung-lipated in e

lesha

FIG. a HValley.

FIG. 14. S

186 SIBEL BARUT KUSIMBArge quantities of local quartz. Ite that high-ranking foods like

animals played an importantir diets; microlithic technologies

made quest of these animalsient.g the ethnographic analogy to

ation of exchange networks, oneect the Group 1 occupants, withke adaptation, to have partici-xchange networks, while Group

2 peopwouldUnfortubeen adirectlycontexttrade caof exotilikely hgift exctake platerritorichangeswas simLSA Cmost cotheir sotheir soand Broners ofcamp,2549 k

13. Lengths of GvJm62 obsidian tools from Lukeny

egment of an obsidian blade, GvJm62., with a !Xo-like adaptation,ve lacked exchange networks.tely, archaeologists have notto recognize exchanges from

ocured raw materials in manySoffer (1985:438) suggests thatbe assumed if source distancestems are greater than a groupse range or territory. However,nges among !Kung generallywithin as well as across band

. The geographic scale of gift ex-ocumented by Wiessner (1986)r to the scale of movement ofral Rift obsidians, which are

monly found up to 50 km fromce and are found 150 km frome at Lukenya Hill itself (Merrick

1984a). Of the 510 hxaro part-!Kung, 18% lived in the same

within 24 km, 25% within24% within 50100 km, and 9%

ill, Kedong, and the Central Riftnable

prs.n

c iomhacees

dila

entmururcwn35

25%m,

farther thanya and thapart, Cenexchangedreachingmay havementing ament of incuring lithwill havestand theport at site

DifferencesForagers

Food chinfluenceWhat diffederlie theGroup 1 aSome huranked, vehigh searlarge gam(1982) callgatherers

blocuilarspros

rgae cago

gra

TABLE 8Size Ranges for Freehand Cores in the Lukenya Assemblages

Raw materiaMean length

SDCoefficient of

Quartz 3.82.02.79.09.3

Chert 6.75.74.96.96.8

Obsidian 3.63.44.32.92.5

Note. Data

187LATER STONE AGE HUNTERGATHERER LAND USEn 100 km. Even though Luke-e Central Rift are only 150 kmtral Rift obsidians could havehands numerous times before

Lukenya Hill. These networksbeen an efficient way of ce-

lliances, managing the move-dividuals and groups, and pro-ic raw material. However, oneto study more sites to under-means of LSA obsidian trans-s like Lukenya Hill.

in Diet between Group 1 and 2

oice strategies are the primaryon forager land use patterns.rences in subsistence might un-different land use patterns ofnd Group 2 huntergatherers?

nter gatherers procure high-ry mobile resources that have

ch and pursuit costs, such ase. Bettinger and Baumhoffthem travelers. Other hunter

concentrate on low-ranked but

predictathey prare avagathereto be aa groupsocial o

In thrica, fortation wing mimore oWhileclude tacrossstill mohigh-raof watecontrasrankinmove table spnuts, atmore chalderassemb

l Site N (mm)

GvJm46 40 39.40 1GvJm62 54 39.20 2GvJm22 10 17.60GvJm16 33 22.22GvJm19 72 36.82 1GvJm46 22 25.98GvJm62 36 26.34GvJm22 40 25.00GvJm16 32 25.30GvJm19 42 25.42GvJm46 30 17.50GvJm62 78 16.13GvJm22 23 17.30GvJm16 63 14.90GvJm19 26 15.65

for GvJm16 and GvJm22 are from Merrick (1975).e sources like plants, althoughre high-yield foods when they

ble at low cost. These hunterare called processors. Choosingcessor or a traveler depends onenvironment, technology, andnization.ontext of Pleistocene East Af-ers practicing a traveler adap-

uld concentrate on high-rank-tory game and would moven within larger home ranges.h animal speeds might pre-following of migratory herdsg distances, travelers wouldover large areas in search of

ed foods and smaller packagesor plant foods. Processors, bymight concentrate on high-

species when available butow-ranking but more predict-ies, such as tubers, fruits, orher times. In general, this is at-effective strategy (Winter-1). The Group 1 and Group 2es may be the correlates of

variation Range

7 .35 17.5066.300 .56 13.4093.000 .15 12.0022.000 .41 7.0044.006 .53 13.6085.300 .26 14.7039.200 .22 14.4038.200 .20 16.0037.000 .27 14.0038.004 .27 9.1041.700 .21 10.6026.857 .22 8.8027.750 .25 12.0027.000 .19 10.0023.000 .16 9.5920.00ftehighelonvenkrt,

go lecotos198lag

processors and travelers and huntergatherers, respectively. The GvJm16 andGvJm22 may date to colder periods closein time towere leswarmer, elithic techwith theabled morMitchell 1evidenceGvJm62,ment andfound (Bawhich couhoe weigstones (J.show thatnology wa

Study ofrom MSAthe Groupsome evidforagers dof these foanalysis sconcentratlarge, migfrom GvJmsteep cliff,species, aean (1990:a drive sitgration seof activitiSeasonalniques likpled withgathering1997).

Alternative

It is diffiuse patterof withoutlandscaperound. For

tions may represent longer term, perhapsdry season, occupations by groups whowere more peripatetic during other sea-

ene a

s lil uagmadin

DY

SO

patorceariestfricea

hesin

, athe19owteineromlyosa

ehheoln.es

exprOl100ug

eriin

188 SIBEL BARUT KUSIMBAthe LGM, when plant foodss reliable than during thearlier part of the LSA. Micro-nologies, possibly associated

use of poison, may have en-e efficient hunting (Clark 1970;988). Unfortunately, no direct

of plant food use was found atalthough a bored stone frag-

several dimpled anvils wererut 1997:222). These artifacts,ld have been digging stick orhts, grindstones, or nuttingDeacon 1984; Kortlandt 1986),nut and seed processing tech-s known to site inhabitants.f Lukenya Hill faunal remains

and LSA contexts, including1 and Group 2 sites, reveals

ence of animal foods in theseiet, but not the total proportionods in the diet. Mareans (1990)

howed that hunters did indeede on high-ranking, medium toratory game species. Faunas46, located at the bottom of a

were overwhelmingly from onesmall extinct alcelaphine. Mar-

466) suggested that GvJm46 wase for the alcelaphine during mi-ason that was used for a varietyes at other times of the year.use of tactical hunting tech-e driving may have been cou-a more catholic hunting and

strategy at other times (Marean

Interpretations

cult, of course, to infer the landns that Lukenya Hill was a partreference to other points on thethat made up the seasonalexample, the Group 1 occupa-

sons whable. Thwhich imateriasites inant orthird, anpattern

LANLUKENAND

Thisture-hisdifferenblage vthe largEast A40,000-ylikely, tchangestraveleruse inDeacon1990). Hbe elevaor contmains frelativewhile tharid clim1990; Min nortfound nmateriatransitiosemblagalmostthoughable at50 and

AlthocharactHill durmore water sources were avail-nomalous GvJm19 assemblage,

ke the Group 1 sites in lithic rawse but closer to the Group 2

e, may be such a seasonal vari-y represent a period when aas yet poorly known, settlementcorporated Lukenya Hill.

USE AND EXCHANGE ATA HILL AND OTHER EASTUTH AFRICAN LSA SITES

per has demonstrated that cul-ical, functional, and land use

s all contribute to interassem-ability at Lukenya Hill, one oflate Pleistocene occurrences ina, which spans much of ther duration of the LSA. Moste differences are also related to

diet choice from processor tolthough evidence of plant food

African LSA is very rare (H.93; Opperman and Hydenrychever, such changes should not

d to the level of an evolutionaryntwide transition. Faunal re-

northern Tanzania indicate awell-watered environment,

e from Lukenya Hill indicate ante (Marean 1992; Marean et al.lman 1989). Around Lake Eyasirn Tanzania, Mabulla (1996)differences in land use or rawuse during the MSA-to-LSANumerous MSA and LSA as-around Lake Eyasi are made

clusively on local quartz, evenodigious chert sources are avail-duvai Gorge and Lake Natron,

km to the north.h greater mobility may have

zed settlement around Lukenyag the GvJm22 and GvJm16 hab-

itations, LSA mobility remained limited inareas like Lake Eyasi. Given that alliancenetworks and overlapping territories areoften assoable reso(1990:18)material plated withdictabilityquartz at Lin the arecontact wCashdan (treme resgions, as walso be assity and ngroups. Tare inhabiwho do n1979). Uppnia may hgroups, enpying excby strips oevidence oalso consistable rescluded fisarchaeoloon the lakbetter undtributiongrasslandsarchaeologabout settlgions.

Late Plthought totion densiperiod, esity becamRobertshahave formgroups simRelativelyexchangechaeologic

across much of Africa, in accordance withthe !Xo pattern. Indeed, the available dataindicate that exchange items were rare.

aanenthemided

ucnnostchagshica

hoshatgelsoeginvefr

e U, bo

oarlwoe 191Hin

enlshde1ad

talenflulikh egic

189LATER STONE AGE HUNTERGATHERER LAND USEciated with scarce or unpredict-urces, Ambrose and Lorenz

argue that nonlocal lithic rawroportions are inversely corre-

resource abundance and pre-. The exclusive use of localake Eyasi suggests that groups

a were territorial and had littleith other regions. However,1983) has pointed out that ex-

ource scarcity across broad re-ell as resource abundance, canociated with greater territorial-ucleation of hunter gatherer

he driest parts of the Kalaharited by highly territorial groupsot exchange gifts (Heinz 1972,er Pleistocene northern Tanza-ave been occupied by !Xo-likedogamous band clusters occu-

lusive territories and separatedf no-mans land. However, thef territoriality at Lake Eyasi is

stent with an environment ofources, which may have in-h or snails, which were foundgically at Mumba Rocksheltereshore (Mehlman 1989:311). Aerstanding of the regional dis-of resources in East African, as well as more survey-basedical research, would inform usement patterns across broad re-

eistocene Africans are oftenhave lived at very low popula-

ties throughout the last glacialpecially at the LGM when arid-e most extreme (Brooks andw 1990; Klein 1989). They may

ed endogamous territorialilar to the !Xo (Heinz 1979).

nucleate bands and a lack ofnetworks would be reflected ar-ally in a lack of exchange items

MerrickBrown,exchangOldowaOnly inian movcome wror theitems, sand Co

LSAably extrich egEast AfrHill, altostrichtry andvai Gorlands aostrichare aga1993). Oin the Awith thEuropetraveledparticulliances(Gamblet al. 19

In thebecomeand Lukpersonamarinesible traDeacon1996; WronmenPleistoction of!Kung-Througchaeolond Brown (1984a) and Merrick,d Nash (1994) have studied theof Kenyan obsidians from thethrough the Pastoral Neolithic.e Pastoral Neolithic does obsid-ent outside a 50-km radius be-spread, when it begins to mir-

istribution of other exchangeh as pottery (Merrick, Brown,elly 1990).rich eggshell beads were prob-nge items (Mitchell 1996). Os-ell beads are absent from manyn LSA sites, including Lukenya

ugh Mehlman (1989:386) reportsell pieces in the Lemuta Indus-the Naisiusiu LSA site at Oldu-. In South Africa, where grass-

prevailed in the Pleistocene,gshell beads and marine shells

rare (Mitchell 1996; Wadleyrall, the rarity of exchange itemsican Pleistocene LSA contrastspper Paleolithic of Europe. Inth shell and lithic raw material

ver several hundred kilometers,y in northern Europe, where al-uld have been most adaptive986:335337; Otte 1991; Rensink; Soffer 1991).olocene, ostrich eggshell beadscreasingly common at Naseraya Hill (Mehlman 1989:400, 404;

observation). In South Africa,ell, bone beads, and other pos-gifts also become abundant (H.

995; J. Deacon 1984; Mitchellley 1993). Ameliorating envi-conditions at the close of the

e would encourage the forma-id, anucleate groups, more of ae than of a !Xo-like pattern.xchange networks marked ar-ally by beads and shells, these

Holocene groups shared larger food andwater resources.

GRASSLIN

The arcSouth Afrgrasslandsmall andamong thhari. Howshows thapatterns ctime. At anper Pleistments arosome of thtrast, othemuch momoist woorica and thmuch gretypes acrolocene. Evsimilar to1994; LiviWhile grapursued awoodlandstrategy, iof fish and

Today,hango aretion zoneslands and(White 198these siteforest specene vege(Peters 19the dry gshow grespecies duean 1992a1991).

In the wtinuity w

greater, LSA humans encountered moreabundant and less seasonal resourcesthan in the arid grasslands of East Africa.

moenvanusutresal

; Whe

agA

intoodpl

berand

pntedlans Hwof

eroincyra

dsdl mo,th

whAg, a

1hewndgicf fiBLS

ce

190 SIBEL BARUT KUSIMBAANDS AND WOODLANDSTHE AFRICAN LSA

haeological record of East andica suggests that in many arids, population densities were

groups highly territorial, ase !Xo of the present-day Kala-ever, the Lukenya Hill sequencet in particular regions land usehanged significantly throughy rate, throughout the late Up-

ocene dry grassland environ-und sites like Lukenya Hill weree continents harshest. By con-

r parts of the continent offeredre abundant resources. Thedland areas of southeastern Af-e forests of Central Africa showater continuity in vegetationss the late Pleistocene and Ho-en at the LGM, vegetation wasthat of today (Elenga et al. 1991,ngstone 1971; Vincens 1991).ssland huntergatherers oftentraveler strategy, those of the

s and forests chose a processorntensifying their procurement

plant foods.LSA sites like Matupi and Is-located in mosaics and transi-between East African wood-Central African rainforests

3). Later Stone Age fauna froms include many, if not mostly,cies, showing that late Pleisto-tation was still relatively closed90; van Neer 1989). By contrast,rassland areas of East Africaater numbers of dry-adaptedring the late Pleistocene (Mar-

; Marean and Gifford-Gonzalez

etter areas of Africa, where con-ith present vegetation was

Today,foreststarchyand mparts, nherbivo1990; M1990:371990). Thedges348). LSAfricathese fground

Insellands,were imLSA hucene ancured pMatoposurfacedensityas numkopjes,frogs, hvores (Wgrasslanbers anseasonaKalambtion inpersal,ized LS

Fishinstrategy(Pagezyone of ttocene(Shaw achaeolotance oshelter,lake insequenre stable foods of woodland andironments include abundant

d fatty fruits and seeds, insectshrooms, underground plantlike oil seeds, large and small, and fish (Hall 1992; Hladik

aisse and Parent 1985; Pagezyickens 1982; Zinyama et al.

se resources were importantainst food shortage (Peters 1987:people in woodland and forestensified their procurement ofs, especially fish and under-

ant foods.gs, seasonally flooded grass-

lakeshores and river shoresortant foci for LSA settlement.rgatherers of the late Pleisto-

early Holocene intensively pro-t foods on the inselbergs of theills. The area has year-round

ater in marshy ponds, a highfruit and marula trees, as wellus small animal resources in itsluding snakes, insects, turtles,ax, baboon, and small herbi-lker 1995:21). Seasonally flooded

or dambos are also rich in tu-fauna. Clark (1980) proposed a

obility model for the MSA atincluding dry season congrega-e dambos and wet season dis-ich might also have character-

huntergatherer mobility.may have been a key dry seasons among the Ntomba of Zaire990). Botswana and Namibia,few areas where the late Pleis-

as in fact wetter than todayThomas 1996), have many ar-

al sites attesting to the impor-shing. White Paintings Rock-

otswana, located near a largeA times, demonstrates a longof continuous fish exploitation

beginning in the late MSA and continuinginto LSA levels (Robbins et al. 1994). Cat-fish and cichlids were caught with boneharpoonshabitationwas mostPleistocendrier anda few gootime periolets, blad(Robbins edicate a vbirds, frDrotskyscene, whetered andmore sporcurementumented aSmith 198

Plant foimportantAfrican LS67) foundples fromcaffra havethe Matopremains mMatopos1995:229).Nachikufacracking1969:441).chaeologicbwe andTanzania,Africa (Clacon 1984:2359; MillePhillipsonvan Noteninterpreteare indirecor roots, aWalker (1of bored

sites to the greater importance of under-ground foods during climatic stress.

The larger number of Pleistocene LSAlogco

remsoplnted

rswhe Gpeorinfower

ireupal

ndredplidrapr. Tyaccu, mw

ssontt es, tOlro

miaesd

enssus

191LATER STONE AGE HUNTERGATHERER LAND USE(Robbins et al. 1994). The LSAof Drotskys Cave, Botswana,intense during the terminal

e, when the area was becomingthe Cave may have been one ofd water sources; tools from thisd include unretouched blade-

elet cores, and bipolar corest al. 1996). Associated fauna in-aried diet of small mammals,

ogs, and tortoises. Use ofCave during the wet Pleisto-

n more water sources were scat-widely available, was much

adic (Robbins et al. 1996). Pro-of fish and shellfish is also doc-t Ishango in Zaire (Brooks and

7).ods also became increasinglyin the southeastern and centralA. Van Zinderen Bakker (1969:

the pollen of Parinari sp. in sam-Kalambo Falls. Remains of S.been found at several sites in

os (Deacon 1984:246). Marulaake up 95% of plant remains atarchaeological sites (WalkerNumerous dimpled anvils atn sites may have been nut-

stones (Kortlandt 1986; MillerBored stones are legion in ar-al sites in Zambia and Zimba-are also known from northernUganda, and Central and Southrk 1974; Cooke 1984:24; J. Dea-90291; Mehlman 1989:73, 321,r 1969:484, 119; Musonda 1984;

1982:424; Robbins et al. 1977;1977). Bored stones are usually

d as digging stick weights andt evidence for the use of tuberslthough they have other uses.

990:211) relates the appearancestones in late Pleistocene LSA

archaeorica, as(compaenvironsonal regroundcuremeintensifinumbeThosesites likHill, apbility inest-ranking andhunting1997) wrepertoland grohigh-quwoodlaand boinclude

In arLGM folowed aGvJm46LGM bmovedand ocGvJm22erers ina proceand plaare noquenceof thethat Euused siadd fishdiet. Thcreaseddependbility, leetal robical sites in southeastern Af-mpared with arid East AfricaFigs. 1 and 15), suggests that

ents offering stable, less sea-urces, such as oil seeds, under-ant parts, and fish, whose pro-

was capable of being, may have supported largerof LGM hunter gatherers.

o remained in grasslands, atvJm16 and GvJm22 at Lukenya

ar to have increased their mo-der to insure access to the high-g animal and plant foods. Fish-wling technology and improvedeaponry and strategies (Mareane part of a new technologicalthat made it possible for grass-s to be more mobile and rely on

ity resources. Meanwhile, thegroups used fishing technologystones to broaden the diet to

ants and fish.East African grasslands, pre-

gers were less mobile and fol-ocessor diet strategy at sites likehey were followed around the

traveler huntergatherers whoross larger ranges of territorypied sites, like GvJm16 andore briefly. LGM huntergath-

etter parts of Africa maintainedr strategy, concentrating on fishfoods. Although changes in dietvidenced at all African se-

hey have parallels in other partsd World. Cachel (1997) arguespean Upper Paleolithic peoplelar technological innovations tond more vegetable foods to thee expansions would have in-

ietary quality, lessened humance on fat sources, decreased mo-ened selection pressure for skel-ticity, and increased population

size. To Cual, and cgional divthat is chalithic reflethe Upper

192 SIBEL BARUT KUSIMBAachel, the appearance of art, rit-eremony and the increasing re-ersity in stone tool traditionsracteristic of the Upper Paleo-

ct this population increase. LikePaleolithic, the LSA shows the

first wadornmthese chally in(Klein 1in Afric

FIG. 15. Pleistocene LSA archaeological sitspread use of art, personalt, and bone tools. However,ges appear much more gradu-

rica and only in some regions2). Most likely, climatic factorsincluding aridity, drought, and

f southern Africa.ideenan

Af99a,

es o

disease, were more effective at keepingoverall population densities low relativeto those in Europe (Reader 1997:254).

A

I thank themission to cmembers ofBarry LewisThomas J. Rition on whicNelson gavetation researples of obsidMarean madof this papertional ScienGrant SBR 9and by dissGraduate Cothe Universi

R

Ambrose, St1998 Chr

prodologi

Ambrose, St1990 Soci

Stongencspecnell

Andrefsky, W1994 Raw

tion34.

Avery, D. M1995 Phy

Sou22:3

Bamforth, D1986 Tech

Ame

Barham, Law1987 The

replchae

Barnard, Ala1980 Basa

ranc12:1

1992 Hunters and herders of southern Africa: A com-parative ethnography of the Khoisan peoples.Cambridge Univ. Press, Cambridge.

Barut, Sibelid

gyfricateyaen

t U

, Roheom

. Rn A

f A

, Rn thatioticseacrid

hinha

ng

e, Rheat

.P.0:1

e, Remast46:

, Frresysteas.

, Frresysteas.

hnhef W

lisoanlica

n Fay,vehre07.

193LATER STONE AGE HUNTERGATHERER LAND USECKNOWLEDGMENTS

government of Kenya for granting per-onduct this research. I also thank themy dissertation committee, including R.(Chair), Jack Harris, Olga Soffer, and

ley, for their comments on the disserta-h this paper is based. Dr. Charles M.invaluable assistance during the disser-ch. Dr. Harry V. Merrick provided sam-ian for use in artifact sourcing. Curtise helpful comments on an earlier draft. This research was supported by a Na-ce Foundation Dissertation Research3-20534, by a Fulbright Award to Kenya,ertation writing fellowships from thellege and Anthropology Department at

ty of Illinois at UrbanaChampaign.

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