1 4 Article Hunter Gatherer Social Existence

7/29/2019 1 4 Article Hunter Gatherer Social Existence

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2009 b h B h U I

Play as a Fondation o Hnte-

Gathee Social Existence

Peter Gray

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P lay and Hnte -Gathee s 477


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478 A M E r I C A N J O u r N A L O F P L A Y S p r i n g 2 0 0 9

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Play Is Guided by Mental Rules

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Play Is Imaginative

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Voluntary Participation, Autonomy, Equality, Sharing, and Consensual

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Voluntary Participation, Autonomy, Equality, Sharing, and Consensual

Decision Making as Characteristics of Hunter-Gatherer Bands

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Uses of Humor in Hunter-Gatherer Governance

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g bw b, whch g

h-gh bg. B h c g, whch

b h hx, h , cc

h . T cc xc h j h

c g , g h wh g, wg h g g.

A Playl Appoach to religion

A c c b h g h, wh, h h cc-

. Fh b h q c c. b

wh c k-b. I c g, h cc, h h g, h c h h g cx.

J is h c, Jhis h c g, h cch is bg wh

g . O g c J h h h h

w g. I c b g h g, h ,

whch h .37

I w hk c g h g, h h g b

c cx g h g h

g kg c. T g b bh fc h

h c ccc c. F h w,


22/47

h hc g h b

hchc w h c wh w G, kg kg,

h c h q bc c . I h h-gh g fc

g w h w, b ,

wh h h h h h bg.

Bc h g , h-gh g -

w h g w b h g h whch g c

b hgh . F Jw, Ch, M, h c

b wh whch h b w h

c h . F h-gh, c, h c

cc. T h-gh h cc

bg, jg. T -w, -w, -g, -b.

Lk , h g, b, cc w,

h, g cb. T c cc wh

h . T c wh c b cb

whc. A h h j bc h h

k , bc h , h , , h

c h h, ch h wh, whch

h wh whch h c. A c chc h h-gh w wh hg c h ck.38

T ck c c, bbg, b

bg wh g wh h b- h h

h. T ck chc c j ;

b c h hgh h.

O h J/h h chcc h gh, ,

w h q h g g hc g.

T , c G N, h c h . F h c h h h ; h h h, w h h h, w

h h; h h k, , , , , w, ghg, , ,

h bg. Y, ch w c, G N

c w h c c w. I c, c-

wh h g cc g h wh gh hk hgh

h, h J/h gh g G N .39

I J/h g , G N, h c hg, b

c h bg h c c bg w b h.

F x, h w ck h g g jg



23/47


c. T h h h c Ac

bch, h h h g ,

h . L h w h h b h z h bch, h j g.40 H . H k Ch

Bw wh k hkg h h Lc w h b w

wh h kck . E h c hgb c h

c hgh b g . H wh;

h , , b h c b h .

S , g h , c b

h h-gh g. Ag h Bk, x, h h

w Gb, h h g. Gb xc h

g h h-gh g h; h bg h

wh Bk c , ch ggg c kg

ch ckg c h Gb c. Y h Bk

Gb; h k k h. I -

h , Gb b b b , , c

wh g b. T Bk b h Gb k k, ch b

bgg wh w bk, h h h b

cczg h h k.41

T g cc h-gh c hc c-. T ch c hg, b

h c b b c

w wh b h w. I wh h h

w (h h) c whch h k

h / cc wh cc . Mh Gh

h h cc g ch wh

hcgc bc, b hgh cb g, gg,

cg, c wh hc xh. H w h: O hh hw wh ch c g hc. H

g c, bg hkg, k g gg.

H g q. . . . Shc c

ch c , q wh c bck.

T h h g, ggg g wh

, ch wh c- h h.42

Ag h-gh g, h wh b j h cg,

gg, g; h, c, h c-

b h hc xc. Ag h J/h, gh h h


24/47

h h w b hc c.43 Wh

c h ch xc, h-gh

g, h ; h ch h ch h. T cc jkg, g, ghg,

gg, cg, w q hg.

Ahg h hc h g c

, bb bc h h c b g c-

wh g c. B h c c

h c, c hc cb . I c,

h-gh ch h c h h h b

h g h w ghb .44 T c

c g h k -, g,

-g c h h .

A b ch h c h h-gh, g-

, hgh cc , ch g gc .45

Shc hg xc, b ch hg c wk

h g h h chgc c. I g, h-

gh g c h wh bcg h

wh g , whch h x wh h c h

h c. A x, T cb hw h G/w (h-g ghg ghb h J/h) h c c

bg b wc k w wh h

cg.46 Lg h , h gh w c bg h

hgh w wk, b h b h h ch w. T

c, hw, jc h cg h w

h h b w. G, wg h Yw,

k h g h h k c h

h h h c . R h c b h cb wh h ,

bc wh .47 F c, ch c

whch c h w, h , bc

.

O h h c gh g b -

g W c, h-gh wh

b h b . Ahgh h-gh g h

b h w, h h g. Nghbg

b w,



25/47


h cc h, b b k . T c c

b b h h cb

. H-gh bc wh h ch h g g b cc h

h h gw wh.48 b j h wh -

g cc h k g g g g

jg h g g. T b c

ckwg g h h g , wh w

c c, h j .

Cc h w b h-gh, b h -

h cc wh h c g

h w h. H x b T.Wh , w J/h, w k --c wh h g h

, h , --c: T wh h . W j

c h bc h bgh. B h , g

, w h q wh J/h g, whch h

( c) h cw h k gh

h w. H w h b b h

cc bw h w x.49

I h cc bk b h Mb, C b c hghh Mb g b cc wh h -

h b gc .50 T gc h

, ch h h h , b

gh. I c, wh h Mb c b h

c wh h h g c, h , h -

, h . O h c h

g h g , b

hwg g . T b k h, c cc h bg gh. T h

c, w b gh

b h c b . Accg b,

wh h b h c, h w h w, g

h h cg gh. B h w gh; h

kw c w h h w g g g b h

. Oh hg h kw c h

h-gh w h wh h ghbg

.51


26/47

A Playl Appoach to Podctive Wok

O w wk h w g. I c , whch - c; c c h cch hg -

, whh h c . W h w bh

h g, bc c c h w g

. cb g, w w c g -

wk ch c . W ch g

c ( ); jb g ;

g (wk ) c b c . S w j wk

ch, wkc, h g w ck wh w

b h wk , whch w bc

w h bc bg . Wk h h

.

B cc, h-gh h h cc wk .52

T c c wh . T , c,

gg c c, whch c h .

T h, gh, b h, b , ck, h

, . B h g h b.

T h hg bc h w . Wk h .Hw h g h? Wh b h-gh wk h k

jb h h b? O h b hg c-

, I w gg h c cb h-gh

g w h c h gg

.

The Workload Is Moderate

O cbg c h k q h-gh wk hh wk xc. Accg q , h-

gh c b w h wk hg

ghg h w h ch h c, ch

cg kg g .53 A , h ch g-

g, h-gh g h h

wk bc- c cb, whch cb

h h wkwk h c Ac, h Ac

h --h wk h h

c ch.



27/47


T h wkwk bc g wh w hk b hw

h-gh k h g. H-gh, b ,

c; h j h. T c h c- , h ccg . Wh h w , g h

wk w b cc. Hg w

h h g w

h h, w, kw,

b g . M, wh g-

g, h hg h c b c wh

h h. T g

cg g. P b wh c c

g k c h b, x.

O hg, Mh Sh, h chcz h-

gh c cc h g c.54 A

c, b Sh , whch w

. H-gh bc h h ch,

b bc h w . T c h w wh

wk, , , h h , whch h , c-

cg b h J/h, ch c gg

cg g, g c , wg c b g,g , g g, g, j g g.55 T

j h k c h w w xc h, x

wh.

The Work Is Varied and Challenging

P q chg , c gg g

h chg. T k wk -bg .

H-gh wk w chgg, .Hg, b h-gh, q gc, kwg,

hc k. Uk ch c , g, w,

h c c g b h c b w

c. H-gh h kwg h hb h w

h h b h h. T c ch

b ck w b h gh . L Lbbg

c h h ckg g b h k h g cc -

g.56 H h k h h , , g c,

whch h cb wh h cc kwg xc,


28/47

hh b h z, x, hc c,

, g h h ckg. I cbg

h ckg b h J/h, A Wbgh w: Ehg c, c, c. T kk g b, h

c h h bk wg bh, h h, z, h,

h ck h, b h c

h , h c g , h , wh

k b.57

T hgwhch, g h c, gh b bw

w, bw , hw, ,

b c c. A g k , , h

h . N hg h bg h

h wh hg c h c h h-gh h h

h .58 M k wh w h b h b.

T ghg gb , whch b w,

kw q kwg k. O c gz

g b g, . Rh, w

-ch h b gh , xc,

c. H-gh w kw whch h c -

, b, , , , g h b , wh wh h, hw g h ( h c

b), hw xc h b c ( h c g,

, c b), , c, hw c h k

h b h h hw w b. T b

c hc k, h b cc, w h cc

b, , , c h

b kwg.59

Most Work Is Done in a Social Context

W c bg. W k b wh h k, c wh h

w kw w, w k wh cg . H-

gh c . N h c bc. M h

wk c, h whch

c g wh h .

M h w h wk; w g

g. Ccg h , Wbgh w h J/h b h

: I xc h ghg x w j .



29/47


Wh h [J/h] g cg ch c cc, h

h hg h h cc g wh ch.60

A c gwh c , cg, jk-g ghw h w wk. I

c h b whch Bk ch k wk

g ch , Ec w: T b g

h h , h Bk k bh h wk h

c.61

Each Peson Chooses When, How,and Whethe to Wok

A cc g h chc. P

cc h . Wk wh

w b, -b-, h c cgg b h

k c h wk . H-gh h ,

wh c gh c c x, hc -

. T b g ch h hw bh, wk

h cx.62 Ech h h w b.O g h-gh c, hg ghg

. T h wh w h gh h

. T g c cc wh w g hw w ch h

k. A h b h c h ,

h gh , c , hg h

h. T b bckg . A

wh h gh w c h h b. B -

g h g, h-gh bg h bck h gg b wh h bggg h b b . A

bc h h g, b h b c xc h

hg ghg .

U, c, hg ghg cc -

, b g , g , h c .

O g , b b j gg g,

h c, j c x, g wh h h

k g. Sch h b g b

wh ch h gh x ,


30/47

b, ch g- hkg h .63 I xcg g

hg ghg wh h h, w b bg c

.T c h g h wk -c k

h . I h h c c b

cch h k fc c b wh

, b h c -- b,

h h . T g h-gh

c, c, b cch h k h

b cch wh xzg ch xc chc,

whch h .

Play as the rote to Edcation

Ec h h c. P wh

h k, kwg, g g-

; ch g g , b , c. Bc w

c, w h h wh h bw w,

hw k , h gg g wh h g. Bc c, w h bc ( h c)

h c. T h-gh c-

. H-gh , hw, cc h ch

wh h ch c. T h ch w wh h

kw hgh h w, -c x . I ,

h-gh ch, h w , cc h k h w

. I h , h h b h

kwg, xc, h c h c.I c, wh w hk c w hk chg,

. W hk c h b h g,

hg h h g h g g. T

b educate, teach, train c h ch h

. Sch gg fc ch: h ch c (

ch ), h c ( gh ). Sch,

h wkc, hgh hch xc

w, whch h . I h c, h ch b,

h . I h ch, h c b,



31/47


ch h . I h ch c, h

b. S h b h w c bjc ,

g, cc c b h b h ch,b b wh h. S q b w

ch, whch h h w q. S ch wh

hw wh . L w ch

b bg h c h k c. I c,

g h-gh, h c.

O w c c, ch c g,

gc h. W k g ch, j w

k g chck . W k g ch, j

w k g h. O kg hkg b -

g gg h w w ch, ch w w c

ck, h w c hw h gw bh. J

w h h k w w h , w ch h

k w hk w b c h cc. W h whh

h h ch w ch g. g q

h w hc .

H-gh, c, h gc, h h

gc h. I h w, h w .Yg gw h w, g b c, kg

h w c. Ech g g , c, -

, b w g h c wh . T g

h , b h h g hw

g c h . T g x c

w , wh k, , c, c x x

bh. I h k, h , wh wh hw w k

h k, , c, x. T h k, k h hg, h b h h g w w

w . A h h g ch h h-gh k

w ch c c. O h b whch ch h

c b h w .

Indulgence of Childrens Wishes

T w c b hg cb h-gh

ch c gc. T h g ch

c, cg h c . T b ch kw b wh

h wh h , h w b w bw


32/47

ch.64 T b w h f h-gh ch c

wh q ch wh h h-

gh c.

Abg ch [ A] g x g,

c ck h .

Phc h ch h .65

* * *H-gh g h ch; x,

c b. A gh, ch

h . . . . Pk

wh h ch . T b, c, bh gg

wh h, hc b, h k ck

h .66

* * *T h h ch ch x [g

h Yq]. Dcg wh h h ,

wh h g, h Yq cb bh. T

g wh , b fc

cc. T ch w h c.67

* * *I g ch [g I h-gh h H

B ] w x h h h

hc cb wh c . T

ch ck hz bjc, g x h

g w. T ch kw wh g.68

* * *

J/h ch c, bb bc h h c b. N ch w hc h,

w w c. M h cgg w

h w chg cc, h h ,

w , w c.69

I c, w c ch gc b c

, c cg , g ch wh w

gw b , g . B, ccg h ch wh

h g h-gh, hg c b h h h.

H, x, wh T h b h



33/47


h J/h: W h ch wh k

bc , b h bc h wh h h h

hw cc ch c b. F x, c, wh c bg c, h J/h

ch w . N c c h b,

g, kb, c ch.70

c T b h ck c bg c-

, I h h bh, g h-gh w,

c . T c, - -

g ch h h- --, whch cc

h-gh c, c h c h

w wh , h-gh w ,

bh c.71 T qc bh c-

b, b, h hgh h h b c ch ch

h g .

H-gh ch ch wh h

. T w- h c b-

h; h b h ch q ; h

b h ch , g g, kw b wh h h w

. M, j h c wh , ch cc h , b h b wh, h g

c h cc , cg h ,

h. A h b, ghbg b, w

h c ch ; ch

h h c h h h g c

h b h w .72 I W c,

c b g h k wh

c h ch. Ag h-gh, ch c b, w , bc h h

b w w . T ch cc h h-

gh ch - -c b ,

h c h-gh .

Lots of Time to Play

G h gc h h-gh xhb w ch,

h h ch h g. P,

b , wh ch w . T h q b

h, bc h b h hgh h ch wh h


34/47

bc c , h b c b

c xc.

S g, h bh h h-gh ch, Jh Og I cc

b hg wh h h g

h-gh. W k h q ccg

chh h g h h . E hgh h

ch h cc ch , w h h

w h g hg b h c hg

g h. h-gh ch

q g h-gh c.73

T , gh wh h bh wk,

kb c . Ch h c

h w, g, . A

c ch ch c. A

xc ch ch c wk. T ,

b xc, h g w, h w cc, bg cbg

h c h b wh h .

H c q b hw ch

ch h : Bh g b h , (A B, ccg h Nh h Ac). Ch

w h ; xc ch wk

h w h , (K Ec, ccg h Bk).

B w h g 1517; g

h , bw w bbg, w ,

(Rb B, ccg h E). T b w wh h c

bh c. F x, hw J/h ch

h , Pc D cc: [J/h] ch bgh b bc k. G 14 b h

bg g ghg w- w-ccg. T

h c h h b b h g. B 16

b h bg hg. . . . Ch zg wk.74 I

wh x h-gh gc bc

Bw, Jh Bck Sh Jh h h w -

hg ghg h h w gc,

h ch h .75

H-gh c h g whch ch cb

h w bc. T J/h h x



35/47


cb b ch, h Hz h h x.

Nch B J h cg h Hz ch g

gh h h c h h c ch hch w, ch ghg w w cg g

ch.76 T ch , hw, h h Hz ch

. T h ch g

g b w h gg h wh gg

h c , b h c wh h -

h-gh wk g. A c c b ch

gg, h h-gh g, h c , b

b j, b h g hg b.77

Incorporation of Adult Activities into Play

H-gh ch c. T b

c h cc ch ; h bg h;

h kg g h c; h

ckg; h g c ; h c k g

; h g, c, g, c; h g, c,

, . T cc -ghg ,

b g , b cc hg . T h c h. I h c h , h

h hg h bcg cc h

c, h h h x h c

h . T h c h b h h,

h bc g h c. A h gw , h g-

h hg. T h bw c

c h c h g.

O q b h h-gh ch c x c h w ck g

b ch . Dggg b, hg, kg c h,

ckg, cg , cbg , bg , bg h,

g k h , kg , cg h , bg ,

kg , g g ck , g (

g g h hb), kg c, c-

g, g, gg w b .

T cc c c ccc wh c

h k h w x b ch c. A h -


36/47

h b h c h gg g -

hg. T w wh h Ag c whch

w w g h h g w b hc gg hg. I h bh

gc gg, Bck Jh h h b

g ck-hwg, whch hc

hg k, c wh h g whch h hh

g bc hgh hg.78

A, wh ch wh h w, h ch

h g h c h h c xc

cc cc h c.79 T cc ,

c. I xcg ch, wh, h h

w, c , g b k wh h h

h g. F c, cc-

c h ch c ch w.

Eq h g hw h gh, h-gh

ch hw c wh h c. I h ,

ch cc gg. b h cb hw Mb ch

(g ) hh h g h

h h h g . H hw b cb :

I hgh h ch w

h c, h h gh b. T k

h . I jg h

k h w h h ch, hg

h c, k . I h ch c

, hw, h w x h, h

g w w h gh b , h h ch hw h h c b,

h c, h h c whch h

h g h g hc. T h

b h w h g

.80

b g cb hw Mb h, g b hgh

, jg cc h bh. I h c h b -

b , h h, h



37/47


w , c c, c h molimo mad, whch h

h g h, g hgh c

g . T c w b b gh h g h g h kg

h k c. A , j h c h ch b b-

g h ; h h ch. T c ,

k h h-gh c, x , g, cc

c. I b whch h g , wh bg

, c fc h bh.

The Age-Mixed, Noncompetitive Nature of Childrens Play

Bc h g wh g, h-gh ch

h g. F h , h h b

h . F hg ghg , h h

cc h . F ch, h g x

k w whch . F g ch , h

g cc ch c g. A h cb h

gwg kwg h g h g h. T

x w c ch bc h c

h c whch h gwg, hg g c h b.

T h-gh ch b wh h

h h g, b cc w g-

x g. Bc h-gh b bh w

c, h b g ch . E

h-gh ch w gg b g, h w

h w wh w h w g

. A c g gh c h z ch gg g . A Pc D

h : A [J/h] ch wh gh

cg c g. O g c

w, hgh g wh h h

h ch.

Rch g-x c gg h ch

q -g .81 I c g. I

g-x , ch ch h h b b h cc

bg h. Wh g g, z, gh, h


38/47

g b h h. I ch ,

ch c h g ch g, whch w h g

hc w h h w g h b xc hg g.

I h 1950 1960, g h H R A F,

Jh Rb h cg c h c g

c c. T cc h h

c h h c g k w h-

gh c.82 I q b c

, w h h h h c-

h c h h , bh h h h

h . S h h g h-

gh ch c j bc g x, b

bc c c h c h

h-gh b. F c, gg Ag ch , P. B

G c h h c h h b w

h h w b h b h.

I h x c cc h g

h-gh g, L Mh h J/h

c h h g g,whch h xc c b c, -

c.83 F c, J/h ch g , bh

x, g hwg h z. T z c h

hg, b -ch g, wh wgh

h h h. T h h hgh b wh

ck, h cch wh h ck wh c fg w,

h h g. M h ch h g wh

ch k, c b c c, b g whc h h z h hgh cch h ccb, c-

cg Mh, h g J/h h w. P

h b, b h c c h c

h.

Ah J/h g wh h g, b w

g. T g gg, cg, cg, ccg

cc , wh kg g

c h b g bckw, h, h x

. T h g k h k



39/47


h g wh g . T J/h c h g

c w b g h wh h h

g, b h . T g w c, c.b cb g--w g c b

h Mb g h h . M b k h

, w g k h h, h g h h .

Wh h b w, h w b h

j h w, g h bk-ch jg h h

w, hg cg h , cg wh

b h xgg h . T, wh h w g

w, h j h bk chg, g w,

h j h hg b c, g

ckg h. b c:

Ech cg h c h , c-

g gh, wh h c ghg

h h c g , h g h

h g h. Ahgh bh h

c , h h wh c h c. . . . T

c wh h, h wh c h. I h w h h c

gg h x wg , h

c .84

T h-gh bh w b

h . I h c hg , h k qg

gh, c, c, c, w, h h

b h. I h c w c, h w cc h h c. I cg h,

c g c c gc w g

, whch w wk h h gh h c.

Conclding Thoghts

T ch h-gh k c h h g,

cc, hgh c w g cc j .


40/47

I c b b bg h , c b

c . N cc cb

h h c whch h-gh. T cb h c, b, h h-

gh ch c , b c c h

ch. H-gh wh h b c

h b h, , hchc, , c -

h c wh h c h q h

hg whch h . h hg,

h c cc cg h g

g h b c w hch . ,

h kg, g c h cc h h g

whch h .

I h c I h x h ch

h-gh hw (1) hw h f c c c-

kg c h-gh b b h c- g,

whch j c; (2) hw h

gh g c-kg c; (3) hw h

h-gh c, c h hg, k h

c ; (4) hw h-gh g c hzh , cc h c h q wh

h c; (5) hw h-gh g h bc- wk

h h ; (6) hw h-gh ch c

c cc c xz ch

z h bg b .

O w hk b h-gh h

c, b , h w g w cg c

c, whch w h c. O w cg h h method of dominance. T

c bh, c c bh, wh c-

c hch gg . Dc hch

g c h c c wh c h

ch h w cc ch w , g,

w gg.

T h w cg c c wh I w c h method

of social play. P h w w h c-

c. Sc g bh ( ) h



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c wg, b c cc.

M c k h ghg chg.

Sch c c g b h h c . Wh w g k chz gg

gh, h g b -hc, h gh

gh h bhg w . T cb

kg , h

g h h h w h c h h h. I

ch, h w k chg bg ch, k ch

g g. I , ch c bh ch w

h h h wh g w . F

h w h g. S, g , w h

g bw , h b w b

w h h h .85

M g h c h h-gh wh

c cc h cb h h c w -

c b xzg h h c . H-gh xc

q k g- hg, whch w b

j b h c cc. Sch hg w b -

b c. Dc c g, wh c h. T k hg whch h-gh -

q h g h h c

c. T, , h-gh wh c

cc g xz h c z h

c c.

I h c , q b h h b-

gc b h-gh , ,

ch c . I w h h hgw h h h h-

k c, h c c w h x b

h c h c. I

, cg , cc g h g

h c c. Yg cc,

, h k h hgh h. I

, bg c, hg cc

h c b c hb hg c-

. T h x wh, , c b


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g g w g j.86 A g c

h c hg b h c h

h x h h h cfxb h , wg b w cx

b c.

Notes

1. Ccg gc g, J D, Guns, Germs, and Steel: TeFates of Human Societies (1997), 93103.

2. F g h h c h , Mch C. Cb,Phg A H, Te Descent of Mind: Psychological Perspectiveson Hominid Evolution, . Mch C. Cb Sh E. G. L (1999), 4070.F c h g, M K, Te angled Wing: BiologicalConstraints on the Human Spirit, 2 . (2002), 2953.

3. Rb L. K, Te Foraging Spectrum: Diversity in Hunter-Gatherer Lifeways(1995), 3023.

4. Ib.5. Ib.

6. F w c g - h-ghc, K, Te Foraging Spectrum; S K, C D g A-c Fg: C Ic, Cultural Diversity among wentieth-CenturyForagers, . S K (1996), 118; Rch B. L, Rfc P C-, Hunters and Gatherers, Volume 1: History, Evolution, and Social Change,. Ig, D Rch, J Wb (1988), 25268; Rch B. L Rch D, . Te Cambridge Encyclopedia of Hunters and Gatherers (1999); PRw-Cw, , Chg, h Achg H-Gh: Hw OgI h Og A Sc?, Hunter-Gatherers: An Interdisciplinary Perspective,. Ch P-Bck, Rb H. L, P Rw-Cw (2001), 3972;

J Wb, Eg Sc,Man 17 (1982): 43151.7. K, Foraging Spectrum, 304. S M Vh Fcc

Ec, G G h S-G--R B: Ec S-c Iq h U Phc,Journal of Anthropological Archaeology24(2005): 11734.

8. Pc c gg h w: Jh Hzg, HomoLudens: A Study of the Play Element in Culture (1955, bh 1938); Kh H.Rb, G G. F, B Vbg, P, Handbook of Child Psychol-ogy, Volume 4: Socialization, Personality, and Social Development, . P H. M-, E M. Hhg, W D (1983), 693774; P K. Sh,

P: Fc H D, Origins of the Social Mind, .



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Bc J. E D F. Bjk (2005), 27191; L S. Vgk, T R P D, Mind in Society: Te Development of Higher PsychologicalProcesses, . Mch C . (1978), 92104.

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10. I g h ch ch h Ab c c,Ac I c b g, Mh Ckzh fw.

11. G c h h x w gh h h 6.

12. Ig, O h Sc R h H-Gh B, TeCambridge Encyclopedia of Hunters and Gatherers, . Rch B. L Rch H.D (1999), 399410; Wb, Eg Sc, 43151.

13. F c hw h g c h-gh b, Wb, Eg Sc, 43536.

14. Ig, O h Sc R h H-Gh B, 399410.15. Ib., 406.16. L, Rfc P C, 264.17. Ig, O h Sc R h H-Gh B, 408; P

W, Lg h H: C h S Q Fgg Sc-, Food and the Status Quest: An Interdisciplinary Perspective, . P W W Schh (1996), 17192.

18. F g c c c kg h-gh

c, Gg Sbb, Pc Pc G/w B, Politics and His-tory in Band Societies, . E B. Lcck Rch B. L (1982), 2335. Oh, g c h-gh g c kg h h 6. S c h c K (1996).

19. C M. b, Te Forest People (1968, bh 1961), 114.20. Ezbh Mh T, Te Old Way: A Story of the First People (2006),

218.21. L, Rfc P C, 264.22. Rch B. L, Te Dobe Ju/hoansi, 3 . (2003).23. Ib., 52.

24. J A. R. A. M. H, A C Ach h Phg Lgh- Sg, Nonverbal Communication, . Rb A. H (1972), 20941.

25. W, Lg h H, 17192.26. T, Old Way, 101.27. F h g c h-gh bg ,

W, Lg h H, 17192.28. Rch A. G, Yiwara: Foragers of the Australian Desert(1969).29. W, Lg h H, 182.30. Kk Ec, P, Pw, Cfc g h Bk M,

Hunters and Gatherers, Volume 2: Property, Power, and Ideology, . Ig,D Rch, J Wb (1988), 11027.


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31. W, Lg h H, 17192.32. N B-D, T Gg E: Ah Pc h Ec-

c S Gh-H, Current Anthropology31 (1990): 18996.

33. K H, Ac C g Fgg b h Ach, h EH P C, Human Nature 13 (2002): 10528.

34. B H, Fg Phc Sc, Food andthe Status Quest: An Interdisciplinary Perspective, . P W W Sch-h (1996), 12747.

35. P W, Hg, Hg, Hxaro Exchg: A Lg- Pc- !Kg (J/h) Lg-G Hg, Evolution and Human Behavior23(2002): 40736.

36. P W, Rk, Rcc, Sc Ifc !Kg S Ec-c, Politics and History in Band Societies, . E B. Lcck Rch B.L (1982), 6184.

37. A w b Hzg, Homo Ludens, 25.38. Mh Gh, F Sh: H-Gh Cb-

W Mhg S, Te Cambridge Encyclopedia of Huntersand Gatherers, . Rch B. L Rch H. D (1999), 42633.

39. T, Old Way, 25373.40. Ib.41. Kk Ec, Batek Negrito Religion: Te World-View and Rituals of a Hunting

and Gathering People of Peninsular Malaysia (1979), 16364.

42. Gh, F Sh, 42728.43. M J. R, T Rg M h E Rg, Review of

General Psychology10 (2006): 34664.44. F c Dk , D R S Pc g

h Bk Pg Sh C,African Study Monographs S. 25(1998): 4784.

45. F x : N B-D, B T Og A Sc: AC R, Current Anthropology33 (1992): 2547; T, OldWay, 24648.

46. Ezbh Mh T, Te Harmless People (1959), 152.

47. G, Yiwara, 128.48. Dc ch g fxb c g h-gh

Ec, Batek Negrito Religion; G, Yiwara; Gh, F Sh.

49. T, Harmless People, 245.50. b, Forest People.51. Ex Ec, Batek Negrito Religion, , D

R S Pc.52. Jh Gw, H-Gh h Mhg h Mk, Te Cam-

bridge Encyclopedia of Hunters and Gatherers, . Rch B. L Rch H. D(1999), 39198.



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53. T c q cc g h J/h g A Abg, c b L, Dobe

Ju/hoansi, Mh Sh, Stone Age Economics (1972). L b-

, g h h-gh g, c wh h : P. B G Mc B. G, Fh Chc g hCg Ag, Father-Child Relations: Cultural and Biosocial Contexts, . BS. Hw (1992), 297320; Rw-Cw, Hunter-Gatherers, 3972; b,Forest People. Hw, hgh b x h wk h b b H gg h Ach, Ac C gFgg b h Ach, 114.

54. Sh, Stone Age Economics.55. Mj Shk, Nisa: Te Life and Words of a !Kung Woman (1981), 10.56. L Lbbg, Te Art of racking: Te Origin of Science (1990).57. A Wbgh, Te Bushmen (1979), 41.58. H K, K H, J Lc, A. Mg H, A T

H L H E: D, Igc, Lg, EvolutionaryAnthropology9 (2000): 15685.

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ck c , : Ec, P, Pw, Cfc g h Bk,118; K Hwk, Wh H-Gh Wk: A Ac V hPb Pbc G, Current Anthropology34 (1993): 34161.

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- hg ghg h g whch ch-c c-c w c w - h h bc: Hb B, I L.Ch, Mg K. Bc, R Ch g Sbc Ec,

American Anthropologist61 (1959): 5163.65. G, Yiwara, 90. I h b , hw, h hc h h

b b, hgh , h-gh c, cg h Hz h Mb, c c b Nch B J, T L H-Gh Ch: Ec P Bh P RcSg, Juvenile Primates: Life History, Development, and Behavior, . Mch E.P L A. Fbk (1993), 30826; b b, Forest People.


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66. Y G, E O, M L, S M, F Rb, V Bb, P H-Gh Sc, Te Nature of Play: Great Apes andHumans, . Ah D. Pg P K. Sh (2005), 218.

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G M, cc wh h h gg h E, 2008.73. T ch wh ( wh I

g) h c g h : Bc K, wh h G-b P, Nw G; P. B G Ag Ek-G, wh hAg; K Ec, wh h Bk; P I Rb B, wh h E; A B, wh h Nh h Ac; Nc Hw Pc D, wh h J/h; Jh Bck, wh h OkgD P Bw.

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1 4 Article Hunter Gatherer Social Existence

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