The impact of chattel The impact of chattel slavery and other modes slavery and other modes of exploitation of labour of exploitation of labour

on social inequality: on social inequality: comparing the United comparing the United

States and Greco-Roman States and Greco-Roman antiquityantiquity

Geof KronGeof Kron

University of VictoriaUniversity of Victoria

Victoria, British ColumbiaVictoria, British Columbia

Housing for slaves…and croppersHousing for slaves…and croppers

‘‘Negro Cabin’, Montgomery, Negro Cabin’, Montgomery, Alabama, 1906Alabama, 1906

““The cabin is constructed of The cabin is constructed of logs, without floor or logs, without floor or window. The latter is window. The latter is altogether unnecessary, the altogether unnecessary, the crevices between the logs crevices between the logs admitting sufficient light. In admitting sufficient light. In stormy weather the rain stormy weather the rain drives through them, drives through them, rendering it comfortless and rendering it comfortless and extremely disagreeable. The extremely disagreeable. The rude door hangs on great rude door hangs on great wooden hinges. In one end is wooden hinges. In one end is constructed an awkward fire-constructed an awkward fire-place.” Northup 1853: 170-1.place.” Northup 1853: 170-1.

3

Poverty and Inequality by Poverty and Inequality by state 2006-2010state 2006-2010

Social Mobility in USASocial Mobility in USA

Free at last?Free at last?

Emancipation DayEmancipation DayHorseshoe Plantation, Leon County, Florida, Horseshoe Plantation, Leon County, Florida,

ca. 1930ca. 1930

“““But there was in 1863 a real meaning to slavery different from that we may apply to the laborer today. It was in part psychological, the enforced personal feeling of inferiority, the calling of another Master; the standing with hat in hand. It was the helplessness. It was the defenselessness of family life. It was the submergence below the arbitrary will of any sort of individual. It was without doubt worse in these vital respects than that which exists today in Europe or America.”

W.E.B. Du Bois after Genovese 1974: 69

The brief dawn of ReconstructionThe brief dawn of Reconstruction

Legislature of South Legislature of South Carolina 1868-1872Carolina 1868-1872

DuBois 1934: 726 “For those seven years … a majority of thinking Americans in the North believed in the equal manhood of black folk. They acted accordingly with a clear-cut decisiveness and thorough logic, utterly incomprehensible to a day like ours which does not share this human faith.”

See also Lynch 1913; Foner 1988; Middleton 2002

A Guerilla war for White SupremacyA Guerilla war for White Supremacy

“General Forrest publicly declared that if Brownlow called out the militia…his government would be swept out of existence. The Ku Klux Klan had 550,000 members across the South and more than 40,000 in Tennessee alone, he announced in an exuberant newspaper interview in August 28.” (Trelease 1971: 45-6)

“I have no powder to burn killing negroes. I intend to kill the radicals…there is not a radical leader in this town [Memphis] but is a marked man, and if a trouble should break out, none of them would be left alive.”

““The Southern Oligarchy”The Southern Oligarchy”State White Voter

turnout in 1920

Alabama 22.11

Arkansas 21.31

Florida 28.76

Georgia 10.89

Louisiana 14.05

Mississippi 9.46

North Carolina 44.62

South Carolina 8.51

Tennessee 35.39

Texas 18.42

Virginia 19.37

U.S. South 21.20

““We have taken a city”We have taken a city” In 1898 city of In 1898 city of

Wilmington Wilmington N.C. attacked N.C. attacked and racially and racially integrated integrated municipal municipal government government overthrownoverthrown See Prather See Prather

1984; Cecelski 1984; Cecelski & Tyson 1998& Tyson 1998

The Bloody Election of 1920The Bloody Election of 1920 Attack on black voters in tiny Attack on black voters in tiny

town of Ocoee kills 56 and town of Ocoee kills 56 and drives rest outdrives rest out

Attacks with arson & Attacks with arson & shotguns on black clubhouses shotguns on black clubhouses involved in voter registrationinvolved in voter registration Chattahoochie’s Colored Chattahoochie’s Colored

Knights of Pythias suffers worst Knights of Pythias suffers worst assaultassault

See Ortiz 2008: 205-28.See Ortiz 2008: 205-28.

Women like Mary McLeod Women like Mary McLeod Bethune (left) play huge role Bethune (left) play huge role as voters & organizersas voters & organizers See Ortiz 2008: 187-99See Ortiz 2008: 187-99

Generations of terror & plunderGenerations of terror & plunder Ta-Nahisi Coates lays out Ta-Nahisi Coates lays out

one of the latest stages in one of the latest stages in white supremacist white supremacist exploitation of African exploitation of African AmericansAmericans Special focus on exclusion Special focus on exclusion

of blacks from New Deal, of blacks from New Deal, GI Bill, systematic denial of GI Bill, systematic denial of house mortgages which house mortgages which build white middle class build white middle class wealth after WW IIwealth after WW II

Segregation and contract Segregation and contract buying scams to fleece buying scams to fleece home-buyers prefigure home-buyers prefigure 2008 sub-prime crisis2008 sub-prime crisis

Rare protection for black property Rare protection for black property - in Antebellum Louisiana- in Antebellum Louisiana

State Supreme Court of defends unique rights of Louisiana freedmen under Napoleonic Code:

“In the eyes of Louisiana law, there is with the exception of certain political and social privileges, and the obligation of jury and militia service, all the difference between a free man of color and a slave that there is between a white man and a slave. The free man of color is capable of contracting. He can acquire by inheritance and transmit property by will. He is a competent witness in all civil suits. If he commits an offence against the laws, he is to be tried with the same formalities, and by the same tribunal as the white man.” (State v. Harrison (a slave), 11 La. An. 722, Dec. 1856) (quoted by Sterkx 1972: 171 n. 35)

Free Black Real Estate in 1850Free Black Real Estate in 1850Cities Value of Real Estate Number of Owners Average Holding

New Orleans $2,354,640 650 $3,623 Philadelphia $327,000 77 $4,248 Cincinnati $317,780 118 $2,693 Charleston $200,600 47 $4,268 Brooklyn $145,785 98 $1,488 Baltimore $137,488 101 $1,361 New York $110,010 71 $1,549 Washington $108,816 178 $611 Louisville $95,650 63 $1,518 Pittsburgh $74,200 38 $1,953 St. Louis $49,650 16 $3,103 Boston $41,900 13 $3,223

Destroying black propertyDestroying black property C.C. Lee successful black C.C. Lee successful black

politician’s new theater-saloon-politician’s new theater-saloon-poolroom-restaurant targeted in poolroom-restaurant targeted in Springfield Ohio race riotSpringfield Ohio race riot Derided by white newspaper as Derided by white newspaper as

“a white coon, short of stature, a “a white coon, short of stature, a flashy dresser on whose bosom flashy dresser on whose bosom there generally sparkles a there generally sparkles a diamond as big as a hand diamond as big as a hand mirror”mirror”

““Rioters systematically wrecked Rioters systematically wrecked both Lee’s and Johnson’s places. both Lee’s and Johnson’s places. Lee’s losses alone, which Lee’s losses alone, which included an electric piano that included an electric piano that the mob chopped into kindling, the mob chopped into kindling, amounted to $8,000.” (Senechal amounted to $8,000.” (Senechal 1990: 132-3)1990: 132-3)

““Slavery by another name”Slavery by another name”http: www.slaverybyanothername.comhttp: www.slaverybyanothername.com

15

New legal rights nullified by New legal rights nullified by terror and discriminationterror and discrimination

Trumped-up charges allow Trumped-up charges allow sheriffs to round up thousands sheriffs to round up thousands of blacks to be sold as forced of blacks to be sold as forced labourers to plantations, labourers to plantations, mines, or industrymines, or industry See Skaggs 1924: ; Blackmon See Skaggs 1924: ; Blackmon

2008; 2008;

The ‘Fee system’The ‘Fee system’ Skaggs 1924: 244-5 “There

was also the case of one Milly Lee, a Negro woman who had been arrested for ‘abusive language,’ and was fined $1.00 and costs. She worked out the fine in two days, but she had to work nearly a year to satisfy the ‘fee brigade,’ for the courts got out of the apparently insignificant case $24, the clerks $34, the witnesses $64, the sheriff $10 – in all, her costs amounted to $132.”

Henry Clay FrickHenry Clay Frick Apt symbol of Northern Apt symbol of Northern

capital at its most ruthlesscapital at its most ruthless ““You can’t run coal mines You can’t run coal mines

without machine guns”without machine guns” Use of Pinkerton thugs in Use of Pinkerton thugs in

Homestead riotHomestead riot Frick, Carnegie & Frick, Carnegie &

Morgan’s U.S. Steel plays Morgan’s U.S. Steel plays large role in employing large role in employing convict labourconvict labour reaches 7% of US GNP reaches 7% of US GNP Able to produce steel at 50 Able to produce steel at 50

cents / toncents / ton Mortality rate 10% or more Mortality rate 10% or more

annuallyannually

Pratt mines, Birmingham, Ala.Pratt mines, Birmingham, Ala. Pay $60,000 for every prisoner Pay $60,000 for every prisoner

in Jefferson county 1908in Jefferson county 1908 Also 20 other counties w. Also 20 other counties w.

monthly prices ranging from $9 monthly prices ranging from $9 to $28to $28

Half sold by one sheriff charged Half sold by one sheriff charged with ‘jumping’ trains w/o farewith ‘jumping’ trains w/o fare

Healthy prisoners expected to Healthy prisoners expected to mine 8 tons of coal/daymine 8 tons of coal/day Failure punished with whipping Failure punished with whipping 2-3 dozen getting 40-50 strokes 2-3 dozen getting 40-50 strokes

with 4-in wide leather strap of 2-with 4-in wide leather strap of 2-7 lbs. not uncommon7 lbs. not uncommon

Blackmon 2008: 312-8Blackmon 2008: 312-8

Whipping and torture persistWhipping and torture persist

Mass Incarceration Mass Incarceration a new method of repression with a long legacya new method of repression with a long legacy

Michelle Alexander, Michelle Alexander, The New Jim The New Jim Crow: Mass Incarceration in the Crow: Mass Incarceration in the age of color-blindnessage of color-blindness

Prison population goes from Prison population goes from 300,000 to 2.3 million since 60s300,000 to 2.3 million since 60s

U.S. incarceration rate over 700 U.S. incarceration rate over 700 per 100,000per 100,000

White 393; Latino 957; Black White 393; Latino 957; Black 2,531 2,531 Russia 450Russia 450 UK 153UK 153 Japan 52Japan 52

20

Convict labour & the ‘Prison-Convict labour & the ‘Prison-Industrial Complex’Industrial Complex’

Wide range of U.S. Wide range of U.S. military and civilian military and civilian manufacturing now done manufacturing now done by prison labourby prison labour

Wages range from $0.23 Wages range from $0.23 to $1.14 per hourto $1.14 per hour

FPI operates in 83 federal FPI operates in 83 federal prisons making $900 prisons making $900 million in profitsmillion in profits To Left: American Apparel To Left: American Apparel

plant in Roanoke, Alabamaplant in Roanoke, Alabama

Lawlessness and violence 1907Lawlessness and violence 1907

State Homicides per 100,000

U.S. 13.3South 26.6North 5.8Florida 52.0Georgia 33.4S. Carolina 24.0New York 6.1

““Lynch a thousand a week…”Lynch a thousand a week…”

23

Lynching spawns a cottage industryLynching spawns a cottage industry

24

Pretexts for lynchingsPretexts for lynchings “Protecting fugitive from posse” "Talking to white girls over

telephone” "Expressing sympathy for mob's

victims” "Three-dollar debt” "Stealing 75 cents” "Insulting white man” "For being victor over white man

in fight” "For being father of boy who

jostled white women” Baker 1908: 176-7

Lynchings in selected states 1882-1968Lynchings in selected states 1882-1968State White Black TotalAlabama 48 299 347Arkansas 58 226 284California 41 2 43Florida 25 257 282Georgia 39 492 531Kentucky 63 142 205Louisiana 56 335 391Mississippi 42 539 581Missouri 53 69 122North Carolina 15 86 101Oklahoma 82 40 122South Carolina 4 156 160Tennessee 47 204 251Texas 141 352 493Virginia 17 83 100Total 1,297 3,446 4,743

A tradition of racist pogromsA tradition of racist pogroms

Atlanta pogrom in 1906 fomented by racist demagogue and Atlanta pogrom in 1906 fomented by racist demagogue and Georgia governor-elect Hoke SmithGeorgia governor-elect Hoke Smith

Florida town of Rosewood annihilated in 1923 (ruins above) Florida town of Rosewood annihilated in 1923 (ruins above) Skaggs 1924 blames reprisal on attempts of residents to voteSkaggs 1924 blames reprisal on attempts of residents to vote

see John Singleton’s fictionalized movie Rosewood (1997)see John Singleton’s fictionalized movie Rosewood (1997)27

A wave of riots and pogroms (1919)A wave of riots and pogroms (1919)

28

Date Place Date Place

May 10 Charleston, SC July 19 Washington, D.C.

May 10 Sylvester, GA July 21 Norfolk, VA

May 29 Putnam County, GA July 23 New Orleans, LA

May 31 Monticello, MS July 23 Darby, PA

June 13 New London, CT July 26 Hobson City, AL

June 13 Memphis, TN July 27 Chicago, IL

June 27 Annapolis, MD July 28 Newberry, SC

June 27 Macon, MS July 31 Bloomington, IL

July 3 Bisbee, AZ July 31 Syracuse, NY

July 5 Scranton, PA July 31 Philadelphia, PA

July 6 Dublin, GA August 4 Hattiesburg, MS

July 7 Philadelphia, PA August 6 Texarkana, TX

July 8 Coatesville, PA August 21 New York City, NY

July 9 Tuscaloosa, AL August 29 Ocmulgee, GA

July 10 Longview, TX August 30 Knoxville, TN

July 11 Baltimore, MD September 28 Omaha, NE

July 15 Port Arthur, TX October 1 Elaine, AS

Massacre at Elaine, ArkansasMassacre at Elaine, Arkansas

Sept. 13, 1919 attempt by black sharecroppers to organize with Sept. 13, 1919 attempt by black sharecroppers to organize with Progressive Farmer & Household Union, leads to massive assault by Progressive Farmer & Household Union, leads to massive assault by whites from Elaine, Arkansas, killing hundreds, intervention by armywhites from Elaine, Arkansas, killing hundreds, intervention by army

The ‘Black Wall Street’ burnsThe ‘Black Wall Street’ burns

Postcard celebrates burning of Greenwood district, Tulsa, Postcard celebrates burning of Greenwood district, Tulsa, Oklahoma, in anti-black pogrom, June 1st 1921Oklahoma, in anti-black pogrom, June 1st 1921

The costs of injustice and fearThe costs of injustice and fear "The Negro baby born in America

today … has about one-half as much chance of completing high school as a white baby born in the same place on the same day, one-third as much chance of completing college, one third as much chance of becoming a professional man, twice as much chance of becoming unemployed, about one-seventh as much chance of earning $10,000 a year, a life expectancy which is 7 years shorter, and the prospects of earning only half as much."

John F. Kennedy 11th June 1963

The Income Gap in 1935-6The Income Gap in 1935-6

City Black Native White

Ratio: Black to Native White

New York, N.Y. $980 $1980 0.51

Chicago, Ill. $726 $1687 0.43

Columbus, Ohio $831 $1622 0.51

Atlanta, Ga. $632 $1867 0.34

Columbia, S.C. $576 $1876 0.31

Mobile, Ala. $481 $1419 0.34

Median Family Income (1947-74)Median Family Income (1947-74)

Very significant gap Very significant gap increases but ratio increases but ratio reduced by rising reduced by rising incomes overallincomes overall 1965-69 (passage of 1965-69 (passage of

voting rights and civil voting rights and civil rights acts) initiate rights acts) initiate modest catch-upmodest catch-up

1969-74 sees gains 1969-74 sees gains stagnate and gap stagnate and gap widen (Nixon’s widen (Nixon’s Southern strategy Southern strategy begins white backlash)begins white backlash)

The situation in 2012The situation in 2012

Antebellum slave and free farmsAntebellum slave and free farms

Study finds level of Study finds level of inequality much higher inequality much higher in South with Gini of in South with Gini of 0.8 compared to 0.46 for 0.8 compared to 0.46 for family farm regime of family farm regime of NorthNorth

South has substantial South has substantial class of small farms, but class of small farms, but they are poorer and they are poorer and more unequal than in more unequal than in NorthNorth

America’s 60 familiesAmerica’s 60 families

36

Northern Capital & Southern OligarchsNorthern Capital & Southern Oligarchs Northern financiers Northern financiers

dominate trade in dominate trade in antebellum Cottonantebellum Cotton 40% of profit over 40% of profit over

production cost go to production cost go to cotton merchants & banks cotton merchants & banks (Johnson 2013)(Johnson 2013)

Economic domination Economic domination expands after Civil Warexpands after Civil War Railroads increasingly Railroads increasingly

dominate trade in dominate trade in agricultural commoditiesagricultural commodities

Crop-lien system forged to Crop-lien system forged to reduce freedmen to reduce freedmen to serfdom also weakens serfdom also weakens white farmerswhite farmers

No mixed farming hereNo mixed farming here ““Think of people leaving a Think of people leaving a

Georgia county for the bare Georgia county for the bare necessities of life - a county necessities of life - a county where peaches, pears, pecans, where peaches, pears, pecans, peanuts, potatoes of 2 varieties, peanuts, potatoes of 2 varieties, peas, beans, corn, oats, wheat, peas, beans, corn, oats, wheat, molasses, melon, tomatoes, molasses, melon, tomatoes, asparagus, and a hundred other asparagus, and a hundred other vegetables and fruits can be vegetables and fruits can be produced in great profusion, produced in great profusion, and where the countryside is and where the countryside is well-watered and admirably well-watered and admirably suited to livestock farming.”suited to livestock farming.”

Raper 1936: Raper 1936:

The decline of homestead farmsThe decline of homestead farms

South has 1.8 million South has 1.8 million tenant farmers in 1935tenant farmers in 1935 63% of tenants in nation63% of tenants in nation 70% of farmers in Mississippi 70% of farmers in Mississippi

are tenantsare tenants Only 6% of farmers in Only 6% of farmers in

Massachusetts tenantsMassachusetts tenants National tenancy rate goes National tenancy rate goes

from 35% to 43% from 1900 from 35% to 43% from 1900 to 1935to 1935

46% of all white farmers in 46% of all white farmers in USA tenants by 1935USA tenants by 1935

Tenancy & SharecroppingTenancy & Sharecropping

Tenure White Black

Full owners

248 277

Part owners

26 61

Managers 5 2

Total tenants

294 2,258

Cash tenants

135 541

Croppers 54 655

Other tenants

105 1,142

Total 573 2,578

Tom Watson on Georgia farmingTom Watson on Georgia farming ““Here is a tenant—I do not know, or Here is a tenant—I do not know, or

care, whether he is white or black, I care, whether he is white or black, I know his story. He starts in and pays know his story. He starts in and pays $25 for a mule, 1,000 pounds of cotton $25 for a mule, 1,000 pounds of cotton for rent, and two bales for supplies. By for rent, and two bales for supplies. By the time he pays for that mule, and the the time he pays for that mule, and the store account, and the guano, he has not store account, and the guano, he has not enough money left to buy a bottle of enough money left to buy a bottle of laudanum, and not enough cotton to laudanum, and not enough cotton to stuff his old lady’s ear. . .The land gets stuff his old lady’s ear. . .The land gets poorer year by year and the landlord poorer year by year and the landlord has no money to improve it—the tenant has no money to improve it—the tenant has no money to improve it. Thousands has no money to improve it. Thousands of your Georgia homes are going to of your Georgia homes are going to decay. I have witnessed it, and it makes decay. I have witnessed it, and it makes my heart ache with sadness.”my heart ache with sadness.”

‘‘Freedom’ of contract?Freedom’ of contract? ““I know we been beat out of money direct I know we been beat out of money direct

and indirect. You see, they get a chance to and indirect. You see, they get a chance to do it all right, ‘cause they can overcharge us do it all right, ‘cause they can overcharge us and I know it being done. and I know it being done. I made three bales I made three bales again last year. He said I owe $400 at the again last year. He said I owe $400 at the beginning of the year. Now you can’t dispute his beginning of the year. Now you can’t dispute his wordword. When I said ‘. When I said ‘Suh?Suh?’’ he said he said ‘‘DonDon’’t you t you dispute my word; the book says sodispute my word; the book says so’’ and so and so you better pay it, too, or they will say you better pay it, too, or they will say ‘‘So ISo I’’m m a liar, eh?a liar, eh?’’ You better take to the bushes if you You better take to the bushes if you dispute him, for he will string you up for thatdispute him, for he will string you up for that. I . I dondon’’t want them to hurt my feelings and t want them to hurt my feelings and I I just have to take what they say, just have to take what they say, ‘‘cause I doncause I don’’t t want to go to the mines [convict labour] and I do want to go to the mines [convict labour] and I do want to livewant to live..”” Henry Robinson quoted by Henry Robinson quoted by Johnson 1934: 127.Johnson 1934: 127.

““when a fella’s got a gun in your face when a fella’s got a gun in your face you gotter take low or die”you gotter take low or die”

““they got you ‘cause you have to they got you ‘cause you have to carry your cotton to his mill to gin carry your cotton to his mill to gin and you better not carry your and you better not carry your cotton nowhere else. cotton nowhere else. I don’t care I don’t care how good your cotton is, a colored how good your cotton is, a colored man’s cotton is always second- or man’s cotton is always second- or third-grade cotton if a colored man third-grade cotton if a colored man sells itsells it. The only way you can get . The only way you can get first prices for it is to get some first prices for it is to get some white man to sell it for you in his white man to sell it for you in his name. name. A white man sold mine once, A white man sold mine once, and he got market price for itand he got market price for it…Been …Been in debt so long. in debt so long. See, when a fella’s See, when a fella’s got a gun in your face you gotter take got a gun in your face you gotter take low or dielow or die.” Johnson 1934: 128..” Johnson 1934: 128.

““One year older and deeper in debt”One year older and deeper in debt” ““The Adams family rented 37 acres and The Adams family rented 37 acres and

agreed to pay $100 rental. They raised, by agreed to pay $100 rental. They raised, by exact count, 4 bales of cotton, 100 bushels exact count, 4 bales of cotton, 100 bushels of corn, 23 gallons of syrup, 300 pounds of of corn, 23 gallons of syrup, 300 pounds of pork, 25 bushels of peas. They had pork, 25 bushels of peas. They had received $50 in allowances, and had been received $50 in allowances, and had been buying a mule for two years, the total cost buying a mule for two years, the total cost of which was $115. The owner of the land of which was $115. The owner of the land took all the cotton and corn, and in took all the cotton and corn, and in addition the mule and their wagon, and addition the mule and their wagon, and informed them that they still owed $53. informed them that they still owed $53. They asked for a “bill that said how for They asked for a “bill that said how for each thing.” The owner refused to send each thing.” The owner refused to send this but instead became angry and this but instead became angry and informed them that they were $309.98 in informed them that they were $309.98 in the hole.” (Johnson 1934: 121)the hole.” (Johnson 1934: 121)

Profits of the plantationProfits of the plantation Survey in 1934 shows one Survey in 1934 shows one

plantation grossing $132,004 plantation grossing $132,004 while paying out $29,842 to while paying out $29,842 to (ca. 100?) tenant families(ca. 100?) tenant families

Tenant families in E. Tenant families in E. Arkansas average $309 per Arkansas average $309 per family or $73 per personfamily or $73 per person

““Negro tenant families spent Negro tenant families spent only $92 for food, tobacco, only $92 for food, tobacco, and clothing in 1934, and and clothing in 1934, and white families $161” Conrad white families $161” Conrad 1965: 131965: 13

Moving timeMoving time Many tenants will have Many tenants will have

moved 6-7 times since moved 6-7 times since beginning farmingbeginning farming

Some have tried out up Some have tried out up to 15 farmsto 15 farms

Black tenants stay on Black tenants stay on Georgia plantations for Georgia plantations for 3.7 years, whites for 2.93.7 years, whites for 2.9

Black sharecroppers Black sharecroppers stay on 2.8 years, stay on 2.8 years, whites 2.4whites 2.4

See Conrad 1965: 13-4See Conrad 1965: 13-4

Gangs of wage labourersGangs of wage labourersChopping cotton – 30 to 50 Chopping cotton – 30 to 50

cents per daycents per day "Three different methods are

pursued by the landlord in getting his land cultivated… All three of these methods are usually employed on the larger plantations. Mr. Brown rents 2,500 acres for cash, 400 on shares, and farms 600 himself with wage workers." Baker 1908: 74

70 of Johnson’s 612 families worked as labourers for a stipulated wage, generally 50-65 cents per day; 40 cents for women – (1934: 112-4)

A new breed of overseerA new breed of overseer “Today a white overseer resides on every large plantation and he or

the owner himself looks after and disciplines the tenants. The tenant is in debt to him (in some cases reaching a veritable condition of debt slavery or peonage) and he must see that the crop is made. Hence he watches the work of every Negro (and indeed that of the white tenants as well) ... Some of the greater landowners employ assistant overseers or 'riders' who are constantly travelling from farm to farm. On one plantation I saw four such riders start out one day, each with a rifle on his saddle. And on a South Carolina plantation I had a glimpse of one method of discipline. … 'When there's trouble,’ [the plantation owner] said, 'I just go down with that [a hickory waggon spoke, as long as a man’s arm] and lay one or two of 'em out. That ends the trouble. We've got to do it; they're like children and once in a while they simply have to be punished. It's far better for them to take it this way, from a white man who is their friend, than to be arrested and taken to court and sent to the chain gang. ” (Baker 1908: 76)

A brief stab against peonageA brief stab against peonage

Theodore Roosevelt orders Theodore Roosevelt orders first federal investigations first federal investigations of peonage in 1910of peonage in 1910 Convictions extremely rareConvictions extremely rare

In 1921 John S. Williams, In 1921 John S. Williams, fearful of detection, fearful of detection, murders 11 held in peonagemurders 11 held in peonage First guilty verdict for white First guilty verdict for white

killing black in Georgia since killing black in Georgia since 1877; last for next 47 years1877; last for next 47 years

Skaggs 1924: 275-6; Freeman Skaggs 1924: 275-6; Freeman 1999; Blackmon 20081999; Blackmon 2008

Peonage in the 1970s and todayPeonage in the 1970s and today “In 1969 Felipe Pagan Vidal, a Puerto

Rican, complained that he had been recruited to work on a truck farm near Miami and ended in peonage… After a week on the job Vidal became dissatisfied and announced he was leaving. The foreman told him he could not leave; when Vidal began walking off, the foreman ‘hacked him across the back and shoulder’ with a machete. Afterward Vidal stated that the foreman refused him medical attention and guarded him. Other workers experienced the same fate, Vidal testified, and ‘had been threatened with death and beatings’.” (Daniel 1972: 190)

For reports on cases from 2001 to 2010 see: http://ciw-online.org/slavery/

Pride & Optimism in 1910Pride & Optimism in 1910 “Now the Ku Klux Klan seems as barbarous as the Inquisition, and in

spite of every obstacle the race has forced its way upward until colored men pay taxes on $700,000,000 worth of property, own 20,000,000 acres of land, own banks and are engaged successfully in business of every kind. They have many colleges and schools, newspapers, eloquent, educated, and able leaders, and in every walk of life are proving their ability to compete with anybody. No race in the history of the world to my knowledge has made such progress from such beginnings in so short a time, and now you colored men are encountering opposition created by your very success. Instead of insisting that colored men will not work except under the lash, that they always must remain hewers of wood and drawers of water … the cry now is that there is danger of racial equality, that colored men will sit at the table with white men and may marry white men's daughters…The very arguments of those who would discriminate against you are admissions of your ability to rise, and of the fact that you have risen and are rising.”

African-American farm owners African-American farm owners 1900-19351900-1935

1900 1910 1920 1930 1935

U.S.A. 187,797 218,972 218,612 202,270

South 179,418 211,087 212,365 182,019 150,967

Georgia 11,375 15,698 16,040 11,081 10,571

Black property owners in the SouthBlack property owners in the South

Constraints on black landownershipConstraints on black landownership ““Being acceptable here is no empty Being acceptable here is no empty

phrase. It means that he and his family phrase. It means that he and his family are industrious and that his credit is are industrious and that his credit is good…that he is considered safe by good…that he is considered safe by local white people – he knows ‘his local white people – he knows ‘his place’ and stays in it … The economic place’ and stays in it … The economic and cultural advantages which the and cultural advantages which the Negro can secure through the Negro can secure through the ownership of land are limited by local ownership of land are limited by local racial dogmas, which insist alike on the racial dogmas, which insist alike on the Negro’s submerged status and upon Negro’s submerged status and upon his acceptance of it.”his acceptance of it.”

Raper 1971 [1936]: 122Raper 1971 [1936]: 122

Circumstances of land salesCircumstances of land sales Raper 1936: 122-3 suggests Raper 1936: 122-3 suggests

90% of black farmers 90% of black farmers purchase land from whitespurchase land from whites ¾ of cases white man suggests ¾ of cases white man suggests

purchasepurchase 60% buy from landlords60% buy from landlords

Half who do not buy from Half who do not buy from “those who had sold them “those who had sold them groceries of fertilizer while groceries of fertilizer while tenants or had loaned them tenants or had loaned them money”money”

Generally 35-44 yrs old at Generally 35-44 yrs old at purchase (p.132 Table 33)purchase (p.132 Table 33)

25% pay cash; 60% cash & 25% pay cash; 60% cash & creditcredit

Finding niches for Finding niches for landownershiplandownership

““The land least desired by The land least desired by whites … is the land most whites … is the land most available for Negro ownership. available for Negro ownership. Except in areas where the Except in areas where the white community organization white community organization has completely broken down, has completely broken down, there are scarcely any Negro there are scarcely any Negro owners in the vicinity of the owners in the vicinity of the white churches and schools, white churches and schools, near the railroads, on the near the railroads, on the leading highways, or on the leading highways, or on the most fertile soil.”most fertile soil.”

Raper 1971 [1936]: 125Raper 1971 [1936]: 125

The backlash against civil rightsThe backlash against civil rights From 1940 to 1974, African From 1940 to 1974, African

American farmers fall American farmers fall from 681,790 to just 45,590from 681,790 to just 45,590 Decline of 93 percentDecline of 93 percent

Massive retaliation by Massive retaliation by USDA when challenged USDA when challenged by civil rights workersby civil rights workers Successful legal ruling in Successful legal ruling in

1999 still being blocked by 1999 still being blocked by RepublicansRepublicans

See Daniel 2013 (left); See Daniel 2013 (left); McGee & Boone 1979; McGee & Boone 1979; Womack 2013: 144-54Womack 2013: 144-54

The Slaver’s MentalityThe Slaver’s Mentality Alessandro Stanziani’s new book

(left, 2014) challenges myths about ‘free labour’ in modern agrarian and industrial capitalism Methods used by British in colonial

Africa and India modeled on tradition of indentured servitude and Master and Servant Acts in U.K.

Shows widespread use of chattel slave networks & methods in order to export forced labour from India and China

See also Tinker 1974; Mishra 2011

Poverty & DehumanizationPoverty & Dehumanization ““But I am haunted by the Human But I am haunted by the Human

chimpanzees I saw along that chimpanzees I saw along that hundred miles of horrible country. hundred miles of horrible country. I donI don’’t believe they are our fault. I t believe they are our fault. I believe that they were happier, better, believe that they were happier, better, more comfortably fed and lodged more comfortably fed and lodged under our rule than they ever wereunder our rule than they ever were. . But to see white chimpanzees is But to see white chimpanzees is dreadful; if they were black, one dreadful; if they were black, one would not feel it so much, but would not feel it so much, but their skins, except where tanned their skins, except where tanned by exposure, were as white as by exposure, were as white as ours.ours.”” Source: Marriot 2003 (Source: Marriot 2003 (WRITTEN of WRITTEN of

England, PRE-FAMINEEngland, PRE-FAMINE))