Artikel Tentang Bahan Kimia Bercun Dan Bahaya Bahan Kimia Pada Kesehatan Manusia Dan Lingkungan
KETAHANAN LINGKUNGAN: Bahaya Lingkungan & Kesehatan
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Transcript of KETAHANAN LINGKUNGAN: Bahaya Lingkungan & Kesehatan
KETAHANAN LINGKUNGAN:
Bahaya Lingkungan & Kesehatan
Disarikan oleh: soemarno, psdl ppsub nop 2013
Apakah bahaya lingkungan ?
'Environmental hazard' is a generic term for any situation or state of events which poses
a threat to the surrounding environment.
This term incorporates topics like pollution and natural hazards such as storms and
earthquakes.
Sumber: Environmental Health Hazard . Atallah Z. Rabi …. Diunduh dari: www.sawa2006.com/.../22%20-...... 15/12/2012
Sumber: http://peer.tamu.edu/curriculum_modules/properties/module_4/index.htm…. Diunduh 16/12/2012
BAHAYA DAN RISIKOBAHAYA = Hazard:
Is “a factor or exposure that may adversely affect health” it is a qualitative term expressing the potential of an
environmental agent to harm the health of certain individuals if the exposure level is high enough and/or if
other conditions apply.
RisikoIs “the probability that an event will occur, the probability of unfavorable outcome e.g that an individual will become ill or
die within a stated period of time or age. It is the quantitative probability that a health effect will occur after an individual has been exposed to a specified amount of a
hazard.
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KONTAMINASIContamination -- Introduction into water, air, and
soil of microorganisms, chemicals, toxic substances, wastes, or wastewater in a
concentration that makes the medium unfit for its next intended use.
Also applies to surfaces of objects, buildings, and various household and agricultural use
products.
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PENCEMARANPollution is the introduction of contaminants into an environment that causes instability, disorder, harm or discomfort to the ecosystem i.e. physical systems or
living organisms. Pollution can take the form of chemical substances, or energy such as noise, heat, or
light energy.
Pollutants, the elements of pollution, can be foreign substances or energies, or naturally occurring; when
naturally occurring, they are considered contaminants when they exceed natural levels.
Pollution is often classed as point source or nonpoint source pollution.
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POLUTAN = PENCEMAR
• A pollutant is a waste material that pollutes air, water or soil.
• Three factors determine the severity of a pollutant: – Sifat kimianya, – Konsentrasinya– Persistensinya.
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"Pollution" is generally used when you're talking about something big, like a whole environment, or an entire
river, or something else really large.
"Contamination" can refer to very small quantities of something - contaminated food, medicine, drinking
water supply; it can also mean a very small amount of foreign or harmful material, such as bacterial
contamination, or a toxin, especially when it's not readily visible or noticeable.
For instance, a surgical suite could be contaminated simply because someone walks into it when they're not
sterile, and it would be completely invisible.
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POLUTAN & KONTAMINASI
ANY external factor that negatively affects your health can be considered an environmental health “hazard." Common environmental health hazards
include indoor and outdoor air pollution, and contaminated food and water.
Less commonly discussed environmental health hazards include lack of sidewalks, crime,
insufficient physical activity, poor nutrition, social isolation, noise, stress, and the lack of
aesthetically pleasing living environments.
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BAHAYA LINGKUNGAN BAGI KESEHATAN ?
JENIS BAHAYA KESEHATAN LINGKUNGAN
Bahaya Tradisional• Disease Vectors• Infectious agents• Housing and Shelter• Drinking Water & Sanitation• Indoor air Pollution• Dietary Deficiencies• Reproduction• Injury hazards
Bahaya Modern• Tobacco smoking• Alcohol and drugs• Transport hazards• Environmental pollution• Outdoor air pollution• Chemical hazards• Occupational Hazards• Unbalanced Diet• Stress
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Jalur masuknya bahaya EH
• Inhalation– airborne contaminants
• Absorption– penetration through the skin
• Ingestion– eating– drinking
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• Acute– Short term period between exposure and
onset of symptoms
• Chronic– Long time period between exposure to an
agent and the onset of symptoms
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PAPARAN BAHAYA LINGKUNGAN
There are five types of environmental hazards:• Chemical ; Physical ; Mechanical ; Biological ; Psychosocial
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JENIS-JENIS BAHAYA LINGKUNGAN
The system of environmental health. The human living environment consists of home, work and recreational environments. The interaction between these environments and human activities
results in various types of hazards that may adversely affect human health. (Source: adapted from Bassett, 2004)
Sumber: http://labspace.open.ac.uk/mod/oucontent/view.php?id=452284&extra=thumbnail_id392363134945...... 15/12/2012
Pesticides; Acids and Bases; Metal fumes ; Solvents; Gases
BAHAYA BAHAN KIMIA
Sumber:. http://aquaticpath.umd.edu/appliedtox/module1-termin.html..... 15/12/2012
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BAHAYA BAHAN KIMIA
• Insects; Rodents; Animals• Microorganisms:
– Bacteria– Viruses– Parasites– Yeasts– Molds
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www.sawa2006.com/.../22%20-
...... 15/12/2012
BAHAYA BIOLOGIS
Biological risk assessment and risk management
Sumber: …. Diunduh dari: http://www.biosafety.be/CU/RA_Fiches/Intro_and_menu.html...... 17/12/2012
Tipe Bahaya Fisika:• Noise and Vibration• Ionizing Radiation• Non-ionizing Radiation• Light, Lasers• Pressure• Extremes of Temperature
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...... 15/12/2012
BAHAYA FISIKA
Characteristics of ionizing and non-ionizing radiation.
Sumber: gtcceis.anl.gov …. Diunduh dari: ...... 18/12/2012
• Uncertainty• Anxiety• Lack of feeling of control over one own life• Homesickness• Isolation
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BAHAYA PSIKOSOSIALCommon Signs of Anxiety
Anxiety itself could also be a result of a deeper physiological or psychological cause. That is why the possible manifestations that are associated with anxiety are numerous and can be classified into the specific areas of the body affected.
Anxiety is often difficult to identify in a person. Extreme cases present with severe symptoms. This makes stress or anxiety
exercises and treatments an essential for anyone going through anxiety attacks.
Read More Here: http://relieveanxietynow.com/common-signs-of-anxiety/
– Stress is a human response to stressors– Stress is a specific event or situation that
causes a mental or psychological reaction.– Stress is a process resulting from the interaction
between humans and the environment.– Stress process consists of 2 stages:
• Deciding whether or not an event (stressor) poses a hazard
• Appraising the possibilities of dealing with the situation.
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APAKAH STRESS ITU?
• Penyakit Kardiovaskular– Hypertension– Ischemic heart diseases– Increase heart rate
• Peptic ulcer• Asma Bronchial
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EFEK STRESS THD KESEHATAN
BAHAYA LINGKUNGAN YANG SERIUS
• Polutan Udara– Indoor air pollutants– Outdoor air pollutants
• Kelangkaan air & Polutan air• Bahaya makanan• Bahaya rumah hunian• Bahaya permukiman• Bahaya serangga & Rodents• Pestisida• Bahaya lingkungan global
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EFEK KESEHATAN AKIBAT PENCEMARAN UDARA
Sumber: Diunduh dari: http://www.gits4u.com/envo/envo7.htm...... 15/12/2012
Climate change and health Climate change has a range of complex interlinkages with health. These include direct impacts, such as temperature- related illness and death; the health impacts of extreme weather events; the
effect of air pollution in the form of spores and moulds.
BAHAYA KESEHATAN YANG PENTING? Do We Face?
The effects of environmental exposures on health depend on the social settings in which the exposures occur and on individual behaviours. Behavioural risk factors are sometimes closely
related to physical risk factors (e.g. hygiene is related to sanitation) and modify the health impacts of the physical risk factors. Indeed, the specific contributions of related behavioural and physical
risk factors sometimes cannot easily be separated, as for example in the risk factor "water, sanitation and hygiene".
Sumber: https://apps.who.int/peh/burden/9241546204/9241546204chap2.htm .diunduh 15/12/2012
APAKAH PENCEMARAN UDARA?
• Addition of harmful substances to the atmosphere resulting in damage to the environment, human health and quality of life
• Can occur indoor or outdoor, in cities and across continents and even globally
• Air pollutants consist of: gaseous pollutants, odors, suspended particle matter (dust, fumes, mist and smoke)
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POLUSI UDARA DI DALAM RUANGAN
• Indoor air can be defined as any non-industrial indoor space where a person spends a period of an hour or more in any day.
• This can include the air space in the office, classroom, motor vehicle, shopping centre, hospital and home.
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PENCEMAR UDARA DALAM RUANGAN• second-hand tobacco smoke; • airborne mold and mildew; • lead-impregnated dust from old paint cockroach shedding; • dust mite particles; • combustion gases released by stoves, heaters, candles
and fireplaces; chemicals released by – dry cleaned clothes; – cleaning products; – room deodorizers; – office supplies; – paints and sealers; – new furniture and pressed wood; – personal care products; and – pesticides.
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SUMBER PENCEMAR INDOOR
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PENCEMAR UDARA OUTDOOR
• Ozone (O3)• Particulate Matter (PM)• Carbon Monoxide (CO(• Nitrogen Oxides (NOx)• Sulfur Dioxide (SO2)• Lead (Pb)• Volatile Organic Compounds (VOCs)• Hazardous Air Pollutants (HAPs(
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SUMBER PENCEMAR UDARA
• Transportation (Mobile sources )– Motor vehicles, rail, shipping, aviation.
• Industry sources– Power stations, petroleum refining, chemical
manufacturing.• Power Plants• Central heating • Incineration of domestic wastes
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EFEK KESEHATAN – PENCEMAR UDARA• Irritation of nose, eye, and throat• Respiratory diseases (Bronchitis, Asthma, cough, nausea …
etc.)• Cardiovascular diseases• Toxicity (CO)• Decrease of pulmonary function and restricted activities)• Cancers (Benzene)• Neurological impairments, such as seizures, mental
retardation, and behavioral disorders (Pb). • kidney/liver damage, CNS disorders (Arsenic, cadmium, lead,
mercury, nickel, and chromium)• Increased hospital admissions and ER visits.• Premature death
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Efek Polusi thd KesehatanPolusi Udara
Polusi Air
Kontaminasi Tanah
Pestisida
Ozon
BakteriParasit
Bahan Kimia
Pb
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Piramida efek kesehatan
EFEK KESEHATAN POLUSI UDARA
PENGENDALIAN POLUSI UDARA
• Reduce emissions (conservation and improved efficiency); e.g., refineries
• Collect, capture, and retain pollutants before entering the atmosphere; e.g., gas stations
• Regulating automobile exhaust using catalytic converter, control of sulfur dioxide through scrubbing
• Varied pollutant-control strategies and new and improved technologies
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Risiko biasanya dinyatakan dalam “Peluang”
• Risiko • Probability and possibility • Pendugaan Risiko• Pengelolaan Risiko
Sumber: Environmental Hazard and Human Health. …………. www.bergen.edu/.../Environmental.../chapter_...diunduh 15/12/2012
• Regulatory control– Standards (process and emission)
• Engineering control– Ventilation (general and local)– Process change
• Work practice control• Administrative control• Personnel protective equipment
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PENGENDALIAN POLUSI UDARA
PENTINGNYA KESEHATAN AIR• There are 4 billion cases of diarrhea worldwide each year and 2.2
million avoidable deaths-that's a death every 14 seconds. • Most diarrheal deaths occur in the Majority World and just being
able to wash one's hands with soap and water can reduce diarrhea by 35%.
• Insect-related diseases Malaria, is the biggest killer, causing 1-2 million deaths a year. At any given time 100 million people suffer from the disease.
• Parasites Intestinal worms infect about 10% of the majority world population. About 200 million people are affected by schistosomiasis (bilharzia), with 200,000 dying each year.
• After a peak in the late 1980s, guinea-worm infections have been declining as water sources are better monitored.
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• Every day, diarrheal diseases cause some 6,000 deaths, mostly among children under five: in 2001, 1.96 million people died from infectious diarrheas; 1.3 million were children under five.
• Diarrheal diseases have killed more children in the past ten years than all the people lost to armed conflict since World War II.
• Between 1,085,000 and 2,187,000 deaths due to diarrheal diseases can be attributed to the 'water, sanitation and hygiene' risk factor, 90% of them among children under five.
• With simple hygiene measures such as washing hands after using the toilet or before preparing food, most of these deaths are preventable.
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PENTINGNYA KESEHATAN AIR
• Biological• Chemical• physical
Sumber:. Diunduh dari: http://www.idph.state.ia.us/WhatWeDo/Profiles.aspx?category=Environmental%20Hazards...... 15/12/2012
BAHAYA AIR & EFEK KESEHATAN
Volatile organic compoundsHydrophobic organic compoundsEndocrine disruptorsPetroleum AdditivesPesticides
Heavy metalsOther inorganic elementsAcids/basesOxidants/reductantsChlorination by-productsCombustion by-products
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BAHAN BERBAHAYA DALAM AIR
Typhoid fever ; Giardia ; Dysentery ; Cholera ; Diarrhea (caused by a variety of pathogens) ; Hepatitis ; Polio ; Worms
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PENYAKIT DARI AIR
Classification of water-related diseases
Sumber; http://helid.digicollection.org/en/d/Jwhow01e/2.1.html
JASAD PATHOGENIK
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JASAD PATHOGENIK
PENYAKIT YANG BERHUBUNGAN DNEGAN AIR
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TINGKAT PENYAKIT & RISIKONYA
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PENDUGAAN RISIKO & PENGELOLAAN RISIKO
Sumber: Environmental Hazard and Human Health. …………. www.bergen.edu/.../Environmental.../chapter_...diunduh 15/12/2012
PENDUGAAN RISIKO PENGELOLAAN RISIKO
Fig. 17-3, p. 440
Risk Assessment Risk Management
Hazard identification What is the hazard?
Risk reduction How much should it be reduced?
Probability of risk How likely is the event?
Risk reduction strategy How will the risk be reduced?
Consequences of risk What is the likely damage?
Financial commitment How much money should be spent?
Sumber: Environmental Hazard and Human Health. …………. www.bergen.edu/.../Environmental.../chapter_...diunduh 15/12/2012
TINGKAT PENYAKIT & RISIKONYAIdentifikasi bahaya
Apa bahaya itu?Analisis komparatif risiko
Bagaimana dibandingkan dg risiko mlainnya?
KONTROL PENCEMARAN AIRPencegahan pencemaranMeminimumkan pencemaran
– recycling and re-use; treatment; encourage cleaner production technologies; encourage good housekeeping
Disinfection (Chlorination)Disposal or discharge of waste water
– only under specified conditions; precautionary approach; differentiated approach; polluter pays
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BAHAYA MAKANANAbout risk analysis in food
The World Health Organization (WHO) and the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO) are in the forefront of the development of risk-based approaches
for the management of public health hazards in food. The approach used is called risk analysis, and is made up of three components:
Risk assessment; Risk management; Risk communication
Sumber: …. Diunduh dari: http://www.who.int/foodsafety/micro/riskanalysis/en/...... 15/12/2012
TIPE-TIPE BAHAYA MAKANAN
• Biologis: bacteria, viruses, parasites• Bahan Kimia: heavy metals, natural
toxins, sanitizers, pesticides, antibiotics• Fisika: bone, rocks, metal
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BAHAYA BIOLOGIS DALAM MAKANAN
Biologis = Organisme hidup• Dalam daging dan unggas: • Salmonella bacteria (poultry and eggs)• Trichinella spiralis parasite (pork) On Fruits and Vegetables:• E. coli bacteria (apple juice)• Cyclospora parasite (raspberries)• Hepatitis A virus (strawberries)
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BAHAYA BIOLOGIS DALAM MAKANAN
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BAHAYA BIOLOGIS DALAM MAKANAN
Pencegahan pertumbuhan mikroba– Holding at low temperatures (<40oF)– Cooling from 140o-40oF quickly
“Memasak” membantu mematikan mikroba– >165oF(73o C) for poultry and eggs– >155oF (68o C) for ground beef– >160oF (71o C) for pork
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MENCEGAH BAHAYA BIOLOGIS DALAM MAKANAN
Bahaya Kimiawi: a toxic substance that is produced naturally added intentionally or un-intentionally
• Naturally-occurring: – Natural toxins (aflatoxins, marine toxins)
• Added intentionally:– Antibiotics, preservatives
• Added non-intentionally: – Cleaning agents, Pesticide Residues
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BAHAYA KIMIA DALAM MAKANAN
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BAHAYA KIMIA DALAM MAKANAN
Bahaya kimia yang tidak nampak
pada makananResidu
Pestisida
Residu Veteriner
Bahan kimia pembersih
Bahaya Fisika: a hard foreign object that can cause illness or injury
• Inherent to the food or ingredient– Bone fragment, feathers
• Contaminant during processing– Stones, rocks, dirt, fingernails
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BAHAYA FISIKA DALAM MAKANAN
Lima faktor siriko gangguan penyakit akibat dari makanan:– Makanan dari sumber yang tidak aman– Waktu dan suhu penyimpanan makanan yang
tidak tepat– Higienis personal yang buruk– Memasak yang tidak tepat– Kontaminasi silang.
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FAKTOR RISIKO MAKANAN
SISTEM KENDALI MAKANAN• To guarantee quality and safety of the foods
traded at the national and international level;– Protecting the health of the consumers and
ensuring fair practices in the food trade;– Facilitating food trade.
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REGULASI MAKANAN• Consumer protection, facilitate the
production of safe food and fair trade practices. – Simple, coherent, transparent, result of process
of consensus among the food chain actors.– Based on risk assessment through the food
chain.
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Hazard Analysis Critical Control Point (HACCP)
• To monitor and control production processes• Identify food safety hazards and critical control points
• Production, processing and marketing• Establish limits• Monitor
• Applied to meat, poultry, and eggs
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PENGENALAN DAN KONTROL BAHAYA DI HUNIAN
• Determine if personnel have potential occupational exposure to environmental hazards.
• Obtain training. • Voluntarily notify supervisor or OMC of any pre-
disposition to environmental hazards that can create medical emergencies.
• Use personal protective equipment, administrative controls, and engineering controls when exposed to environmental hazards.
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MENGURANGI / KONTROL BAHAYA LINGKUNGAN
• Prevent the creation of a hazard in the first place• Reduce the amount of hazard brought into being• Prevent the release of existing hazard• Modify the rate or spatial distribution of release of
hazard from its source• Separate, in time or in place, the hazard and that which is
to be protected.• Separate the hazard and that which is to be protected by
interaction of a material barrier.• Modify the basic qualities of the hazard.• Make that which is to be protected more resistant to
damage from the hazard• Counter damage already done by the environmental
hazard• Stabilize, repair, and provide rehabilitative corrective
measuresSumber: Environmental Health Hazard . Atallah Z. Rabi …. Diunduh dari: www.sawa2006.com/.../22%20-......
15/12/2012
Kita menghadapi banyak macam bahaya
Lima tipe-utama bahaya Lingkungan:1. Biologis: pathogens2. Kimiawi3. Fisika4. Kultural5. Pilihan Gaya hidup
Sumber: Environmental Hazard and Human Health. …………. www.bergen.edu/.../Environmental.../chapter_...diunduh 15/12/2012
JENIS-JENIS BAHAYA BIOLOGIS Do We Face?
In terms of death rates, the most serious infectious diseases are flu, AIDS, diarrheal diseases, malaria, and tuberculosis; most of these
deaths occur in developing countries.
Sumber: Environmental Hazard and Human Health. …………. www.bergen.edu/.../Environmental.../chapter_...diunduh 15/12/2012
Bbrp penyakit dapat menular dari satu orang ke orang lainnya
1. Nontransmissible disease2. Infectious disease3. Transmissible disease (contagious or
communicable disease)
Sumber: Environmental Hazard and Human Health.
…………. www.bergen.edu/.../
Environmental.../chapter_...diunduh 15/12/2012
http://www.rims.edu.in/HealthCareCDACKolgksaha/Zoom-%20Infectious%20Diseases%20-%20Ringworm-Jock%20Itch-Worms-Amebas-Malaria.html
• Sejak 1950, kematian akibat penyakit infeksi telah menurun, karena :– Perawatan kesehatan lebih baik– Antibiotika– Vaksin
• Disability-adjusted life years (DALYs)
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Bbrp penyakit dapat menular dari satu orang ke orang lainnya
Penyakit infeksi masih menjadi ancaman utama• Penyakit infeksi menyebar melalui:
– Udara– Air– Makanan– Cairan tubuh
• Epidemik dan Pandemik• Resistensi bacteri dan serangga
Sumber: Environmental Hazard and Human Health. ………….
www.bergen.edu/.../Environmental.../chapter_...
diunduh 15/12/2012
Global warming has various effects on human health. The main indirect effects are on infectious diseases. Although the effects on infectious diseases will be detected worldwide, the degree and
types of the effect are different, depending on the location of the respective countries and socioeconomical situations.
Diunduh dari: http://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S2210909910000056?via=sd
JALUR PENYAKIT INFEKSI PADA MANUSIA
Sumber: Environmental Hazard and Human Health. …………. www.bergen.edu/.../Environmental.../chapter_...diunduh 15/12/2012
RESISTENSI GENETIK THD ANTIBIOTIK• Bacteria: rapid reproduction, easily spread• Penggunaan antibiotika yg berlebihan• Penggunaan pesticida yang berlebihSumber: Environmental Hazard and Human Health. …………. www.bergen.edu/.../Environmental
.../chapter_...diunduh 15/12/2012
Antibiotic Resistance is the adaptation of bacterial strains to certain of the ANTIBIOTIC MEDICATIONS doctors prescribe to treat infections the BACTERIA
cause, rendering the antibiotic ineffective.
Sumber: http://www.beltina.org/health-dictionary/antibiotic-resistance.html _...diunduh 15/12/2012
• Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA)– Resistant to most antibiotics– Symptoms of MRSA– How will it be controlled?
Sumber: Environmental Hazard and Human Health. ………….
www.bergen.edu/.../Environmental.../chapter_...diunduh 15/12/2012
RESISTENSI GENETIK THD ANTIBIOTIK
Sumber: http://www.scq.ubc.ca/attack-of-the-superbugs-antibiotic-resistance/ _...diunduh 15/12/2012
Mechanisms of Antibiotic Resistance.
ANCAMAN GLOBAL AKIBAT TUBERCULOSIS
• Why is tuberculosis on the rise?– Not enough screening and control programs– Genetic resistance to a majority of effective
antibiotics– Person-to-person contact has increased– AIDS individuals are very susceptible to TB
Sumber: Environmental Hazard and Human Health. …………. www.bergen.edu/.../Environmental.../chapter_...diunduh 15/12/2012
BEBERAPA PENYAKIT VIRUS SANGAT MEMATIKAN
• Influenza or flu virus–#1 Killer–Transmission
• HIV–#2 Killer–Antiviral drugs
Sumber: Environmental Hazard and Human Health. …………. www.bergen.edu/.../Environmental.../chapter_...diunduh 15/12/2012
• Global strategy to slow down the spread of HIV– Reduce the number of new infections– Concentrate on those most likely to spread
HIV– Free testing– Education for prevention– Provide free or low-cost drugs– Research
Sumber: Environmental Hazard and Human Health. …………. www.bergen.edu/.../Environmental.../chapter_...diunduh 15/12/2012
BEBERAPA PENYAKIT VIRUS SANGAT MEMATIKAN
• Hepatitis B virus (HBV)– #3 Killer– Mode of transmission
• Viruses that move form animals to humans– West Nile virus– Severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS)
• Reduce chances of infection: Wash your handsSumber: Environmental Hazard and Human Health. …………. www.bergen.edu/.../Environmental
.../chapter_...diunduh 15/12/2012
BEBERAPA PENYAKIT VIRUS SANGAT MEMATIKAN
PENYEBARAN PENYAKIT INFEKSI DARI BINATANG KE MANUSIA
• Ecological medicine• Human practices that encourage the spread
of diseases from animals to humans• Emerging infections
– HIV– SARS– West Nile virus– Lyme virus
Sumber: Environmental Hazard and Human Health. …………. www.bergen.edu/.../Environmental.../chapter_...diunduh 15/12/2012
Malaria— oleh NYAMUK PEMBAWA PARASIT
Malaria1. Caused by Plasmodium sp. carried
by Anopheles mosquitoes 2. Penyebaran3. Gejala-gejala4. Siklus Malarial
• Malaria on the rise since 1970– Drug resistant Plasmodium– Insecticide resistant mosquitoes – Effect of global warming– AIDS patients particularly vulnerable
• Prevention of spread and current research
Sumber: Environmental Hazard and Human Health. …………. www.bergen.edu/.../Environmental.../chapter_...diunduh 15/12/2012
Malaria— oleh NYAMUK PEMBAWA PARASIT
Mengurangi penyakit infeksi
• Good news– Vaccinations on the rise– Oral rehydration therapy
• Bad news– More money needed for medical research in
developing countries
Sumber: Environmental Hazard and Human Health. …………. www.bergen.edu/.../Environmental.../chapter_...diunduh 15/12/2012
SOLUTIONS
Infectious Diseases
Increase research on tropical diseases and vaccinesReduce povertyDecrease malnutritionImprove drinking water qualityReduce unnecessary use of antibioticsEducate people to take all of an antibiotic prescription
Mengurangi penggunaan antibiotik dalam budidaya unggas
Require careful hand washing by all medical personnel
Immunisasi anak-anak thd penyakit virus
Provide oral rehydration for diarrhea victimsConduct global campaign to reduce HIV/AIDS
Sumber: Environmental Hazard and Human Health. …………. www.bergen.edu/.../Environmental.../chapter_...diunduh 15/12/2012
Solusi: Penyakit Infeksi, Cara-cara untuk mencegah atau mereduksi kejadiannya
Memperbaiki kualitas air minum
MENGHADAPI BAHAN KIMIA BERBAHAYA
Managing the risks of toxic substances is an ongoing, integrated process
Sumber: http://www.oag-bvg.gc.ca/internet/English/parl_cesd_200911_02_e_33197.html_...diunduh 15/12/2012
BEBERAPA BAHAN KIMIA DAPAT MENYEBABKAN KANKER, MUTASI, DAN GANGGUAN JANIN
Bahan kimia toksik:CarcinogensMutagensTeratogens
Sumber:_http://risk.arizona.edu/healthandsafety/chemicalsafetyinfo/index.shtml...diunduh ….. 15/12/2012
PCB ADA DI BERBAGAI TEMPAT
• Kelompok senyawa kimia yang mengandung khlor:– Sangat stabil– Nonflammable– Break down slowly in the environment– Travel long distances in the air– Larut dalam lemak– Biomagnifikasi– Food chains and webs
• Banned, but found everywhere
Sumber: Environmental Hazard and Human Health. …………. www.bergen.edu/.../Environmental.../chapter_...diunduh 15/12/2012
Potential Pathways on Which Toxic Chemicals Move Through the Environment
Sumber: Environmental Hazard and Human Health. …………. www.bergen.edu/.../Environmental.../chapter_...diunduh 15/12/2012
• Hormonally active agents (HAAs) – Gender benders– Pengganggua kelenjar Thyroid– Bahan kimia Toksik
• Phthlates • Efek pada sistem hormonal system• Kanker
Sumber: Environmental Hazard and Human Health. …………. www.bergen.edu/.../Environmental.../chapter_...diunduh 15/12/2012
Bbrpa bahan kimia mempengaruhi sistem immune, Nervous, dan Endocrine
EFEK TOKSIK AKIBAT MERKURI• Hg: teratogen and potent neurotoxin
– Once airborne, persistent and not degradable– 1/3 from natural sources– 2/3 from human activities– Enters the food chain: biomagnification
Sumber: Environmental Hazard and Human Health. ………….
www.bergen.edu/.../Environmental
.../chapter_...diunduh 15/12/2012
Biomagnification, also known as bioamplification or biological
magnification, is the increase in concentration of a substance that
occurs in a food chain as a consequence of:
1. Persistence (can't be broken down by environmental processes)
2. Food chain energetics3. Low (or nonexistent) rate of
internal degradation/excretion of the substance (often due to water-insolubility)
http://flyfishingconsultant.blogspot.com/2010/07/i-do-not-eat-fish-why-is-that.html
• 2007: Hg hotspots identified
• How are humans exposed?– Inhalation: vaporized Hg or particulates of
inorganic salts– Eating fish with high levels of methylmercury
• Effects of Hg on humans
• Who is most at risk?Sumber: Environmental Hazard and Human Health. …………. www.bergen.edu/.../Environmental.../chapter_...diunduh 15/12/2012
EFEK TOKSIK AKIBAT MERKURI
Siklus merkuri dalam lingkungan akuatik
Sumber: Environmental Hazard and Human Health. …………. www.bergen.edu/.../Environmental.../chapter_...diunduh 15/12/2012
Fig. 17-B, p. 451
SOLUTIONSPencemaran Merkuri
Prevention ControlPhase out waste incineration Sharply reduce mercury
emissions from coal-burning plants and incineratorsRemove mercury from
coal before it is burned
Tax each unit of mercury emitted by coal-burning plants and incinerators
Switch from coal to natural gas and renewable energy resources such as wind, solar cells, and hydrogen
Require labels on all products containing mercury
Convert coal to liquid or gaseous fuel
Phase out use of mercury in batteries, TVs, compact fluorescent lightbulbs, and all other products unless they are recycled
Collect and recycle mercury-containing electric switches, relays, and dry-cell batteries
Sumber: Environmental Hazard and Human Health. …………. www.bergen.edu/.../Environmental.../chapter_...diunduh 15/12/2012
PENYELESAIAN PENCEMARAN MERKURI
Pencegahan Kontrol
Bisphenol A
• Menyerupai Estrogen
• Found in many common products
• Laboratory findings
• Effects on human health
• Should it be banned?
Sumber: Environmental Hazard and Human Health. ………….
www.bergen.edu/.../Environmental.../chapter_...
diunduh 15/12/2012 Diunduh dari: http://www.bisphenol-a.org/pdf/BPAsafe.pdf
Bagaimana Evaluasi dan Menangani Bahaya Kimia ?
Scientists use live laboratory animals, non-animal tests, case reports of poisonings, and epidemiological
studies to estimate the toxicity of chemicals, but these methods have limitations.
Many health scientists call for much greater emphasis on pollution prevention to reduce our exposure to
potentially harmful candidates.
Sumber: Environmental Hazard and Human Health. …………. www.bergen.edu/.../Environmental.../chapter_...diunduh 15/12/2012
EFEK BERBAHAYA DARI BAHAN KIMIA• Toxicology• Toksisitas tergantung pada:
– Dose – Age– Genetic makeup – Multiple chemical sensitivity (MCS) – Kelarutan dan persistensi bahan kimia– Biomagnifikasi
Sumber: Environmental Hazard and Human Health. ………….
www.bergen.edu/.../Environmental.../chapter_...
diunduh 15/12/2012
Diunduh dari: http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0014579308001166
KECELAKAAN KIMIA
Sumber: http://www.hrdp-idrm.in/e5783/e17327/e27015/e27708/_...diunduh 15/12/2012
“Chemical accident" means an accident involving a fortuitous, or sudden or unintended occurrence while handling any hazardous chemicals resulting in
continuous, intermittent or repeated exposure to death, or injury to, any person or damage to any property but does not include an accident by reason only of
war or radio-activity
Estimasi Paparan Manusia thd bahan kimia dan mengukur efeknya
Sumber: Environmental Hazard and Human Health. …………. www.bergen.edu/.../Environmental.../chapter_...diunduh 15/12/2012
Pengukuran & Pemodelan
Ilmiah
Ramalan kandungan toksik dalam manusia
MetabolismeAkumulasiEkskresi
Studi Kasus: Melindungi anak-anak dari bahan kimia toksik
• Analysis of umbilical cord blood: significance
• Infants and children more susceptible to the toxic effects of chemicals than adults– Eat, drink water, and breathe more per unit of
body weight than adults– Put their fingers in their mouths– Less well-developed immune systems and body
detoxification processes
Sumber: Environmental Hazard and Human Health. …………. www.bergen.edu/.../Environmental.../chapter_...diunduh 15/12/2012
Estimasi toksisitas: Hewan uji di Lab dan Uji non-hewan
• Dose-response curve: median lethal dose (LD50) – Nonthreshold dose-response model– Threshold dose-response model
• Can the data be extrapolated to humans?
Sumber: Environmental Hazard and Human Health. …………. www.bergen.edu/.../Environmental.../chapter_...diunduh 15/12/2012
• More humane methods using animals• Replace animals with other models
– Computer simulations– Tissue culture and individual animal cells– Chicken egg membranes
• What are the effects of mixtures of potentially toxic chemicals?
Sumber: Environmental Hazard and Human Health. …………. www.bergen.edu/.../Environmental.../chapter_...diunduh 15/12/2012
Estimasi toksisitas: Hewan uji di Lab dan Uji non-hewan
Kurva Hipotetis Dose-Response untuk menentukan LD50
Sumber: Environmental Hazard and Human Health. …………. www.bergen.edu/.../Environmental.../chapter_...diunduh 15/12/2012
Tingkat Toksisitas dan Rataan LD untuk manusia
Sumber: Environmental Hazard and Human Health. …………. www.bergen.edu/.../Environmental.../chapter_...diunduh 15/12/2012
Fig. 17-15, p. 456
Nonlinear dose-responseLinear dose- response
Effe
ct
Effe
ctThreshold level
Dose Dose
No threshold Threshold
Sumber: Environmental Hazard and Human Health. …………. www.bergen.edu/.../Environmental.../chapter_...diunduh 15/12/2012
KURVA RESPON DOSIS
ESTIMASI EFEK BERBAHAYA BAHAN KIMIA
• Case reports and epidemiological studies
• Limitations of epidemiological studies– Too few people tested– Length of time– Can you link the result with the chemical?– Can not be used for new hazards
Sumber: Environmental Hazard and Human Health. …………. www.bergen.edu/.../Environmental.../chapter_...diunduh 15/12/2012
APA BAHAYA DOSIS RENDAH DARI BAHAN TOKSIK?
Sumber: http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0048969711001136_...diunduh 15/12/2012
Acute-based Predicted No-effect Concentrations (PNECacute), as well as two existing EQSs for the pesticides chlorpyrifos and chlorfenvinphos compared to a correlation of observed effects on community structure of aquatic macroinvertebrate communities,
expressed as SPEAR index (SPEAR[%]) and a measure of toxic stress, calculated as Toxic Units (TU) for the most toxic compound (based on data from von der Ohe
et al., 2009). The two red dots represent sites at which chlorfenvinphos was responsible for the TUmax.
BAHAN KIMIA BERBAHAYA DI RUMAH
Sumber: Environmental Hazard and Human Health. …………. www.bergen.edu/.../Environmental.../chapter_...diunduh 15/12/2012
Vinyl toys contain phthalates
Imported fruit may contain pesticides banned in the U.S.
Fig. 17-16, p. 458
Shampoo Teddy bear Clothing Baby bottle
Nail polish
Perfluorochemicals and phthalates
Some stuffed animals made overseas contain flame retardants and/or pesticides
Perfluorochemicals to add shine
Can contain perfluorochemicals
Can contain bisphenol-A
Mattress
Perfume
Flame retardants in stuffing
Phthalates
Hairspray
Carpet
Phthalates
Padding and carpet fibers contain flame retardants, perfluorochemicals, and pesticidesFood
Some food contains bisphenol-A TV
MilkWiring and plastic casing contain flame retardantsFat contains dioxins and
flame retardantsSofa
Frying pan Foam padding contains flame retardants and perfluorochemicalsNonstick coating
contains perfluorochemicals
Tile floor Fruit Water bottle Computer Toys Tennis shoes
Contains perfluorochemicals, phthalates, and pesticides
Can contain bisphenol-A
Flame retardant coatings of plastic casing and wiring
Can contain phthalates
Sumber: Environmental Hazard and Human Health. …………. www.bergen.edu/.../Environmental.../chapter_...diunduh 15/12/2012
EFEK BERBAHAYA DARI BAHAN KIMIA• Severe limitations estimating toxicity levels and risks • Acceptable levels vary between 1/100 and 1/1000 of the
estimated harmful levelsSumber: Environmental Hazard and Human Health. …………. www.bergen.edu/.../Environmental
.../chapter_...diunduh 15/12/2012
Diagram illustrating dose response curve for Chemical A
Diunduh dari: … http://www.stewardshipcommunity.com/?id=339
PENCEGAHAN Polusi & Prinsip Ke-hati-hatian• Those introducing a new chemical or new technology would have to follow
new strategies– A new product is considered harmful until it can be proved to be safe– Existing chemicals and technologies that appear to cause significant harm
must be removedSumber: Environmental Hazard and Human Health. …………. www.bergen.edu/.../Environmental.../chapter_...diunduh 15/12/2012
Dose-Effect and Dose-ResponseSince the basic question in toxicology is how dose is related to toxicity, most toxicology studies are
designed to investigate how living creatures react as doses vary incrementally, from low to high levels.
Diunduh dari: http://toxlearn.nlm.nih.gov/htmlversion/module1.html
Individuals Matter: Ray Turner and His Refrigerator
• 1974: Ozone layer being depleted by chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs)• 1992: International agreement to phase out CFCs and other ozone-destroying
chemicals• Ray Turner: citrus-based solvents to clean circuit boards
Sumber: Environmental Hazard and Human Health. …………. www.bergen.edu/.../Environmental.../chapter_...diunduh 15/12/2012
The cycle of the ozone depletion and how its shown to be depleted.
Diunduh dari: http://optioneenvirochemblog1.wordpress.com/2012/03/28/e4-ozone-depletion/
Risiko dan Menghindari Bahayanya
We can reduce the major risks we face if we become informed, think critically about risks, and
make careful choices.
Sumber: Environmental Hazard and Human Health.
…………. www.bergen.edu/.../
Environmental.../chapter_...diunduh
15/12/2012
The relationship between risk assessment and selection of controls
Sumber: http://security.practitioner.com/introduction/infosec_5_5.htm ... diunduh 17/12/2012
Risiko kesehatan datang-dari Kemiskinan, Gender dan Gaya-hidup
• Analisis Risiko• Risiko Kesehatan “terbesar”:
– Kemiskinan– Gender– Pilihan Gaya Hidup
Sumber: http://www.uic.edu/sph/prepare/courses/ph420/resources/pt2analysis.htm_...diunduh 17/12/2012
Analyzing Health Problems for Risk Factors
Sumber: Environmental Hazard and Human Health. …………. www.bergen.edu/.../Environmental.../chapter_...diunduh 15/12/2012
Analisis Komparatif Risiko: Problematik ekologis dan kesehatan
BAHAYA AKIBAT MEROKOK• Most preventable major cause of suffering and
premature death• Nikotin: bahan adetif (tambahan)• Efek merokok pasif (secondhand smoke)
Sumber: Environmental Hazard and Human Health.
…………. www.bergen.edu/.../
Environmental.../chapter_...diunduh
15/12/2012Secondhand smoke is a complex mixture of gases and particulates containing as many
as 4800 chemicals including formaldehyde, carbon monoxide, nicotine, carcinogenic tars and others.
Of the chemicals identified in secondhand smoke, more than 50 have been found to cause cancer.
Diunduh dari: http://www.whatyoudomatters.org/Substance_Abuse/Tobacco/Secondhand_Smoke.aspx
• Bagaimana mengurangi merokok– Pajak– Ban– Klassifikasi dan Regulasi nikotin– Pendidikan
Sumber: http://ginfomation.blogspot.com/2008/09/smohing-hazards-danger-info.html_...diunduh 17/12/2012
BAHAYA AKIBAT MEROKOK
Estimasi risiko dari teknologi Hal ini tidak mudah
Sumber:. http://www.aist.go.jp/NIRE/eco_tec_e/hyouka_e.htm…………. _...diunduh 15/12/2012
Technologies for Risk Assessment and Risk Management of Chemical Substances
Banyak orang tidak mengerti bagaimana Evaluasi Risiko?• Fear• Degree of control• Whether a risk is catastrophic• Optimism bias• Unfair distribution of risks
Sumber: Environmental Hazard and Human Health. ………….
www.bergen.edu/.../Environmental.../chapter_...
diunduh 15/12/2012
Diunduh dari: http://www.scielo.br/scielo.php?pid=S1517-83822000000100002&script=sci_arttext ……. 17/12/2012
Beberapa prinsip Evaluasi dan Reduksi Risiko
• Membandingkan Risiko• Determine how much you are willing to
accept • Determine the actual risk involved• Concentrate on evaluating and
carefully making important lifestyle choices
Sumber: Environmental Hazard and Human Health. …………. www.bergen.edu/.../Environmental.../chapter_...diunduh 15/12/2012