DAMODARAM SANJIVAYYA NATIONAL LAW UNIVERSITY

VISAKHAPATNAM, A.P., INDIA

SOCIOLOGICAL SCHOOL OF JURISPRUDENCE

JURISPRUDENCE- I

Prof. R.B.G. BHAGAWATH KUMAR & ARVINDNATH TRIPATHI

G. NAGA LAHARI

ROLL NO: 2013048

V SEMESTER

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PLAGARISM

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CERTIFICATE

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

I consider myself lucky that I got the chance to do a work on this topic that was to

“Sociological School of Jurisprudence.”

I thank the subject teacher, R.G.B. Bhagawath Kumar & Arvindnath Tripati, for letting me

choose the topic.

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ABSTRACT

The historical jurisprudence of the earlier part of the 19th century became subject to the

influence of the developing social sciences, which attempted to explain law in its social

context. The result was the emergence of a sociological school of jurisprudence. Sociological

School started with a new concept, meaning and function of law totally different from that of

its earlier formal and conceptual character. Sociological Jurisprudence therefore stands for

tested, probable and concrete legal solutions to pressing social problems and aspirations

which require urgent solution. Its theory and thinking is concerned about how the law

actually works rather than how it ought to work or what it is. Its orientation towards law is

functional, pragmatic and realistic judging law exclusively from its results, social

consequences and effects upon society. It rejects the traditional idealistic, dogmatic or

logical notion of law as dysfunctional, anti-social and a clog undermining social harmony,

social justice and social equilibrium. It is therefore, maintained that law cannot shut its eyes

to the complex social problems and thereby it becomes essentially a healer, reconciler and

above all a guarantor of social reforms and peaceful change consistent with the principles of

humanity, equality and liberty. Law thus becomes a substitute for revolution and conflicts for

achieving social good - the ultimate quest of sociological jurisprudence.

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TABLE OF CONTENTS

TITLE PAGE NO.CERTIFICATE 02ACKNOWLEGEMENT 03ABSTRACT 04

1. OBJECTIVES 082. INTRODUCTION 083. HYPOTHESIS 094. RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 095. MEANING AND INTERPRETATION OF

SOCIOLOGICAL JURISPRUDENCE09

6. GROWTH OF SOCIOLOGICAL SCHOOL OF JURISPRUDENCE6.1. Future of Sociological School of

Jurisprudence

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7. VIEWS OF DIFFERENT JURISTS RELATED TO THIS APPROACH

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8. SOCIOLOGICAL JURISPRUDENCE IN INDIAN CONTEXT

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9. IMPORTANCE OF SOCIOLOGICAL JURISPRUDENCE IN GROWTH OF LEGISLATURE & JUDICIARY SYSTEM IN INDIA

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10. INFLUENCE OF SOCIOLOGICAL JURISPRUDENCE ON JUDICIARY SYSTEM OF INDIA

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11. INFLUENCE OF SOCIOLOGICAL JURISPRUDENCE ON LEGISLATIVE SYSTEM OF INDIA

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CONCLUSION 17 BIBLIOGRAPHY Books References Articles Websites

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LIST OF CASES

1) Keshavanand Bharti v State of kerala, AIR 1973 SC 1461

2) Minerva Mills v. Union of India, 1980 SC 1789

3) Waman Rao v. union India ,AIR 1980 SC 271)

4) Indira sawhney v. Unionj of India, AIR 1993 SC 447(634)

5) S.R Bommai v. Union of India, AIR 1994 SC 1918

6) Kuldip Nayyar v. Union of India,AIR 2007 SC 3127

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1. OBJECTIVES

To understand and analyze various principles of Sociological School of Jurisprudence

2. INTRODUCTION

Sociological jurisprudence is a term coined by the American jurist Roscoe Pound (1870–

1964) to describe his approach to the understanding of the law. Believes law is a means of

achieving and advancing certain sociological goals.1 Central to Pound's conception was the

very suggestive idea that in modern societies the law represents the principal means through

which divergent interests are brought into some sort of alignment with one another.

Unfortunately, perhaps because he was a jurist rather than a sociologist, he did not combine

this insightful conception with a developed understanding of how these interests were formed

and why some of them came to be privileged over others within the legal system. A

sociologically informed account of Pound's work, which places it in the context of the

historical development of the sociology of law, will be found in Alan Hunt, The Sociological

Movement in Law, 1978.2 The sociological questions in jurisprudence are concerned with the

actual effects of the law upon the complex of attitudes, behaviour, organization, environment,

skills, and powers involved in the maintenance of a particular society. Conversely,

sociological jurisprudence is also concerned with the effects of social phenomena on both the

substantive and procedural aspects of law, as well as on the legislative, judicial, and other

means of forming, operating, changing, and disrupting the legal order. The fact that people in

a given time and place hold particular ideas and values, including ideals of justice, is itself a

fact the relation of which to law must be studied; but the focus is sharply different from that

in the study of theories of justice. Its focus is descriptive, not normative; it is concerned with

what is or with what goes on, not with what ought to be or ought to go on.3

Sociological jurisprudence is one of the most important schools of legal thought in the

twentieth century. Its major proponent in the United States was ROSCOE POUND (1870–

1964), a prolific writer who was dean of the Harvard Law School from 1916 to 1936. A

number of other legal educators and judges also contributed in varying degrees to the theory

or practice of sociological jurisprudence. The movement for a sociological jurisprudence

1 https://archive.org/details/jstor-1324094, last visited on 8 th October, 2015 at 7 PM2 http://www.jstor.org/stable/1324094, last visited on 6th October, 2015 at 6 PM3 Sociological school of jurisprudence, http://www.britannica.com/topic/philosophy-of-law, last visited on 6th October, 2015 at 6 PM

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emerged during the Progressive era. Pound interpreted it as the "movement for pragmatism as

a philosophy of law," the purpose of which was to facilitate legal reform and social progress.

Although legal change should take place under the leadership of lawyers, the agenda of

sociological jurisprudence did not focus on changes in legal institutions. Rather, it stressed

reform of prevailing conceptions of the study, interpretation, and application of law.

3. HYPOTHESIS

The Sociological questions in jurisprudence are concerned with the actual effects of the law

upon the complex of attitudes, behaviour, organization, environment, skills, and powers

involved in the maintenance of a particular society. Conversely, Sociological jurisprudence is

also concerned with the effects of social phenomena on both the substantive and procedural

aspects of law, as well as on.

4. RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

4.1. Research Questions1) What are the meaning, scope and interpretation of sociological Jurisprudence?

2) What are the views of different jurists related to the approach?

3) What is the importance of sociological jurisprudence on legislative and judiciary

systems in India?

4.2. Sources of Data

The primary sources of data are internet source and books.

4.3. Method of Writing

The research paper is in theoretical in nature.

4.4. Mode of Citation

The mode of citation used in this paper is Harvard Blue Book Citation.

5. MEANING AND INTERPRETATION OF SOCIOLOGICAL JURISPRUDENCE

Sociological School of jurisprudence has emerged as a result of synthesis of various juristic

thought. The exponent of this school considered law as a social phenomenon. They are

chiefly concerned with the relationship of law to other contemporary social institutions. They

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emphasize that the jurists should focus their attention in social purposes and interest served

by law rather than on individuals and their abstract rights. According to this school the

essential characteristics of law should be to represent common interaction of men in social

groups, whether past or present, ancient or modern. The main concern of sociological jurist

is to study the effect of law and society on each other. They treat law as an instrument of

social progress. The relation between positive law and ideals of justice also effects the

sociology of law.

The main exponents of the sociological jurisprudence which has been characterised as

“interest oriented, interest loaded, and interest directed” were Auguste Comte, Herbert

Spencer, Rudolph Ihring, Eugen Ehrlich, Leon Duguit, Francois Geny, Dean Roscoe Pound

etc. In United States, Justice Oliver Windell Holmesand Benjamin Cardozo the distinguished

judges of the Supreme Court were also inspired by Dean Pound’s Sociological theory of law.

6. GROWTH OF SOCIOLOGICAL SCHOOL OF JURISPRUDENCE

The most eminent pioneers and champions of 20th-century sociological jurisprudence

were Roscoe Pound in the United States and Hermann Kantorowicz in Europe. For both, the

task of sociological jurisprudence, though orientated mainly to practical administrative or

legislative problems, included that of framing hypotheses (as to the limits of effective legal

action, for example) on which to base general laws of the operation of law in society.

As with the social sciences, the principal methods available to sociological jurisprudence are

surveys, statistical analyses, comparative observations, and experimentation. The controls

and corrections available usually fall far short of those of the natural science models. Much

work in sociological jurisprudence merely brought to bear upon the law relevant findings

from other social sciences. But it may also generate its own findings, as it did in relation to

traffic laws, control of money lending, credit unions, bankruptcy laws, the effect

of antitrust practices or of poverty on legal rights, the theory of appellate judicial decision

making, and a host of other matters. Examinations of the prehistory and after careers of

convicted criminals and of persons on probation or parole, probings of family and

environmental influences bearing on potential deviance, and attempts to identify decisive

factors predictive of future deviance have been among the staples of sociological

jurisprudence.4

4 James A. Gardner, The Sociological Jurisprudence of Roscoe Pound (Part I), 7 Vill. L. Rev. 1 (1961).

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Sociological jurisprudence is confronted by the questions whether (and, if so, how and how

far) it is possible through empirical methods to approach central issues of social action that

involve value judgments. The fact that lawyers are necessarily involved with ideas of

obligation, values, and norms sharpens this confrontation. A second group of problems arises

from the high level of individuality of persons, groups, and societies, from the unending

variety of their emotions, roles, and expectations, and from the feedback effects on human

behaviour that the empirical observation and testing of that behaviour brings about.

These problems give central importance to efforts to develop frames of social knowledge that

give due place to both facts and values. Such inquiries show the great complexities of values

held and their intricate and dynamic relation to the physical and cultural environments.5

The study of law in society thus shares with anthropology and other social sciences a central

interest in roles and functions as basic meaningful categories and in certain mechanisms and

channels whereby conduct is thought to become socially meaningful. These notions are

thought to permit the analysis of complex social situations into more refined terms, such as

constituent goals, tasks, expectations, and allocated rights, powers, and duties.6

As to the mechanisms or channels through which conduct becomes socially meaningful,

earlier thought tended to explain social norms as built up from individual instances through

group usages and mores that then crystallize in institutions such as law. Insofar as this

suggests a cumulative movement or process, current thought would regard it as

oversimplified. The growth of socio-ethical convictions is rather to be seen in terms of

symbolic interaction between individuals. A particular society may be seen, in this light, as a

collection of individuals with a culture that has been learned by symbolic communication

from other individuals back through time, enabling members to gauge their behaviour to each

other and to the society as a whole.7

6.1. Future of Sociological School of Jurisprudence

In his famous program of 1911–12, Pound formulated a series of rather practical objectives

for the movement, including making studies of the law in action, of the means of more

effective legislation and law enforcement (by creation of ministries of justice, for example),

5 Available at: http://digitalcommons.law.villanova.edu/vlr/vol7/iss1/1, last visited on 5th October, 2015 at 6PM6 Stone, A critique of Pound's Theory of Justice, 20 IowA L. Rzv. 531, 532-33(1935)7 Pound, The Need of a Sociological Jurisprudence, 19 GuxN BAG 607 (1907)

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of legal and judicial reasoning, of legal history in its social context, and of the role of

the legal profession. An early quip against the sociological school was that it was like a great

orchestra constantly tuning its instruments but never actually playing. Yet many practical

tasks have been performed, and the school continued to show a gathering momentum and a

widening range of concerns.8

The maladjustments and inadequacies of the law gave to early sociological jurisprudence an

intensely activist drive, directed to ad hoc remedies, and a great deal of the relevant work is

still of this nature. Especially since 1945, however, juristic work on the relations of law and

society has come into more fruitful contact with other social sciences, leading in turn to

greater stress on cognition of the social and economic orders in their complex unity.

Whatever the difficulties of designs for an overall analysis of the social system, some

adjustment toward them is inevitable for sociological jurisprudence. This is in part, no doubt,

a result of the waning of interest in many of the kinds of ad hoc problems with which it was

initially concerned. But the interest in sociological theory also results from growing

awareness that some problems require to be approached on a wider basis. This has created

new stirrings of the turn-of-the-20th-century ambition that the study of law in society

becomes a specific branch of social science, concerned with framing and testing general laws

governing law as a social phenomenon.9

7. VIEWS OF DIFFERENT JURISTS RELATED TO THIS APPROACH

Montesquieu emphasised that “law of a particular nation should be determined by its

national characteristics and must bear the relation to the climate of each country, the quality

of soil, the situation and extent, the principle occupations of the native, and above all, to the

religion of inhabitants, riches, commerce , manners and customs.”

Auguste Comte applied scientific method to the study of sociology which he termed as

“scientific positivism”. According to him, society, like any other organism can progress when

it is guided by scientific principles.

Herbert Spencer gave a scientific exposition to the organic theory of society. Spencer

deduced four sources of law, namely:

Divine law having quasi religious sanctions.

8 Pound, The Ideal Element in American Judicial Decision, 45 HARV. L. R~v. 136 (1931). 47. Id.9 http://www.britannica.com/topic/philosophy-of-law/Philosophy-of-law-since-the-mid-20th-century, last visited on 7th October, 2015 at 6 PM

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The injunctions of the past leaders.

The will of the ruler.

Collective opinion in the society.

ROSCOE POUND is said to be the father of this approach. He said "The law must be stable,

but it must not stand still." Pound placed his sociological jurisprudence in opposition to what

he termed "mechanical jurisprudence," which he characterized as a common but odious

practice whereby judges woodenly applied precedent to the facts of cases without regard to

the consequences. For Pound, the logic of previous precedent alone would not solve

jurisprudential problems. His study of biology led him to believe that the law, like nature,

was a seamless web and that change in one part might produce totally unexpected and

undesirable results in a distant part.

Marxists criticize sociological jurisprudence for substituting superficial reasoning about the “

social reality” of the law for the materialistexplanation of law as the product of class society. 

They also object to the school’s vulgar empiricism and to the spread of the concept of“free ju

dicial discretion,” which serves to undermine the principle of legality.10

8. SOCIOLOGICAL JURISPRUDENCE IN INDIAN CONTEXT

For an appraisal of sociological jurisprudence in its Indian perspective it would be necessary

to survey the present as well as the pre-independence Indian law. The law during the British

Colonial rule in India was coercive and counter-productive to social needs of the Indian

people. It was suppressive and insensitive to the sentiments and expectations of the Indians.

The British rulers paralysed the peace and prosperity of Indian by dividing Indians on the

basis of caste, creed, religion, language and occupation so as to perpetuate tension and

conflict between different communities to meet their self ends. Thus the law in India as it

stood before the Indian independence was formal, rigid, repressive, and punitive as

contemplated by Austinian conception of imperative theory of law. The legislature, executive

and judiciary- three organs of the government used to law to protect the interests of the

British in complete disregard of the aspirations and needs of the Indian masses who were

exploited and denied even the basic human rights. In strict Austinian sense sanctions were

imposed on Indians in name of “justice is according to law”.11 The British residents in India

10 http://www.studylecturenotes.com/social-sciences/law/396-schools-of-jurisprudence-analytical-historical-a-sociological-school, last visited on 7th October, 2015 at 8 PM

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enjoyed many exemptions and special privileges under the then existing laws. Thus there was

“one law for the ruler and other for the ruled”

9. IMPORTANCE OF SOCIOLOGICAL JURISPRUDENCE IN GROWTH OF LEGISLATURE AND JUDICIARY SYSTEM IN INDIA

With the introduction of sociological jurisprudence in India there has been a tremendous

growth in the Legislature and Judiciary functions of Indian constitution. Both these functions

of the Parliament of India advanced to great heights because of the introduction of this

context.

The sociological school of jurisprudence is largely a product of the 20th century. Its approach

to the analysis of law differs from that of the other schools in that it is concerned less with the

nature and origin of law than with its actual functions and end results. The proponents of

sociological jurisprudence seek to view law within a broad social context rather than as an

isolated phenomenon distinct from and independent of other means of social control. They

are concerned with practical improvement of the legal system and feel that this can be

achieved only if legislation and court adjudications take into account the findings of other

branches of learning, particularly the social sciences. The American jurist Roscoe Pound was

a prominent figure in the school of sociological jurisprudence.12

Sociological jurisprudence evaluates the influence of society on laws themselves, as well as

on the procedural aspects of the legal system. This type of scrutiny compares the law with

other sociological fields of study, including religion, economics, and literature, in an effort to

bring enlightenment by sharing understanding between each sociological field.13

10. INFLUENCE OF SOCIOLOGICAL JURISPRUDENCE ON JUDICIARY SYSTEM OF INDIA

With the wave of nationalism and awakening of intellectuals, demands for civil liberty and

basic human rights were persistently made but it fell on deaf ears and suppression,

oppression, and exploitation of the people continued unabated under the British Colonial

Rule. The lawyers and judges interpreted and applied law mechanically without considering

11 http://study.com/academy/lesson/schools-of-jurisprudence-theories-definitions.html, last visited on 8th October, 2015 at 7 PM12http://autocww2.colorado.edu/~toldy3/E64ContentFiles/LawAndCourts/Jurisprudence.html, last visited on 9th October, 2015 at 9 PM13 http://legaldictionary.net/jurisprudence/, last visited on 10th October, 2015 at 9 PM

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the “felt needs” of the people. The Indian National Leaders, notably, Mahatma Gandhi,

Pandit Jawaharhar Lal Nehru and other were convinced that British Law had failed to meet

the needs of the Indian Society because of the rigid adherence to the Doctrine of precedent.

Pandit Nehru observed more than once that the nineteenth century dogmas and legal precepts

had little validity in the changed conditions of the twentieth century and therefore, undue

reliance on precedent was of little use as it may fail to give a new sociological approach to

law.

With the independence of India, a new constitution was adopted for the country for

embodying the social philosophy and economic values towards attainment of an egalitarian

welfare state. A separate chapter on fundamental rights including individual rights and

freedoms and a chapter on Directive Principles on State Policy comprising social rights has

been incorporated in constitution of India14 and the judges have endeavoured to harmonise the

individual rights with the social interests of the community through their judicial decisions.

The function of law is now to resolve the conflict between Fundamental Rights and Directive

Principles of state Policy as both are aimed at ushering a egalitarian society for the welfare of

the nation as a whole.15 The philosophy enriched in the preamble and the chapters on

fundamental rights, directive principles, fundamental duties16 , provisions relating to the

powers and functions judiciary and amendment of the Constitution amply demonstrate that

the entire focus is on the welfare of the Indian masses and making law responsive to the

social needs.

The developing trends in public litigation have opened new vistas for interpreting law in the

context of social settings. The contribution of judges notably, Dr. P.B Gajendragadkar, P.N

Bhagwati, D.A Desai, Krishna Iyer and others to the development of new Indian

jurisprudence based on hard realities of life further shows that law can be effectively be used

as a tool of social transformation for creating a new social order with primacy to social

justice.

In Indira sawhney v. Unionj of India,17Mr. Justice P.B Sawant observed:

14 Part III of the Constitution of India relates to the Fundamental Rights and Part IV embodies the Directive Principles of State Policy.15 Keshavanand Bharti v state of kerala(AIR 1973 SC 1461: Minerva Mills v. Union of India, 1980 SC 1789.Waman Rao v. union India ,AIR 1980 SC 271)16 Art. 51-A17 AIR 1993 SC 447(634)

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“The Constitution of India being essentially a political document has to be interpreted to meet

the “felt necessities of time”. Our constitution, unlike many others, incorporates in the

framework of the social change that is desired to be brought about. The change has to be

ushered in as expeditiously as possible but at the same time with the least friction and

dislocation in National life”.

In S.R Bommai v. Union of India,18 a special nine Judge Bench of the Supreme Court passed a

landmark verdict on the issue of the secularism and held that the State is enjoined that to

award equal treatment to all religions and religious denomination. The court remarked:

“Secularism is part of the fundamental law and the basic structure of the Indian Political

system to secure all its system to secure to all its people socio-economic needs essential for

man’s excellence with material and moral prosperity and political justice.”

In the case of Kuldip Nayyar v. Union of India,19 the Supreme Court held that the right to

vote is a statutory right and not a fundamental right. By this statement, the court implied that

the right to vote is subject to laws that may legitimately curtail it without altering or

infringing the basic structure of the Constitution of India.

11. INFLUENCE OF SOCIOLOGICAL JURISPRUDENCE ON LEGISLATIVE SYSTEM OF INDIA

The welfare legislations enacted during the post-independence era amply demonstrate that the

British-Oriented Austinain concept of law has no place in modern Indian democracy and an

instrument of social change. The establishment of Human Rights Commission, Women’s

Commission, Family Courts, Industrial tribunals, Administrative Tribunals, Ombudsman,

Panchayti Raj, Lok Adalats etc. are only a few illustrations to suggest that sole objective is to

make justice available to a common man and weaker sections of the society.

The laws relating to consumer protection, doery prohibition, abolition of bonded labour,

control of environmental pollution etc. have been enacted to provide social justice echoing

the hopes and aspirations of the people. Some of post independence socio-economic

legislations to meet the social meets the social needs and establish a social order as

contemplated by the constitution, are enumerated as follows:-

18 AIR 1994 SC 191819 AIR 2007 SC 3127

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1. The Civil Rights Act, 1955

2. The Immoral Traffic (Prevention) Act,1976

3. The Probation of Offenders Act, 1958

4. The Medical Termination of Pregnancy Act, 1971

5. The Family Courts Act, 1984

6. The Child Labour (Prohibition and Regulation) Act, 1986

7. The Legal Services Authorities Act, 1987

8. The Environmental (Protection) Act, 1986

9. The Juvenile Justice (Care and Protection of Children) Act,2000

10. The SC &ST Act, 1989

11. The Child Marriage Restraint (Amendment) Act, 1978

12. The National Commission for Women Act, 1990

13. The Public Liability Insurance Rights Act, 1993

14. FEMA,MRTP,COFEPOSA Acts etc.20

CONCLUSION

“Rules derived by a process of logical deduction from pre-established conceptions of

contract and obligation have broken down before the slow and steady and erosive

actions of utility and justice. We see the same process at work in other fields. We no

longer interpret contracts with meticulous adherence to the letter when in conflict with the

spirit. We read covenants into them by implication when we find them in conflict

with them ‘instinct with an obligation’ imperfectly expressed.

20 The list is only illustrative and not exclusive.

17

The law has outgrown its primitive stage of formalism when the precise word was the

sovereign talisman and every slip was fatal.” “There has been much debate among the

foreign jurists whether the norms of right and useful conduct, the patterns of social

welfare, are to be found by the judge in conformity with an objective or a subjective

standard… His duty to declare the law in accordance with reason and justice is seen to

be a phase of his duty to declare it in accordance with custom. It is the customary

morality of right-minded men and women which he is to enforce by his decree.”

The above two paragraphs of J. Cardozo clearly define the progress of the legal system while

also summarising the duty of the judge in the evolution of this social process. The role of the

judge, therefore, to ensure social progress rests undisputed. Evaluating the part played by the

Supreme Court in this role, it goes without saying that the Court have indeed came up to

the occasion almost whenever it was required to interpret and mould social norms and

practices in line with the social aim that it envisaged for the national strata.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Books:

1) Studies in Jurisprudence by Pranjapee, N.V

2) James A. Gardner, The Sociological Jurisprudence of Roscoe Pound

3) Stone, A critique of Pound's Theory of Justice

4) Pound, The Need of a Sociological Jurisprudence

References:

1) Zykov, P. G. Krizis sovremennoi burzhuaznoisotsiologiiprava, Moscow, 1963.2) Ivanenko, O. F. Pravovaia ideologiia amerikanskoi burzhuazii. Kazan, 1966.3) Tumanov, V. A. Burzhuaznaia pravovaia ideologiia. Moscow, 1971.4) Lukovskaia, D. I. Sotsiologicheskoe napravlenie vo frantsuzskoi teoriiprava. Leningra

d, 1972

Articles:

1) Pound, The Ideal Element in American Judicial Decision, 45 HARV. L. R~v. 136 (1931). 47. Id.

Web Sites

1) https://archive.org/details/jstor-1324094

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2) http://www.jstor.org/stable/1324094

3) Sociological school of jurisprudence, http://www.britannica.com/topic/philosophy-of-

law,

4) http://digitalcommons.law.villanova.edu/vlr/vol7/iss1/1

5) http://www.britannica.com/topic/philosophy-of-law/Philosophy-of-law-since-the-mid-

20th-century,

6) http://www.studylecturenotes.com/social-sciences/law/396-schools-of-jurisprudence-

analytical-historical-a-sociological-school,

7) http://study.com/academy/lesson/schools-of-jurisprudence-theories-definitions.html

8) http://autocww2.colorado.edu/~toldy3/E64ContentFiles/LawAndCourts/

Jurisprudence.html

9) http://legaldictionary.net/jurisprudence/

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