JSSH Vol. 5 (2) Sep. 1997

ISSN: 0128-7702

P e r t a n i k a J o u r n a l o f

s o c i a lscience &Humanities

VOLUME 5 NO. 2 SEPT 1997

Pertanika Journal of Social Science and Humanities

■ About the JournalPertanika, the poineer journal of UPM, began publication in 1978. Since then, it has established itself as one of the leading multidisciplinary journals in the tropics. In 1992, a decision was made to streamline Pertanika into three journals to meet the need for specialised journals in areas of study aligned with the s tren g th s o f the university. T hese are (i) Pertanika Journal o f Tropical Agricultural Science, (ii) Pertanika Journal o f Science and Techology and (iii) Pertanika Journal of Social Science and Humanities.

■ Aims and ScopePertanika Journal of Social Science and Humanities aims to develop as a flagship journal for the Social Sciences with a focus on em erg ing issues perta in in g to the social and behavioural sciences as well as the humanities, particularly in the Asia Pacific region. It will be published twice a year in March and September.

The objective of the journal is to promote advancements in the fields of anthropology, business studies, communications, economics, education, extension studies, psychology, sociology and the humanities. Previously unpublished, original theoritical or em pirical papers, analytical reviews, book

[^D TTO R IA l^JO A R lJ

Prof. Dr. Mohd. Ismail bin Sayyid Ahmad - Chief Editor Faculty of Economics and Management

Assoc. Prof. Dr. Ahmed Zubaidi bin Baharomshah Faculty of Economics and Management

Assoc. Prof. Dr. Shamsher b. Mohamed Ramadili Faculty of Economics and Management

Assoc. Prof. Dr. Mohd Ghazali Mohayidin Faculty of Economics and Management

Assoc. Prof. Dr. Abdul Halin Hamid Faculty of Human Ecology

Assoc. Prof. Dr. Khor Geok Lin Faculty of Human Ecology

Assoc. Prof. Dr. Hjh. Aminah bte Ahmad Centre for Extension and Continuing Education

Assoc. Prof. Dr. Abdul Rahman Md Aroff Faculty of Educational Studies

Dr. Jamali bin IsmailFaculty of Modem Language Studies

Sumangala Pillai - Secretary Vniversiti Putra Malaysia Press

Published by Universiti Putra Malaysia PressISSN No: 0128-7702Printed by: Medan Press Sdn. Bhd.

reviews and readers critical reactions may be submitted for consideration. Articles may be in English or Bahasa Melayu.

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| INTERNATIONAL PANEL MEMBERS

Prof. Jean Louis FloriotInternational Graduate Institute of Agribusiness

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Pertanika Jouraal o f Social Science & Humanities

Volume 5 Number 2 September 1997

Contents

P engajaran K em ahiran M enulis K arangan Bahasa Melayu di Sekolah 65 M enengah: Satu Penilaian K ualitatif - Marohaini Yusoff dan Zulkifli A.M anaf

H u b u n g an K eberkesanan L atihan d en g an Prestasi Kerja - Abdul Latif 73 Abdul Kadir dan Maimunah Ismail

P e n d a p a ta n d a n P e m b e la ja ra n P e k e r ja M ig ran W an ita : S u a tu 83 P erb an d in g an an ta ra Sektor Awam, Industri dan Ju a lan - Laily Paim d an Nurizan Yahaya

W ork-Family C onflict an d Social Support: A Study o f Fem ale Secretaries 93 in M alaysia- Aminah Ahmad

T h e L eadersh ip Factor in A dm inistrative R eform in Malaysia, with aSpecific Study on the L eadersh ip o f Dr. M ahath ir M oham ad, Prim e 103 M inister o f Malaysia - Ahmad Atory bin Hussain

A Survey o f M ethods U sed by Malaysian B rokerage Firm Investm ent 125 Analysts to A ppraise Investm ents in O rd inary Shares - Shamsher Mohamad an d Annuar Md Nassir

M easuring L abour Productivity th ro u g h L abour R equ irem ent A pproach: 139 T h e Malaysian E xperience - Zakariah Abdul Rashid an d Chan Khai Yew

Pertanika J. Soc. Sci. & Hum. 5(2): 65-71 (1997) ISSN: 0128-7702 © Universiti Putra Malaysia Press

Pengajaran Kemahiran Menulis Karangan Bahasa Melayu di Sekolah Menengah: Satu Penilaian Kualitatif

MAROHAINI YUSOFF dan ZULKIFLI A. MANAF Jabatan Pendidikan Bahasa

Fakulti Pendidikan Universiti Malaya

50603 Kuala Lum pur, Malaysia

Kata kunci: penilaian kualitatif, pengajaran kemahiran karangan Bahasa Melayu, pendidikan guru Bahasa Melayu

ABSTRAKArtikel ini akan membincangkan dapatan satu kajian kes tentang bentuk pengajaran kemahiran menulis karangan Bahasa Melayu kepada pelajar Tingkatan Empat di sebuah sekolah menengah di Selangor. Pencerapan ini dilakukan dalam dua semester pengajian di sekolah tersebut. Dalam kajian ini, bentuk pengajaran dua guru di Tingkatan Empat telah dilihat. Dapatan pencerapan ini menunjukkan bahawa penumpuan guru lebih diberikan terhadap ‘hasil karangan’ daripada proses mengarang itu sendiri. Hal ini ditunjukkan oleh bentuk pengajaran guru yang linear dan pendekatan pengajaran yang menekankan aspek input isi daripada strategi mengarang. Bentuk pengajaran ini lebih berorientasi untuk menyediakan pelajar menghadapi peperiksaan dan bukan kepada latihan mempertingkat kemahiran mengarang di kalangan pelajar. Bentuk pengajaran ini membawa implikasi terhadap perancangan dan penyediaan bakal guru di maktab perguruan dan universiti.

ABSTRACTThis article discusses the findings o f a case study regarding the teaching of Malay language writing skills to Form Four students in a secondary school in Selangor. The observations were made over a period of two school semesters. In this study, the delivery method o f two Form Four teachers was observed. Results o f the study indicate that the teachers stressed the product o f writing rather than the writing process itself. The linear form o f instruction activities as well as the instructional approach evidenced this orientation. Furthermore, in these activities the teachers put greater emphasis on the input instead o f the writing strategies. The findings o f this study suggest that the writing instruction observed is examination oriented i.e. to prepare students for the examination rather than providing them with relevant exercises to upgrade the students’ writing skills. This style o f instruction has implications towards the planning o f teacher education programmes for pre-service teachers in the teacher training colleges and universities.

PENGENALANSejak kebelakangan ini, aliran penggunaan k a ed ah p e n y e lid ik a n d a lam p e n d id ik a n m e m p e r lih a tk a n p e ru b a h a n d a r ip a d a penyelidikan yang berbentuk kuantitatif kepada bentuk kualitatif. Seiring dengan perubahan tersebut, perubahan kaedah penyelidikan dalam bidang kem ahiran m engarang juga berlaku (Yap 1991; N arayanan 1991). Dalam kebanyakan penyelidikan terhadap kem ahiran m engarang, kaedah kajian kes secara kualita tif banyak dijalankan (Lee 1989; Koh 1993; Jasbir 1994). Hal ini dem ikian kerana sifat proses m engarang

yang kom pleks yang d idapati sukar u n tu k ditangani dengan prosedur statistik semata-mata. Selain itu, penyelidikan kualitatif juga, m am pu m e m b e ri p e m a h a m a n yang h o lis tik d an m endalam tentang sesuatu masalah yang dikaji dari perspektif emic (Lincoln and Guba 1985). Justeru, dapatan yang diperoleh lebih realistik dan berm akna un tuk kegunaan pihak yang berkenaan, khususnya para guru (Graves 1981).

Artikel ini akan m em bentangkan kajian kes tentang bentuk pengajaran dua guru di sebuah sekolah m enengah di Selangor yang dijalankan secara kualitatif. Penelitian terhadap bentuk

Marohaini Yusoff dan Zulkifli A. Manaf

pengajaran kemahiran mengarang mungkin akan d a p a t m em b ek a lk an ca ra -ca ra u n tu k m em p ertin g k a t m utu p en g a jaran g u ru di sekolah. Kemungkinan untuk memperbaiki dan mempertingkat mutu pengajaran karangan hanya boleh dicadangkan dengan mengkaji bentuk pengajaran yang diarnalkan oleh guru-guru yang m engajar mata pelajaran tersebut. Seterusnya, latar belakang kajian akan dibentangkan bagi m em beri gam baran ringkas tentang masalah kajian ini.

Ixitar Belakang KajianK epentingan kem ahiran m engarang bukan sahaja untuk tujuan akademik seperti menjawab soalan peperiksaan, menulis laporan, dan tugasan tetapi juga untuk m em enuhi keperluan dalam kehidupan seharian dan profesional di tempat kerja. Dalam usaha Malaysia untuk menjadi sebuah negara industri, guna tenaga m ahir amat diperlukan. Penggunaan tenaga m ahir ini bukan sahaja dalam konteks sains dan teknologi tetapi juga kemahiran bahasa khususnya kem ahiran menulis. Dengan hal yang demikian, pelajar sekolah masa kini, harus diberi latihan yang m e m b o le h k a n m erek a m em p e la ja ri d an menggunakan kemahiran tersebut sejak awal lagi. Justeru, bentuk pengajaran yang sesuai perlu diarnalkan oleh guru agar kemahiran mengarang dapat diajar dengan lebih berkesan kepada pelajar di sekolah.

Di Am erika Syarikat, teori dan am alan p e n g a ja ra n k e m a h ira n m e n g a ra n g te lah mengalami perubahan dalam tem poh 25 tahun yang lalu. Ekoran daripada dapatan kajian te n ta n g p roses m e n g a ra n g p e la ja r yang berbentuk rekursif (Emig 1971; Mischel 1974; Stallard 1974) dan bukan linear (Rohman and Wlecke 1964), pendekatan pengajaran juga turut berubah . Peralihan pendekatan pengajaran kemahiran m engarang berlaku iaitu dari yang berfokuskan hasil karangan kepada proses mengarang. Sejak kajian Emig (1971), proses mengarang tidak dilihat sebagai satu proses yang statik dan bergerak dalam bentuk berurutan; langkah dem i langkah. Sebaliknya, proses mengarang m erupakan satu proses yang dinamik yang m em perlihatkan pergerakan berulangan dan bertindanan antara satu proses dengan satu proses yang lain (Flower and Hayes 1980, 1981). Ekoran dari dapatan itu ju g a , pengajaran k e m a h ira n m e n g a ra n g d isyo rkan supaya

memberi tum puan yang lebih kepada proses yang perlu dilalui semasa m engarang dan bukan kepada hasil karangan sem ata-m ata. Dalam pen g a ja ran k em ah iran m en g aran g , p roses mengarang yang melibatkan penggunaan strategi dan teknik m engarang menjadi tum puan guru. Ini m enunjukkan kepentingan penyelarasan bentuk pengajaran guru dengan bentuk proses m engarang di kalangan pelajar.

Dalam kajian ini, penelitian dibuat terhadap bentuk pengajaran dua guru di Tingkatan Empat un tuk m em astikan bentuk pengajaran guru selaras dengan bentuk proses m engarang penulis. Bagi tujuan pengutipan dan pengum pulan, dan penganalisisan data, kaedah penyelidikan yang berikut dijalankan.

M ETODOLOGIPeserta KajianPeserta kajian terdiri daripada dua guru yang m engajar di sebuah sekolah m enengah di Selangor. Kedua-dua guru tersebut m erupakan guru yang berpengalam an dalam pengajaran kem ahiran Bahasa Melayu. Kedua-dua guru m erupakan graduan ijazah sarjana m uda dan memiliki diploma ikhtisas dalam pendidikan dari universiti dan maktab perguruan tem patan. Pada masa kajian dijalankan, kedua-dua guru tersebut m engajar mata pelajaran Bahasa Melayu.

Kaedah dan Teknik KajianKajian ini menggunakan kaedah kajian kes secara kualitatif untuk m engum pul dan menganalisis data. Untuk tujuan tersebut, tiga teknik utam a digunakan, iaitu pem erhatian kelas, tem u bual, dan bukti dokum en (Spradley 1980; Bogdan and Biklen 1982; Merriam 1988). Penggunaan pelbagai teknik pengutipan data tersebut dapat m em beri triangulasi atau pengukuhan antara teknik-teknik yang digunakan (Van Maanen 1983; Norrizan 1992; Razali 1994) pada sepanjang tem poh pelaksanaan kajian. Sebagaimana yang dinyatakan oleh Van M aanen (1983: 136) tiga teknik tersebut dapat digunakan sebagai “...a vehicle for cross validation...”.

Bagi m en d ap a tk an gam b aran keg iatan pengajaran guru di dalam kelas, pem erhatian kelas dilakukan sebanyak 46 kali dalam tem poh satu tahun masa persekolahan. Pem erhatian kelas tersebut dilakukan terhadap em pat buah kelas di Tingkatan Empat yang memakan masa selama 60-75 m init bagi setiap pem erhatian.

66 PertanikaJ. Soc. Sci. & Hum. Vol. 5 No. 2 1997


Dalam pem erhatian kelas tersebut, penyelidik bertindak sebagai pem erhati tanpa penglibatan diri dalam pengajaran guru. Pem erhatian dibuat berdasarkan peringkat penulisan karangan, iaitu: (a) sebelum m enulis karangan, (b) semasa m enulis karangan, dan (c) selepas m enulis karangan. Dalam masa pem erhatian kelas, tema yang b e r ik u t m e n ja d i g aris p a n d u a n pem erhadan: (a) kegiatan yang dijalankan di dalam kelas, (b) tem poh masa, dan (c) orang- orang yang terlibat dalam kegiatan yang berlaku.

Bagi m e m b a n tu p en y e lid ik m em b u a t pem erhatian kelas, rakaman video dan catatan lapangan dibuat. Selain itu, teknik temu bual d ig u n a k a n bagi m e m p e rk u k u h dan m em perlengkap data yang diperoleh daripada pem erhatian kelas. Dalam usaha mem perkukuh dan memperlengkap data, temu bual bukan sahaja dijalankan dengan peserta kajian tetapi juga meliputi beberapa pelajar yang terlibat dalam pengajaran dua guru yang merupakan dua peserta kajian utam a dalam kajian ini. Bentuk temu bual yang dijalankan ialah b en tu k tidak form al (S p rad ley 1980) d an leb ih m en y e ru p a i “conversation interview ” (Patton 1980) atau “conversation with a purpose” ( Marshall and Rossman 1989). Tem u bual yang dijalankan juga adalah tidak distrukturkan. Penyusunan soalan dan cara soalan dikemukakan tidak diatur terlebih dahulu. Walau bagaimanapun, tajuk soalan temu bual berkisar di sekitar aspek um um seperti (a) latar belakang guru, pendidikan, pengalaman, dan keluarga, dan (b) persepsi guru terhadap pelajar, pengajaran, pendekatan, dan falsafah pengajaran kemahiran mengarang.

Teknik pengutipan dan pengum pulan data ke tiga m e ru p a k a n buk ti d o k u m en . B ukti dokum en diperlukan untuk m em buat penilaian dan m em beri bukti dengan m em perlengkap bukti daripada sum ber lain. Dalam kajian ini dokum en bertulis seperti maklumat latar tentang sekolah, majalah tahunan, rekod guru, dan murid ditelitikan. Selain itu, rangka dan draf karangan pelajar juga dikutip untuk m em bandingkan dan m em perkukuh data yang diperoleh daripada teknik lain. Dalam kajian ini, analisis data dijalankan pada dua peringkat, iaitu semasa pengutipan data dan selepas pengutipan data. U ntuk tujuan menganalisis data, teknik yang disyorkan oleh Miles dan H uberm an (1984) digunakan.

Yang berikutnya, perb incangan dapatan kajian tentang bentuk pengajaran guru akan

dibentangkan. Perbincangan ini akan dijalankan m engikut dua dapatan utam a tentang bentuk p en g a ja ran g u ru , ia itu (a) b e n tu k lin ea r p e n g a ja ra n g u ru d an (b) p e n d e k a ta n pengajaran guru.

PERBINCANGAN DAPATAN KAJIANBentuk Linear Pengajaran Guru Pada keseluruhannya, bentuk pengajaran guru adalah linear. Dalam pengajaran guru, penyataan dan catatan tajuk karangan disusuli dengan penerangan tentang kehendak karangan, bentuk karangan , dan seterusnya d iakh iri dengan perbincangan tentang isi karangan. Keseluruhan kegiatan pengajaran tersebut dilakukan dalam bentuk yang berurutan; langkah demi langkah. Setelah kesemua penerangan dan perbincangan tentang isi diberi, para pelajar diarahkan supaya m em ulakan penu lisan karangan . Penulisan karangan tersebut kem udiannya dikutip dan disemak untuk diberi penilaian.

Pelaksanaan pengajaran yang dijalankan m enunjukkan bahawa bentuk pengajaran guru tidak selaras dengan sifat proses m engarang pelajar sebagaim ana yang ditun jukkan oleh kebanyakan kajian. Pengajaran guru dalam bentuk langkah demi langkah m enunjukkan, proses penulisan karangan yang lurus. Flower dan Hayes (1977, 1980, 1981) dalam pem erhadan m ereka terhadap proses m engarang m endapati bahawa kebanyakan penulis sama ada yang berpengalam an atau yang kurang berpengalaman tidak menulis karangan dalam bentuk langkah dem i langkah tetapi secara berulangan dan bertindanan. Ketidakselarasan ini mewujudkan konflik antara proses pengajaran guru dengan proses m engarang pelajar. Percanggahan tersebut sudah tentu akan menyulitkan pelajar dalam proses m engarang.

Bentuk pengajaran guru yang linear juga m em perlihatkan pem aham an guru yang tidak m enepati sifat proses m engarang. Pem aham an sedemikian, sudah tentu tidak m em ungkinkan guru m erancang kegiatan pengajaran yang dapat m em bim bing dan m em bantu pelajar melalui proses m engarang. M engikut Hairston (1982), un tuk m em bolehkan guru m engajar dengan baik, guru terlebih dahulu perlu m em aham i proses menulis karangan di kalangan pelajar. B en tu k p e n g a ja ra n g u ru te r s e b u t tid ak m enunjukkan pem aham an guru tentang sifat rekursif sesebuah proses m engarang. Hal ini m ungkin disebabkan oleh titik rujukan m ereka

PertanikaJ. Soc. Sci. 8c Hum. Vol. 5 No. 2 1997 67


berkisar pada hasil karangan sebagaimana yang dapat dilihat pada pendekatan pengajaran.

Pendekatan Pengajaran Guru Dapatan kajian ini juga m enunjukkan bahawa bentuk pengajaran guru lebih m em perlihatkan ciri bentuk pengajaran yang berfokus pada hasil m engarang dan tidak pada proses menghasilkan karangan. Penum puan ini dapat dilihat pada k a n d u n g a n p e n e ra n g a n g u ru , b e n tu k penyemakan, dan penilaian karangan. Dalam penerangan guru, tum puan diberi kepada aspek luaran seperti maklumat atau perkataan utama yang terkandung dalam tajuk karangan, bentuk karangan yang asas (iaitu sebuah karangan perlu ada p e n g e n a la n , isi, dan p e n u tu p ) , dan m en y en a ra i, m em ilih , d an m enyusun isi karangan. Malahan, boleh dikatakan bahawa sebahagian besar masa pram enulis karangan d ib e ri u n tu k p e rb in c a n g a n isi k a ran g an . Penerangan ten tang kehendak dan ben tuk karangan adalah ringkas. Begitu juga dengan arahan yang diberikan kepada pelajar sebelum mereka memulakan karangan. Arahan guru, lazimnya berbentuk peringatan kepada pelajar ten tang ju m lah perkataan , penulisan tajuk karangan, dan tem poh masa yang diberikan.

Aspek dalam an yang m elibatkan proses kogniuf tentang kerangka yang dapat memberi kesatuan dalam penulisan keseluruhan karangan tid ak d ib e r ik a n o leh g u ru . C o n to h n y a , p e n e ra n g a n dan la tih a n te n ta n g s tra teg i m endapatkan isi karangan, strategi mengenal pasti tu juan penu lisan dan jen is khalayak pembaca, strategi memulakan karangan, strategi menyemak dan m em bentuk perenggan sangat kurang disentuh. Malahan, strategi m em bentuk dan menyelesaikan masalah retorik (Flower and Hayes 1988) yang m erupakan strategi penting yang dapat memberi fokus dan haluan penulisan k a ran g an tid ak lan g su n g d ise b u t. B oleh dikatakan, strategi tersebut m erupakan satu perkara yang asing bagi kebanyakan pelajar.

Penelitian terhadap kandungan pengajaran yang diberikan kepada pelajar dalam bentuk penerangan m enunjukkan bahawa guru hanya m em b ek a lk an p e n u lis d e n g a n in p u t isi, sedangkan input prosedural tidak diberi. Dalam perkataan lain, penum puan pengajaran adalah pada “apa” atau hasil karangan dan bukan pada “bagaim ana” atau proses m engarang. Hal yang demikian sekali lagi membawa bentuk pengajaran guru ke belakang berbanding dengan aliran

p e rk e m b a n g a n p e n g a ja ra n k e m a h ira n m engarang kini yang lebih m em beri fokus pada proses yang dilalui oleh pelajar apabila menulis karangan.

Bentuk pengajaran guru yang berfokuskan isi sem ata-m ata kurang m em berikan kesan terhadap pengajaran kem ahiran m engarang. Tujuan utam a dalam pengajaran kem ahiran m engarang ialah un tuk m em bolehkan para pelajar menulis pelbagai jenis karangan tentang ilmu pengetahuan dan kegiatan harian dengan berkesan dalam erti kata dapat menyampaikan mesej penulisan kepada pem baca yang dituju (K em en terian P en d id ik an M alaysia 1987). Sekiranya, penerangan dan latihan ten tang strategi atau prosedur menulis karangan tidak diberikan oleh guru, bagaimanakah pelajar akan dapat m enulis karangan dengan berkesan? Bentuk pengajaran guru yang berfokuskan isi m enunjukkan seolah-olah pengajaran kemahiran mengarang adalah sama dengan pengajaran mata pelajaran lain seperti Sejarah dan Geografi (Chandrasegaran 1991).

Bentuk penyemakan dan penilaian guru juga, m enunjukkan fokus yang sama. Pada keseluruhannya, terdapat dua bentuk penilaian utam a yang diberikan oleh guru, iaitu m em beri kom entar bertulis dan m em beri markah atau gred. Penelitian terhadap kom entar bertulis m enunjukkan bahawa penum puan perhatian guru lebih tertum pu pada jum lah isi karangan, nahu, dan ejaan serta penggunaan tanda baca. K o m en ta r yang b e rk a it d e n g a n p ro se s m engarang yang melibatkan aspek “bagaim ana” dapat membaiki m utu penulisan karangan tidak dicatatkan untuk kegunaan pelajar. Hal ini menunjukkan bahawa penyemakan dan penilaian yang dijalankan lebih bersifat luaran atau pada perm ukaan, dan tidak bersifat dalam an yang melibatkan perubahan makna (Faigley and Witte 1981). P e n ila ia n d an p e n y e m a k a n yang dijalankan adalah lebih untuk m enyunting, dan bukan untuk m enentukan keberkesanan maksud yang ingin disampaikan kepada pembaca. Bentuk penyemakan dan penilaian karangan tersebut boleh disamakan dengan bentuk penilaian yang dibuat untuk peperiksaan.

Pada keseluruhannya, dapat disim pulkan bahaw a fokus p e n g a ja ra n g u ru d a ri segi penerangan dan penyemakan serta penilaian yang dilakukan tidak m em pertim bang sama ada p en u lisan k aran g an d a p a t m eny am p aik an maksud atau tujuan kepada pem baca atau tidak.

68 Pertanika J. Soc. Sci. 8c Hum. Vol. 5 No. 2 1997

Pengajaran Kemahiran Menulis Karangan Bahasa Melayu di Sekolah Menengah: Satu Penilaian Kualitadf

Sebaliknya, penum puan pengajaran adalah untuk mem bolehkan pelajar menghasilkan karangan yang dim uatkan dengan bilangan isi yang cukup d an d ip e rse m b a h k a n d a lam ayat yang mempunyai struktur yang baik dari segi nahu, ejaan, dan penggunaan tanda baca yang betul serta m encukupi jum lah patah perkataan, iaitu sebanyak 350 patah perkataan. Dalam perkataan lain, pengajaran kem ahiran menulis karangan adalah lebih untuk menyediakan pelajar menulis karangan m engikut kriteria peperiksaan yang telah ditetapkan.

Satu lagi dapatan kajian yang berkait dengan pendekatan pengajaran guru adalah tentang penglibatan guru dalam pengajaran kem ahiran m engarang di dalam kelas. Pengajaran guru dalam konteks ini m enunjukkan bahawa guru hanya m em beri tum puan kepada pengajaran pada peringkat pram enulis karangan.

Pada peringkat pram enulis karangan, guru m em beri masa untuk m em buat penerangan dan perbincangan dengan pelajar sebelum m ereka mula m engarang.

Pada peringkat semasa dan selepas menulis karangan, guru kurang m em beri bim bingan kepada pelajar untuk menulis dan menyiapkan tugasan karangan. M alahan, pada peringkat semasa dan selepas menulis karangan, guru tidak m em benarkan para pelajar berkongsi pendapat dan diarahkan supaya menulis secara individu. Hal ini seolah-olah m enunjukkan bahawa tugas g u ru se lesa i d e n g a n p e n e ra n g a n d an perbincangan yang dilakukan pada peringkat pram enulis karangan. Tugas menulis karangan, iaitu m enterjem ahkan isi ke dalam bentuk ayat dan perenggan m erupakan tugas pelajar secara individu. Bentuk pengajaran ini mewujudkan ju rang antara pengajaran pram enulis karangan dengan semasa menulis karangan dan selepas m enulis karangan.

Ju ran g tersebu t tidak sepatutnya wujud dalam p e n g a ja ra n k e m a h ira n m e n g a ra n g m em andangkan kompleksiti proses m engarang yang p e r lu d ila lu i o leh p e la ja r u n tu k menghasilkan sesebuah karangan. Dengan itu, dalam proses penulisan karangan, bim bingan dan sokongan guru perlu berterusan . Pada peringkat menulis dan selepas menulis karangan, p e n g lib a ta n g u ru ju g a p e r lu ad a u n tu k m em bim bing dan m em bantu pelajar dalam penulisan karangan di dalam kelas. Florio-Ruane dan Lensmire (1989: 89) m engatakan bahawa penglibatan guru dan pelajar yang tinggi adalah

p e n tin g d a lam p ro ses p e n g a ja ra n d an pem belajaran kem ahiran m engarang kerana, m enuru t mereka,

“...this means that students will no t only have the opportunities to help identify the purposes, topics and audiences for writing, but that the concerns, intentions and meanings can be voiced and help shape the nature o f instruction they received.”

Kesimpulannya, dalam konteks kajian ini, guru masih m engam alkan bentuk pengajaran kem ahiran m engarang yang tradisional. Dalam bentuk pengajaran guru yang linear ini, guru banyak memberi perhatian kepada menghasilkan isi k a ra n g a n d a n m e m b ia rk a n p e la ja r m e n ja la n k a n p ro se s u ta m a m e n g a ra n g (m enterjem ahkan isi ke dalam bentuk karangan) secara bersendirian. Ini m enggam barkan seolah- olah kem ahiran m engarang m erupakan suatu kem ahiran yang dapat diperoleh secara semula jad i oleh pelajar (M arohaini 1989). Bentuk pengajaran tersebut m enghendaki para pelajar melalui proses m engarang tanpa panduan dan tun juk ajar daripada guru. O leh itu, tidak m enghairankan sekiranya kebanyakan pelajar beranggapan bahawa pem belajaran kem ahiran m e n g a ra n g di sek o lah m e ru p a k a n su a tu p e n g a la m a n yang m e m b e b a n k a n d an m em bosankan. Seterusnya, beberapa implikasi terhadap latihan guru akan dibincangkan.

Implikasi Kajian terhadap Program Latihan PerguruanB erdasarkan p erb in can g an d ap a tan kajian, beberapa implikasi terhadap latihan guru akan dibincangkan. Perbincangan ini akan bertum pu pada tiga tajuk utam a seperti yang berikut : (a) kesedaran tentang sifat proses m engarang ; (b) pendekatan pengajaran, dan (c) peranan guru.

Kesedaran tentang Sifat Proses Mengarang Pemahaman guru tentang sifat proses m engarang p e la ja r a d a la h sa n g a t p e n tin g u n tu k m em u n g k in k an p e ru b a h a n dalam b e n tu k pengajaran guru. Dengan itu, langkah yang pertam a yang dapat dilaksanakan ialah m em beri pengetahuan dan kesedaran kepada bakal guru tentang sifat proses m engarang. Pem aham an g u ru yang k u kuh te n ta n g kon sep p roses m e n g a ra n g ak an d a p a t m e m b a n tu g u ru m em bentuk rasional dan pengkonsepan rangka kerja pengajaran yang bersandarkan sifat proses

Pertanika J. Soc. Sci. & Hum. Vol. 5 No. 2 1997 69


m engarang. Pem aham an ini boleh diberikan kepada bakal guru melalui kursus yang m eliputi tajuk dan isu-isu yang berkaitan dengan ciri kognitif proses m engarang. Kursus ini perlu untuk m em perdekat para bakal guru dengan teo ri d an d a p a ta n kajian te n ta n g proses m engarang pelbagai jen is penulis; penulis b e rp e n g a la m an d an k u ran g p en g a lam an , penulis m ahir dan separuh m ahir, penulis k a n a k -k a n a k d an dew asa s e r ta p e n u lis profesional.

Selain itu, guru ju g a bo leh m enjalani bengkel penulisan karangan untuk m em bantu m ereka mengenal pasti bentuk perlakuan dan proses m engarang yang dialami semasa menulis karangan. Melalui bengkel penulisan ini, para guru akan dapat menyedari apa-apa yang berlaku apabila m ereka m enulis karangan. Dengan kesedaran tersebut, guru akan lebih sensitif terhadap keperluan pelajar dalam pengajaran dan pembelajaran kem ahiran mengarang. Perl (1979) berpendapat, dengan pengetahuan dan kesedaran guru terhadap sifat proses mengarang, mereka akan lebih berupaya untuk m erancang kegiatan dan m elibatkan diri m ereka bagi m e m p e rtin g k a t m u tu k em ah iran m en u lis karangan di kalangan pelajar.

Pendekatan PengajaranPendekatan pengajaran kem ahiran m engajar karangan dalam program pendid ikan guru khususnya, pengajaran kem ahiran m engarang dalam Bahasa Melayu harus diteliti un tuk m e m b o le h k a n bakal g u ru d ila tih u n tu k m enukarkan fokus pengajaran mereka daripada penum puan kepada hasil karangan kepada proses m en g aran g itu send iri. P e ru b ah an penum puan pengajaran kem ahiran m engarang tersebut dapat dilakukan dengan m em bekalkan para bakal guru dengan pelbagai pendekatan (sep erti p en d e k a ta n proses) dan stra teg i p e n u lis a n k a ra n g a n ( s e p e r ti s tra te g i p e m b e n tu k a n d an p en y e le sa ian m asa lah retorik). Dalam latihan penggunaan pendekatan dan strategi penulisan karangan, para bakal guru bukan sahaja perlu diberi syarahan dan nota tetapi latihan untuk m enjalankannya di dalam kelas. Pelaksanaan la tihan te rseb u t m em erlukan para pendidik m em bantu bakal guru m enterjem ahkan teori, pendekatan, dan strategi te rsebu t ke dalam b en tuk am alan pengajaran yang dapat digunakan dalam situasi kelas.

Peranan GuruDalam pengajaran dan pem belajaran kem ahiran mengarang, guru dan pelajar perlu berkerjasama dan memainkan peranan yang sama penting (W hite an d A rn d t 1991). D alam situ asi pengajaran dan pem belajaran di dalam kelas, guru bukan sahaja berperanan sebagai pengajar tetapi juga sebagai pem bim bing dan fasilitator bagi mewujudkan persekitaran kelas m engarang yang kondusif. Ju s te ru , dalam p en g a ja ran kemahiran mengarang, guru bukan sahaja perlu m em beri penerangan ten tang sesuatu aspek kem ahiran m engarang tetapi ju g a m em beri tunjuk ajar dalam konteks penulisan karangan pada bila-bila masa sahaja d iperlukan oleh pelajar. Selain itu, guru sebagai fasilitator perlu dapat m em udahkan proses penulisan karangan yang dilalui pelajar di dalam kelas dengan m em beri ban tuan yang di perlukan semasa menulis. Dengan itu, program pendidikan guru, khususnya dalam penyediaan bakal guru perlu mengambil kira ketiga-tiga peranan tersebut dalam proses pengajaran dan pem belajaran kem ahiran mengarang.

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(Diterima 27 April 1995)



Hubungan Keberkesanan Latihan dengan Prestasi Keija

ABDUL LATIF ABDUL KADIR and MAIMUNAH ISMAIL1 Ibu Pejabat Kastam dan Eksais Diraja Malaysia

Blok 11, Kompleks Pejabat-Pejabat Kerajaan,Jalan Duta, 50596 Kuala Lum pur, Malaysia

’Jabatan Pendidikan Pengem bangan Fakulti Pengajian Pendidikan

Universiti Putra Malaysia 43400 UPM, Serdang, Selangor, Malaysia

Kata kunci: keberkesanan latihan, prestasi keija

ABSTRAKKajian ini bertujuan untuk menilai keberkesanan latihan dan hubungannya dengan prestasi kerja pegawai kastam lantikan baru yang telah mengikuti Kursus Program Pengajian Asas Operasi Perkastaman (PPAOP) di Akademi Kastam Diraja Malaysia (AKMAL), Melaka. Data kajian diperolehi daripada 84 responden melalui borang soal selidik yang ditadbir sendiri. Hasil kajian menunjukkan kursus ini telah memberi kesan positif ke atas prestasi kerja pelatih. Analisis korelasi menunjukkan terdapat hubungan yang rendah dan positif di antara dimensi latihan dengan prestasi kerja selepas latihan. Analisis juga menunjukkan terdapat hubungan positif dan perbezaan yang signifikan di antara dimensi prestasi kerja sebelum dan selepas latihan. Kajian ini menunjukkan AKMAL telah berjaya memainkan peranannya dalam menyediakan anggota Jabatan yang kompeten. Kajian mengesyorkan pengurusan AKMAL perlu memberikan perhatian yang lebih serius terhadap mutu metodologi dan alat bantuan mengajar (ABM), fasilitator, modul kastam dan modul pengurusan terutamanya dari aspek kandungan, metodologi dan teknik pengajaran.

ABSTRACT

This study aims to evaluate the training effectiveness and its relationship with the job performance o f newly appointed customs officers who have undergone the Program Pengajian Asas Operasi Perkastaman (PPAOP) course at Royal Customs Academy (RCAM), Melaka. Data were gathered from 84 respondents using selfadministered questionnaires. Correlation analysis revealed that training seems to have a positive relationship with post training job performance. The study also showed there was a significant positive relationship between pre- and post-training job performance. The study showed that RCAM plays its role effectively in developing competent officers. It is suggested that RCAM should pay serious attention to the quality o f methodology and teaching aids, facilitators, customs module and management module especially contents, methodology and teaching techniques.

PENGENALANLatihan seringkali dikaitkan dengan proses pem bangunan sum ber tenaga manusia dalam sesebuah organisasi. Latihan sangat berguna untuk m eningkatkan prestasi pekerja sekarang dan di masa depan. Ia juga m erupakan satu p ro ses m e m b e n tu k d an m e n in g k a tk a n kem ahiran seseorang pekerja berkaitan prestasi kerjanya (Blum dan Naylor 1968; Nadler 1970; Patrick 1992; Wills 1993; Stoner dan Wankel 1994; Mondy dan Noe 1996).

U n tuk m elaksanakan sesuatu p ro g ram la tih a n , o rg an isasi te rp ak sa m en y ed iak an peruntukan kewangan yang tinggi dan banyak organisasi b e rb u a t dem ikian khusus u n tuk tujuan tersebut. Sebagai contoh, pada tahun 1995, organisasi di Amerika Syarikat telah m em belanjakan ham pir AS$51 ribu ju ta untuk tujuan latihan formal di tem pat kerja berbanding hanya AS$42 ribu ju ta pada tahun 1994 (Carey 1995). Kerajaan Malaysia, dalam Rancangan Malaysia Ketujuh telah m em peruntuk sebanyak

Abdul Latif Abdul Kadir dan Maimunah Ismail

RN11.66 r ib u ju ta bagi tu ju a n la tih a n perindustrian , latihan komersil dan latihan pengurusan (Malaysia 1996).

Dalam konteks ini, Jabatan Kastam dan Eksais Diraja Malaysia (JKEDM) melalui institusi latihannya iaitu Akademi Kastam Diraja Malaysia (AKMAL) pada tahun 1995 telah berbelanja sebanyak RM4.84 ju ta , tahun 1996 sebanyak RM5.98 ju ta dan pada tahun 1997 sebanyak RM6.02 ju ta. Manakala pungutan hasil yang d ip e ro leh i o leh JKEDM pada tah u n 1995 sebanyak RM17.6 ribu ju ta dan m eningkat kepada RM19.9 ribu ju ta pada tahun 1996 walaupun lebih daripada 1,000 jenis barangan diturunkan atau dihapuskan duti seperti yang diumumkan oleh Y.B Menteri Kewangan Malaysia dalam Belanjawan Negara 1996 (Malaysia 1997).

Stadsdk di atas jelas menunjukkan aspek la tihan sem akin d iberi p en ek an an kerana penggemblengan sumber tenaga manusia amadah penting dalam m enentukan kejayaan sesebuah o rgan isasi. M em an d an g k an tingg inya kos p en g en d a lian la tihan , organisasi sentiasa m engam bil b e ra t te n ta n g k e b e rk esan an pelaksanaan latihan. Perkara pokok sering dikaitkan dengan program lauhan ialah pulangan yang bakal diterima oleh organisasi perlu setimpal d en g an hasil p ro g ram la tih an te rse b u t. Umpamanya, Motorola menganggarkan setiap AS$1 dibelanjakan untuk latihan, mereka akan memperolehi pulangan dalam bentuk produktiviti sebanyak AS$30 dalam masa tiga tahun.

Semenjak 1987, Motorola telah menjimatkan kos sebanyak AS$3.3 ribu ju ta melalui latihan yang telah berjaya m em perm udah proses dan m engurangkan pem buangan bahan sisa. Sejak lim a ta h u n lepas, k e u n tu n g a n k o rp o ra t m e n in g k a t sebanyak 47% (R o b e rts d an M cD onald, 1995). S eh u b u n g an itu , bagi memastikan sesuatu program latihan memberi manfaat kepada organisasi, sesuatu program latihan perlu dinilai terutam anya terhadap keberkesanan dan hubungannya dengan prestasi kerja.

SOROTAN LITERATURSaks (1996) dalam kajiannya mengenai pekeija- pekerja baru dan proses sosialisasi terhadap organisasi yang disertai m endapati bahawa terdapat hubungan yang signifikan antara jum lah latihan yang dihadiri dengan sumbangan latihan ke atas proses sosialisasi pekerja baru di dalam organisasi (r= 0.70; p <0.001). Ini menunjukkan,

semakin banyak seseorang m enerim a latihan, sem akin tinggi faedah yang d ite rim a o leh individu tersebut. Saks (1996) juga m endapati jum lah m enghadiri latihan boleh m em beri su m b an g an k e p ad a k ep u asan b e k e r ja , tanggungjawab kepada organisasi dan profesion, keupayaan un tu k bersaing dan m em ban tu mengurangkan masalah berhenti kerja.

Juridico (1993) dalam kajiannya mengenai lauhan dan pem bangunan di Filipina, m endapati kejayaan sesu a tu p ro g ram la tih a n am at bergantung kepada persefahaman antara pelatih dan jurulatih mengenai objektif-objektif latihan. Penggunaan metodologi latihan yang betul tidak k u ran g p en tin g n y a u n tu k m e n e n tu k a n keberkesanan latihan. Juridico juga mendapati p e m a n ta u a n yang k o n sis ten te rh a d a p pengetahuan baru, kemahiran dan tingkah laku selepas latihan juga m erupakan cara un tuk m em pertahan dan mempertingkat kesan positif terhadap lauhan. Beliau juga mendapati sokongan dari pihak organisasi amat perlu dalam m embantu memastikan keberkesanan pelaksanaan program latihan.

Hasil kajian yang diusahakan oleh Sarminah (1996) di kalangan pegawai tadbir m enunjukkan dimensi latihan secara keseluruhan mempunyai perkaitan dengan kecekapan tugas selepas la tihan . D im ensi p rogram la tihan d idapa ti mempunyai perkaitan positif dengan kecekapan pengendalian tugas pegawai tadbir. Kajian beliau juga m endapati bahawa dimensi persekitaran dalam program latihan m erupakan peram al u tam a dalam m em beri sum bangan kepada kecekapan bertugas.

Artikel ini m elaporkan satu kajian yang objektifnya ialah untuk menilai keberkesanan program latihan dan m elihat hubungan antara keberkesanan latihan dengan prestasi kerja para peserta setelah m en ja lan i Kursus P rogram Pengajian Asas Operasi Perkastaman (PPAOP). Kerberkesanan latihan dilihat pada beberapa dimensi latihan seperti m etodologi dan alat bantuan m engajar (ABM), m odul, persekitaran, fasilitator dan objektif kursus.

METODOLOGITempat KajianKajian ini dijalankan di kalangan pegawai kastam lantikan baru gred W8 dari pejabat-pejabat kastam di Ibu Pejabat Kastam dan Eksais Diraja Malaysia, Kuala Lum pur; Pejabat Pengarah Kastam Negeri Wilayah Persekutuan , Kuala

74 PertanikaJ. Soc. Sci. 8c Hum. Vol. 5 No. 2 1997

Hubungan Keberkesanan Latihan Dengan Prestasi Kerja

Lum pur dan Pejabat Pengarah Kastam Negeri Selangor.

Reka Bentuk KajianData diperolehi daripada responden dengan m enggunakan borang soal selidik. Populasi kajian terdiri daripada semua pegawai kastam lantikan baru gred W8 yang mengikuti Kursus PPAOP Bil. 1 /95 hingga Bil. 3 /95 dan Bil. 1 /96 hingga Bil. 5 /9 6 yang berjumlah 268 orang. Sampel kajian difokuskan kepada m ereka yang telah berkhidm at sekurang-kurangnya tiga bulan di Ibu Pejabat, Wilayah Persekutuan Kuala Lum pur dan Selangor, yang berjum lah 98 orang. Sampel ini dipilih kerana ketiga-tiga lokasi kajian tersebu t terle tak di Lem bah Kelang yang m em punyai banyak aktiviti perkastam an dan mewakili sebahagian besar dari jum lah pegawai kastam lantikan baru seluruh negara. Responden terdiri daripada m ereka yang kembali bertugas di pejabat masing-masing sekurang-kurangnya tiga bulan selepas tam at kursus.

Alat dan Prosedur KajianSebanyak 98 set borang soal selidik diedarkan kepada sam pel te rsebu t dan 84 set (86%) daripadanya diterim a kembali. Reka bentuk penilaian keberkesanan latihan yang digunakan dalam kajian ini ialah kaedah ‘Penilaian Sebelum dan Selepas Latihan dalam Kelompok Tunggal’ (Single Group, Pre-test and Post-test Designs) yang d ip e rk e n a lk a n o leh P h ilip s (1991). K eberkesanan la tihan d iliha t pada dim ensi latihan seperti m etodologi dan ABM, m odul, persekitaran, fasilitator dan objektif kursus yang d iu k u r den g an m enggunakan skala Likert. Penilaian hubungan antara keberkesanan dengan prestasi kerja dianalisis dengan m enggunakan ujian korelasi.

Jangka masa pengukuran prestasi sebelum latihan sekurang-kurangnya selepas tiga bulan b e rk h id m at d en g an Jab a tan . P en g u k u ran keberkesanan latihan dan prestasi kerja selepas latihan dilakukan selepas sekurang-kurangnya tiga bulan dari tarikh tam at m engikuti latihan. Prestasi kerja juga diukur dengan m enggunakan skala L ikert ke atas lim a k om ponen iaitu penghasilan kerja, pengetahuan dan kem ahiran, kualiti peribadi, jalinan hubungan dan keijasama serta potensi. Nilai kebolehpercayaan soalan- soalan dalam setiap angkubah instrum en adalah melebihi 0.73.

HASIL KAJIANK eputusan p en ila ian keberkesanan la tihan ditunjukkan dalam Jadual 1 yang m engandungi kadar peratusan bagi ketujuh-tujuh dim ensi penilaian.

Metodologi dan ABMAnalisis menunjukkan bahawa 72.6% responden m elah irkan rasa puas hati yang sed erh an a terhadap m etodologi dan ABM yang digunakan d a lam k u rsu s te rs e b u t, m a n a k a la 16.7% daripadanya sangat berpuas hati dan 10.7% responden sangat tidak berpuas hati dengan m etodologi dan ABM yang digunakan. Ini m en u n ju k k an m e to d o lo g i d an ABM yang digunakan oleh AKMAL m erupakan dimensi latihan yang berada di tahap sederhana.

ModulDari segi m odul, data m enunjukkan bahawa 52.4% re sp o n d en m enyatakan rasa sangat berpuas hati dan hanya 1.2% sahaja merasa sangat tidak berpuas hati dengan m odul yang digunakan sepanjang masa kursus tersebut. Secara keseluruhan, majoriti responden iaitu 52.4% m enganggap m odul kursus berada di tahap tinggi.

PersekitaranDimensi persekitaran m em perlihatkan 54.8% resp o n d en sangat berpuas hati dan 45.2% m em berikan penilaian di tahap berpuas hati. Ini m enunjukkan bahawa para pelatih merasa p ersek itaran yang d isediakan oleh AKMAL sepanjang m enjalani latihan adalah kondusif untuk pem belajaran.

FasilitatorAspek kecekapan fasilitator m engendalikan kursus ju g a m e n d a p a t reaksi p o s itif dari responden. Sebanyak 54.8% responden berpuas hati dengan prestasi fasilitator, 42.9% sangat berpuas hati dan hanya 2.4% tidak berpuas hati.

ObjektifPencapaian objektif kursus am at m em bangga- kan. Sejumlah 56% responden m enyatakan sangat berpuas hati dengan pencapaian objektif kursus dan 44% men-yatakan berpuas hati. Pencapaian ini m enunjukkan bahawa AKMAL telah berjaya m em enuhi objektif Kursus PPAOP dan sekaligus m en g g am b ark an kursus ini m em beri m anfaat kepada pelatih.

Pertanika J. Soc. Sci. 8c Hum. Vol. 5 No. 2 1997 75


JADUAL 1Analisis penilaian keberkesanan latihan m engikut dim ensi (N=84)

Dim ensi la tih a n dan Tahap Keberkesanan %

M etodologi 8c ABMRendah (5 - 10) 10.7Sederhana (10.1 - 15) 72.6Tinggi (15.1 - 20) 16.7

100.0

ModulRendah (5 - 10) 1.2Sederhana (10.1 - 15) 46.4Tinggi (15.1 - 20) 52.4

100.0

PersekitaranRendah (5 - 10) 0.0Sederhana (10.1 - 15) 45.2Tinggi (15.1 - 20)

454.8

100.0

FasilitatorRendah (6 - 12) 2.4Sederhana (12.1 - 18) 54.8Tinggi (18.1 - 24) 42.8

100.0

ObjektifRendah ( 4 - 8 ) 0.0Sederhana (8.1 - 12) 44.0Tinggi (12.1 - 16)

Prestasi Kerja Sebelum Latihan

56.0100.0

Rendah (19 - 44.3) 7.1Sederhana (44.4 - 69.6) 91.7Tinggi (69.7 - 95)

Prestasi Kerja Selepas Latihan

1.2100.0

Rendah (19 - 44.3) 0.0Sederhana (44.4 - 69.6) 76.2Tinggi (69.7 - 95) 23.8

100.0

Prestasi Kerja Sebelum dan Selepas Latihan T ah ap p restasi kerja re sp o n d e n sebe lum mengikuti Kursus PPAOP didapati 91.7% berada di tahap sederhana, 7.1% di tahap rendah dan hanya 1.2% di tahap tinggi. Walau bagaimanapun, setelah tamat mengikuti latihan iaitu selepas sekurang-kurangnya tiga bulan m enam atkan la tihan , prestasi kerja re sp o n d en d idapa ti mengalami perubahan positif iaitu 76.2% berada di tahap sederhana dan 23.8% di tahap tinggi. Tidak ada seorangpun responden yang ber-

prestasi di tahap rendah. Ini berm akna, secara kese lu ru h an , Kursus PPAOP telah berjaya m em berikan kesan yang sewajarnya dari segi peningkatan prestasi kerja para pelatih.

Secara keseluruhannya, kajian m enunjukkan bahawa Kursus PPAOP telah berjaya menyediakan asas prestasi keija yang kukuh kepada pelatih yang m enghadiri kursus dalam persediaan m ereka m enghadapi tugas sebenar di tem pat kerja. Ini dibuktikan melalui perbandingan seb e lu m la tih a n d id a p a ti 7.1% d a r ip a d a



responden berada di tahap prestasi kerja rendah tetap i selepas m enjalan i la tihan , pera tusan tersebut tidak wujud lagi iaitu sifar.

PERBINCANGANKajian ini m endapati Kursus PPAOP mempunyai beberapa kekuatan dan kelem ahan. Seperti di Jadual 1, responden telah memberikan penilaian reaksi yang p o s itif te rh a d a p p e n c a p a ia n keberkesanan latihan dengan m em berikan skor majoriti di tahap tinggi untuk dimensi modul (52.4%), persekitaran (54.8%) dan objektif kursus (56%), m anakala di tahap sederhana u n tu k d im en si fa s ilita to r (54.8% ) dan m etodologi dan ABM(72.6%). Oleh itu, kursus ini dianggap berkesan dalam konteks penilaian yang berorientasikan pelatih.

Metodologi dan ABMWalau bagaim anapun, kelem ahan yang paling ketara dikesan dari dimensi m etodologi dan ABM. Seperti penem uan kajian oleh Juridico

(1993), penggunaan metodologi latihan yang betul amatlah penting untuk memastikan sesuatu latihan m endatangkan kesan positif terhadap pelatih dan organisasi umumnya.

FasilitatorJadual 2 m enunjukkan aspek fasilitator mem punyai kekuatan dari segi tahap pengetahuan (min skor purata=3.27)*, sikap keprihatinan terhadap pelatih (min skor purata=3.15) dan ta h a p k ey ak in an d ir i fa s il i ta to r k e tik a m engendalikan sesuatu sesi latihan (min skor purata=3.07).

Min skor purata keseluruhan untuk dimensi ini ialah 3.02 yang m enggam barkan pelatih berasa sangat berpuas hati terhadap prestasi fasilitator ketika m engendalikan latihan. Walau b ag a im a n a p u n , te rd a p a t k e lem ah an terutam anya dari segi ketram pilan dalam teknik penyam paian bahan pengajaran (min skor purata = 2.81), daya m enarik m inat pelatih un tuk terus belajar (min skor purata=2.85) dan

JADUAL 2Reaksi responden terhadap fasilitator (N=84)

Tahap PenilaianCiri Fasilitator STBH TBH BH SBH Mh7

(%) (%) (%) (%)

Tahap pengetahuan/kem ahiran 0.0 5 51 28 3.27dalam bidang pengkhususannya (0.0) (6) (60.7) (33.3)

Kekuatan dari segi keupayaanmenarik m inat dan tum puan peserta 0.0 21 54 9 2.85kursus untuk belajar dengan berkesan (0.0) (25) (64.3) (10.7)

Sikap keprihatinan yg. tinggi terhadap kebajikan peserta kursus dengan m engam bil berat permasalahanpeserta terutamanya berkaitan 1 12 44 27 3.15dengan masalah pembelajaran (1.2) (14.3) (52.4) (32.1)

Keupayaan mengawal suasanapembelajaran dengan baik dan 1 11 63 9 2.95berkesan (1.2) (13.1) (75) (10.7)

Teknik penyam paian kandungan 1 19 59 5 2.81m odul (1.2) (22.6) (70.2) (6)

Tahap keyakinan diri semasa 0.0 10 58 16 3.07m engendalikan sesuatu sesi (0.0) (11.9) (69) (19)

Purata Keseluruhan 3 78 329 94 3.02(0.59) (15.48) (65.28) (18.65)

STBH = sangat tidak berpuas hati TBH = tidak berpuas hatiBH = berpuas hati SBH = sangat berpuas hati

1 Min skor purata berm aksud jum lah purata dari beberapa min sukar yang terkum pul

PertanikaJ. Soc. Sci. & Hum. Vol. 5 No. 2 1997 77


keupayaan mengawal suasana pem belajaran (min skor purata = 2.95) yang m enggam barkan pelatih tidak berpuas hati terhadap prestasi angkubah tersebut.

Tanpa fasilitator yang berwibawa, sukar untuk sesuatu program latihan disampaikan dengan sem purna kepada pelatih . W atson (1979) menegaskan persepsi pelatih terhadap fasilitator am atlah p en ting dalam proses penerim aan pembelajaran. Fasilitator hendaklah mempunyai kriteria peribadi yang boleh diterima oleh pelatih.

Dari segi modul seperti di Jadual 3, walaupun pada keseluruhannya berada di tahap baik (min skor purata keseluruhan = 3.1), tetapi terdapat beberapa kelem ahan yang perlu diperbaiki. Modul Pengurusan (min skor purata = 2.81) dan Modul Kastam (min skor purata = 2.98) mempunyai beberapa kelemahan terutamanya d a ri segi ca ra p en y am p a ian d an tek n ik

pengajaran. Dari maklum balas yang diterim a, re sp o n d en m enyatakan ketidakpuasan hati m ereka terhadap kedua-dua m odul tersebut kerana kaedah pengajarannya yang terla lu teoritikal dan kurang m enekankan kepada latih amal atau ‘main peranan ’ supaya menjadi lebih m udah dan menarik lagi.

M odul P e n g u ru sa n tid ak p o p u la r di k a lan g an re s p o n d e n k e ra n a d a r i segi kepentingan tugas, m ereka merasakan m odul ini tidak begitu mem beri m anfaat kerana hanya sebahagian kecil sahaja daripada responden yang bertugas di bahagian Pengurusan. Tam bahan lagi, deskripsi tugas pegawai kastam lebih tertum pu kepada tugas-tugas operasi bukan tugas- tugas pentadbiran. Oleh itu, Modul Pengurusan perlu dirom bak baik dari segi kandungan , metodologi, teknik penyampaian dan juga jangka waktu pengajaran.

JADUAL 3 Reaksi responden terhadap m odul (N=84)

Bahagian Modul

Tahap Penilaian

STBH(%)

TBH(%)

BH(%)

SBH(%)

Min

M odul Pengurusan 1 19 59 5 2.81(1.2) (22.6) (70.2) (6)

Modul Kastam 0.0 8 69 7 2.98(0.0) (9.5) (82.1) (8.3)

Modul Cukai Dalaman 0.0 7 64 13 3.07(0.0) (8.3) (76.2) (15.5)

M odul Pencegahan 1 4 51 28 3.26(1.2) (4.8) (60.7) (33.3)

Modul Jati Diri 1 10 30 43 3.36(1.2) (11.9) (35.7) (51.2)

Purata Keseluruhan 3(0.71)

48(11.43

273(65)

96(22.86)

3.1


JADUAL 4H ubungan antara dim ensi latihan dengan prestasi kerja selepas latihan (N=84)

Dimensi Latihan Nilai korelasi (r) P

Prestasi kerja sebelum latihan 0.38 0.00*M etodologi dan ABM 0.09 0.39Modul 0.12 0.24Persekitaran 0.10 0.33Fasilitator 0.02 0.83Objektif Kursus 0.14 0.18

* p< 0.05



Jadual 4 m enun jukkan h ubungan yang lem ah tetapi positif an tara dim ensi latihan dengan prestasi kerja selepas latihan. Ini d itunjukkan m elalui nilai r seperti berikut: dimensi m etodologi dan ABM, r = 0.09 (p = 0.39), m odul, r = 0.12 (p = 0.24), persekitaran, r = 0.10 (p = 0.33), fasilitator, r = 0.02 (p = 0.83) dan objektif kursus, r = 0.14 (p = 0.18).

Perkaitan positif walaupun nilainya kecil antara dimensi latihan dengan prestasi kerja selepas latihan m enunjukkan latihan berupaya m eningkatkan prestasi kerja pegawai kastam. Peranan latihan dibuktikan melalui ujian-t sampel berpasangan seperti di Jadual 5 yang jelas

m enunjukkan terdapatnya perbezaan dari segi prestasi kerja sebelum latihan berbanding prestasi kerja selepas latihan. Min skor prestasi kerja sebelum latihan ialah 3.17 manakala selepas latihan 4.19. Dari ujian-t, terdapatnya perbezaan yang signifikan antara prestasi kerja sebelum latihan dengan prestasi kerja selepas latihan di m ana p = 0.00 dengan nilai t = -15.69. Ini m enunjukkan, latihan mempunyai hubungan dengan peningkatan prestasi kerja di kalangan pegawai kastam.

M en y en tu h te n ta n g m a tla m a t tiga k o m p o n e n p e m b e la ja ra n u ta m a ia itu psikomotor, kognitif dan afektif, didapati latihan

JADUAL 5Ujian-t prestasi kerja responden sebelum dan selepas latihan (N=84)

Angkubah Min S.P Nilai t Nilai p

Prestasi kerja sebelum latihan 3.17 0.56 -15.69 0.00*Prestasi kerja selepas latihan 4.19 0.50

S.P = sisihan piawai* p < 0.05

JA D U A L 6Reaksi responden terhadap objektif kursus (N=84)

Tahap Penilaian

Objektif Kursus STBH TBH BH SBH Min(%) (%) (%) (%) (%)

1. Untuk m enyedia dan m elengkapkanindividu dengan pengetahuan asasdan sikap positif berhubung denganaspek perkhidmatan sebagai pegawai 0 3 47 34 3.36awam di JKEDM (0.0) (3.6) (56) (40.5)

2. Untuk m enyedia dan m elengkapkanindividu dengan pengetahuan dankemahiran asas sebagai pegawai 0 4 47 33 3.34operasi di JKEDM (0.0) (4.8) (56) (39.3)

3. Untuk m enyedia dan m elengkapkanindividu dengan pengetahuan kerjadan kemahiran teknikal asastugas-tugas di bahagian Kastam, 0 5 47 32 3.32Cukai Dalaman dan Pencegahan (0.0) (6) (56) (38.1)

4. Untuk m em bangun keyakinan diri,ketahanan m ental dan fizikal sertakekuatan rohaniah pegawai-pegawaikastam ke tahap yang lebihbersepadu sesuai dengan keperluan 0 3 45 36 3.39organisasi (0.0) (3.6) (53.6) (42.9)

Purata Keseluruhan 0 15 186 135 3.35(0.0) (4.464) (55.36) (40.18)




ini berjaya m encapai m atlam at te rsebu t. Merujuk kepada dimensi objektif latihan seperti di Jadual 6, pencapaian di tahap kepuasan yang tinggi di kalangan responden jelas mem- bayangkan em pat objektif mencapai matlamat dengan cemerlang. Kesemua objektif mencapai nilai min skor purata melebihi nilai minimum=3. Min skor purata keseluruhan yang dicapai bagi dimensi ini ialah 3.35.

Elemen yang terkandung dalam keempat- em pat objektif tersebut tertum pu kepada tiga kom ponen pem bela jaran . Secara ringkas, o b je k tif k u rsu s in i m e n e k a n k a n k e p ad a melengkapkan diri individu dengan pengetahuan asas teknikal perkastaman, perubahan tingkah laku ke arah yang lebih positif, m em bina keyakinan diri, m em bangun kekuatan mental, fizikal serta kekuatan rohaniah yang sesuai dengan kehendak organisasi. Pencapaian ini m enunjukkan program latihan yang dibentuk dan dilaksanakan o leh AKMAL berad a di landasan seperti yang diharapkan.

Jika dilihat dari perspektif pem belajaran dewasa, m ungkin d apa t d irasakan bahaw a pengalam an bekerja sebelum latihan sebenarnya m em berikan sum bangan yang amat berguna kepada keberkesanan latihan itu sendiri. Seperti pendapat Katz dan Docherty (1994), setiap p e k e rja b a ru da lam o rg an isas i p e r lu menyesuaikan diri dengan suasana kerja. Oleh itu, m ereka perlu diberi kursus penyesuaian atau kursus induksi. Di JKEDM, sebaik sahaja pegawai baru melaporkan diri bertugas, mereka akan melalui Kursus Induksi Khusus (Malaysia, 1993) selama em pat hingga enam hari bertujuan untuk menyesuaikan diri dengan pekerjaan sebelum di tempatkan di bahagian-bahagian tertentu.

Melalui pengalaman bekerja untuk beberapa tem poh waktu, pegawai-pegawai kastam me- nimba pengalam an yang datang dari pelbagai sumber seperti pegawai atasan, penyelia, rakan sekerja, orang awam, pelanggan Jabatan dan pera tu ran -pera tu ran , p e rin tah bertu lis yang disediakan oleh Jabatan. Secara tidak langsung, mereka telah mengalami proses latihan sambil bekerja yang d iperkukuh m elalui kaedah mempraktikkan dari apa yang telah dipelajari. K eadaan ini m enjad ikan pegawai te rseb u t semakin matang dan arif tentang bidang tugas mereka. Oleh itu, apabila tiba giliran mereka menghadiri Kursus PPAOP, didapati modul yang disampaikan adalah ulangan dari apa yang telah d iperolehi di tem pat kerja secara inform al

teru tam anya m odul yang b erk a itan secara langsung dengan bidang tugas mereka. Keadaan ini sebenarnya m em perm udah pelaksanaan proses latihan dan lebih banyak input yang boleh diterapkan dalam diri mereka.

Smith (1982) m engenai pasti satu daripada situasi yang paling baik bagi pembelajaran dewasa berlaku ialah apabila kandungan serta proses pem belajaran m engam bil kira pengalam an lampau peserta dan m enggunakan pengalam an te rse b u t sebaga i su m b e r p e m b e la ja ra n . Sehubungan dengan situasi tersebut, pegawai kastam yang terlibat dalam kajian ini semuanya memiliki pengalaman keija lepas dan kesempatan ini boleh digunakan dengan sebaik mungkin oleh fasilitator kursus un tuk m enyam paikan bahan pengajaran dengan lebih berkesan.

Seperti p en d ap a t Pike (1992), p e la ja r hendaklall berm inat dan sentiasa dirangsang untuk mengikuti bahan pengajaran yang akan d isam paikan k e ran a p e la ja r tah u m en ila i kandungan tersebut jika dirasakan ia berguna dan memberi faedah kepada mereka. O leh itu, dengan pengalam an pendek yang diperolehi sebelum latihan, pelatih boleh menilai terhadap kandungan kursus dengan lebih tepat dan ini boleh melicinkan lagi peijalanan program kursus tersebut.

D en g an yang d e m ik ia n , in p u t d a r i pengalaman kerja dan kematangan pelatih dalam menghubungkaitkan modul dengan kepentingan tugas, se b e n a rn y a banyak m e m b a n tu m em udahkan lagi perjalanan Kursus PPAOP ini. H asilnya , K ursus PPA O P te lah b e rjay a dilaksanakan dengan berkesan dan berm anfaat kepada pelatih.

Secara keseluruhan, kajian ini m endapati pegawai kastam mengalami proses pem belajaran melalui tiga elem en penting iaitu pengetahuan, kem ahiran dan perubahan tingkah laku yang berkesan setelah m enjalani Kursus PPAOP selama enam minggu di AKMAL.

Perkaitan yang positif antara dimensi latihan dengan prestasi kerja selepas latihan di kalangan pegawai kastam jelas m enunjukkan peranan Kursus PPAOP adalah penting dalam m em bantu menyediakan input ke arah peningkatan prestasi kerja di tem pat kerja sebenar. Peluang pegawai kastam bekerja terlebih dahulu untuk beberapa tem poh waktu sebelum m engikuti kursus ini telah dim anfaatkan sebaik m ungkin kerana m elalui pengalam an bekerja tersebu t boleh m em bantu m em perm udah proses pem belajaran

80 PertanikaJ. Soc. Sci. Sc Hum. Vol. 5 No. 2 1997


semasa kursus. Ini kerana, melalui kaedah pembelajaran dewasa, pengalam an bekeija boleh disepadukan dengan pem belajaran teori di bilik kuliah yang ternyata telah menghasilkan satu program latihan yang berkesan.

Implikasi dari penem uan ini ialah keraguan um um terhadap keberkesanan Kursus PPAOP kini telah dipeijelas melalui bukti-bukti empirikal bahaw a kursus ini sebenarnya m em punyai perkaitan yang positif terhadap peningkatan prestasi kerja pegawai kastam. Ini berm akna, Kursus PPAOP telah m em berikan m anfaat kepada Jabatan kerana kursus tersebut berjaya m encapai m atlam at untuk m em bentuk pegawai kastam lantikan baru yang cekap selaras dengan kehendak organisasi. O leh itu, kursus ini wajar dikekalkan dengan m em perbaik kelem ahan- kelem ahan yang dikesan dalam kajian ini.

Tegasnya, kajian ini m enunjukkan Kursus PPAOP yang dikendalikan oleh AKMAL telah berjaya dilaksanakan dengan berkesan dan m em beri m anfaat kepada Jabatan.

RUMUSAN DAN CADANGANBerasaskan penem uan kajian, adalah perlu dikaji semula m etodologi dan ABM yang digunakan dalam Kursus PPAOP terutam anya dari aspek teknik, penggunaan kem udahan peralatan secara optim um , kecekapan penggunaan peralatan, p e ro le h a n p e ra la ta n yang leb ih can g g ih , p en y e d ia a n n o ta -n o ta ku rsu s d an tek n ik pengendalian peralatan yang sedia ada secara keseluruhan. Langkah ini perlu diberi perhatian kerana ternyata AKMAL tidak ketandusan dari segi ABM, tetapi penggunaan peralatan tersebut masih tidak di tahap optim um .

Dari segi m odul, AKMAL seharusnya juga mengkaji semula Modul Pengurusan dan Modul Kastam kerana didapati kurang memuaskan dan gagal m enarik minat peserta. Perkara yang perlu diteliti ialah dari segi m etodologi pengajaran, teknik penyampaian, kesesuaian jangka masa dan aplikasi dengan tem pat keija sebenar.

S ehubungan dengan m asalah berkaitan kecekapan fasilita to r dari segi teknik dan m etodologi pengajaran , AKMAL seharusnya m em beri tum puan kepada penyediaan latihan yang lebih m an tap u n tuk fasilitator kursus terutamanya dari aspek keupayaan menarik minat peserta, daya mengawal suasana pem belajaran, daya mewujudkan motivasi di kalangan peserta dan keyakinan d iri sem asa m engendalikan sesuatu sesi. Adalah penting AKMAL memastikan

supaya di kalangan m ereka yang terpilih sebagai fasilitator terdiri dari golongan pegawai yang berbakat dan mempunyai minat yang tinggi dalam bidang pengajaran dan pembelajaran.

Kajian ini juga mengesyorkan semua pegawai kastam lantikan baru diwajibkan m enghadiri Kursus PPAOP sebaik sahaja m ereka melaporkan diri bertugas atau tidak lebih tiga bulan dari tarikh tersebut. Tem poh yang disyorkan ini bertujuan untuk mengelakkan dari berlakunya pegaw ai kastam yang te la h te r la lu lam a berkhidm at tetapi masih belum berpeluang mengikuti kursus ini.

Sebagai langkah jan g k a panjang u n tuk m em astik an ta h a p k e b e rk e sa n an la tih a n , perlulah diwujudkan sistem pem antauan prestasi kerja selepas latihan yang berterusan untuk m em bolehkan AKMAL m engenai pasti tahap keberkesanan lauhan terhadap peserta dan untuk m engenalpasti asas keperluan latihan di masa akan datang.

Dari aspek kajian di masa depan, adalah dicadangkan supaya Jabatan m engenai pasti faktor-faktor bukan latihan yang m em pengaruhi tah ap prestasi kerja pegaw ai kastam . Me- m andangkan kepada limitasi kajian ini, wajarlah dikenal pasti beberapa dimensi latihan lain yang d ia n g g a p m em p u n y a i h u b u n g a n d e n g a n keberkesanan latihan.

Dalam konteks JKEDM, wajarlah diperluaskan kum pulan sasaran kajian kepada anggota- anggota Jabatan dari kategori lain seperti pegawai marin, penolong penguasa dan penguasa kastam. Di samping itu, skop kajian perlu diperluaskan kepada b id an g la tih an asas tekn ikal, asas kem ahiran teknikal dan kursus kemajuan kerjaya yang dianjurkan oleh AKMAL. Dari segi teknik kajian akan datang, disyorkan kajian yang sama diadakan dengan m engguna kaedah kelom pok kawalan bagi m endapatkan hasil kajian yang lebih kom paratif dan realistik.

RUJUKANB l u m , M.L. and J.C N a y l o r . 1968. Industrial

Psychology, its Theoretical and Social Foundations. New York: Harper and Row.

C a r e y , R. 1995. Five top corporate training ,, programs; and how your company can have

one too. Successful Meetings 44(2): 56-62.

J u r id ic o , E.D. 1993. Training and development: towards the promotion of accountability and productivity in bureaucratic performance in


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the Philipp ines. Asian Review of Public Administration 5(1): 53-62.

Ka t z , B. dan J. D o ch erty . 1994. Enhancing Employee Performance. Great Britain: Management Book 2000 Ltd.

M alaysia. 1993. Perintah Tetap Perjawatan Bil. 35. Kuala Lumpur: Jabatan Kastam dan Eksais Diraja Malaysia.

M alaysia . 1996. Seventh Malaysian Plan. Kuala Lumpur: Prime Minister’s Department.

M alaysia 1997. laporan Tahunan 1996, Jab. Kastam dan Eksais Diraja Malaysia Kuala Lumpur: Unit Perhubungan Awam

Mondy, R.W. dan R.M. N oe, 1996. Human Resource Management. 6th edn. USA: Prentice-Hall Inc.

N a d l e r , L. 1970. Developing Human Resources. Houston: Gulf Publishing Co.

P atrick , J. 1992. Training: Research and Practice. London: Academic Press.

P h ilips , J.J. 1991. Handbook of Training Evaluation and Measurement Methods, 2nd edn. USA: Gulf Publishing Co.

P ike, B. 1992. Creative training techniques. Training Officer 28(10): 313-316.

R o b e r t s , C. and C. M cD o n a l d . 1995. Training to fail, foumal of Management Development 14(4): 18-32.

Saks, A.M. 1996. The relationship between the amount and helpfulness of entry training and work outcom es. Human Relations 49(4): 429- 451.

S arm inah S a m a d . 1996. Persepsi pegawai tadbir universiti malaya terhadap kesan program latihan ke atas kecekapan tugas, Kertas projek penyelidikan Ijazah M.Sc. (Pem bangunan Sumber Manusia), UPM, Serdang, Malaysia.

S m it h , R.M. 1982. learning How to Ixam. New York: Adult Educator Co.

S t o n e r , J.A.F dan C. W ank el . 1994. Pengurusan. Edisi Ketiga. Petaling Jaya: Amiza Publishing.

W a t s o n , C.E. 1979. Management Development through Training. USA: Addison-Wesley.

W ills, M. 1993 Managing the Training Process: Putting the Basics Into Practice. U.K: McGraw Hill.


82 Pertanika J. Soc. Sci. & Hum. Vol. 5 No. 2 1997


Pendapatan dan Pembelanjaan Pekeija Migran Wanita: Suatu Perbandingan antara Sektor Awam, Industri dan Jualan

IAILY PAIM dan NURIZAN YAHAYA Jabatan Pengurusan Sum ber dan Pengajian Pengguna

Fakulti Ekologi Manusia Universiti Putra Malaysia

43400 Serdang, Selangor Darul Ehsan, Malaysia

Kata kunci: penggunaan, perbelanjaan, pola perbelanjaan, kesejahteraan material

ABSTRAK

Kajian ini bertujuan mengkaji corak pendapatan dan perbelanjaan pekerja migran wanita Semenanjung Malaysia. Seramai 969 pekerja wanita yang berumur antara 15 hingga 30 tahun yang telah berhijrah dari tempat kelahiran ke tempat lain dipilih sebagai responden kajian. Responden telah dipilih secara rawak berlapis dari lima zon iaitu utara (Perlis, Kedah dan Pulau Pinang), tengah (Perak dan Selangor), selatan (Negeri Sembilan, Melaka dan Johor), timur (Pahang, Terengganu dan Kelantan), dan metropolitan (Kuala Lumpur). Responden mewakili sektor awam (41%), industri (38%) dan jualan (21%). Hasil kajian mendapati bahawa wanita yang dikaji kebanyakannya masih bujang, muda (purata umur 24 tahun) dan berpendidikan setakat SPM. Analisis Chi-square menunjukkan terdapat perbezaan pendapatan yang signifikan mengikut sektor, kumpulan umur, dan taraf pendidikan. Hasil kajian juga menunjukkan terdapat perbezaan yang signifikan bagi peratusan pendapatan yang dibelanjakan untuk makanan, perumahan dan pengangkutan mengikut sektor, umur, taraf pendidikan dan taraf perkahwinan.

ABSTRACT

The purpose o f the study was to determine income and expenditure patterns of female migrant workers in Peninsular Malaysia. The 969 workers between 1 5 - 3 0 years old chosen as respondents were selected from 5 zones, i.e., north (Perlis, Kedah and Pulau Pinang), central (Perak and Selangor), south (Negeri Sembilan, Melaka and Johor), east (Pahang, Terengganu and Kelantan), and Metropolitan (Kuala Lumpur). Respondents were chosen from the public (41%), industrial (38%), and sales (21%) sectors. The results o f the study revealed that most o f the women were single, young (mean age o f 24) and had an educational level o f SPM. Chi-Square tests indicated that there was a significant difference in income among women o f different sectors, ages, and levels o f education. The results o f the study also indicated that there was a significant difference in percentage of income spent on food, housing, and transportation among women o f different sectors, ages, levels o f education, and marital status.

PENGENALANPenggunaan adalah ukuran bagi kesejahteraan seseorang atau sesebuah isi rum ah. A ntara beberapa p en en tu penggunaan term asuklah su m b er p e n d a p a ta n , m asa, kekayaan dan seumpamanya, harga, cita rasa, dan persekitaran. P endapatan boleh d ipero leh i dari pelbagai sum ber termasuklah upah/gaji, pulangan dari sim panan dan pelaburan, persaraan, kum pulan s im p an an p ek e rja , su m b an g an k eb a jikan , pem berian, warisan dan sebagainya. Pendapatan adalah ukuran tidak langsung bagi penggunaan.

Pendapatan antara lainnya ditentukan oleh tahap pendidikan dan b idang/jen is pekerjaan yang diceburi. Perbezaan bidang/jenis pekerjaan yang d ic e b u r i o le h kaum w an ita d an le lak i m enyum bang kepada perbezaan pendapatan antara wanita dan lelaki (Bergm ann, 1986). Selain dari itu, diskriminasi antara jan tina juga m enyum bang kepada perbezaan ini (Bergmann, 1986). Masalah ini bukanlah m asalah yang dihadapi di negara m em bangun sahaja, malahan negara maju seperti Amerika Syarikat dan United Kingdom juga mengalami masalah diskriminasi

Laily Paim dan Nurizan Yahaya

upah dan jenis pekerjaan antara lelaki dan wanita (Bergmann 1986).

Selain daripada pendapatan, perbelanjaan ju g a d ig u n a k a n u n tu k m e n g u k u r ta h a p penggunaan, seterusnya kesejahteraan. Walaupun data tentang perbelanjaan mempunyai beberapa limitasi untuk m engukur penggunaan nam un ianya m udah dan m urah untuk diperolehi. Antara batasan data perbelanjaan adalah ia tidak m em berikan gam baran yang tepat ten tang penggunaan barangan tahan lama yang sebenar dan barangan yang dibeli lebih awal daripada masa pengum pulan data. Selain daripada itu data perbelanjaan juga tidak mengambil kira sisa (d isp o sa l) d a r ip a d a b a ra n g a n dan perkhidm atan yang dibeli (Magrabi et a l 1991).

Tidak dapat dinafikan bahawa sum bangan wanita dalam sektor pekerjaan telah menggalak- kan perkem bangan dan pertum buhan ekonom i yang pesat di Malaysia. Golongan wanita telah m erebut peluang pekerjaan di bandar terutam a dalam bidang elektronik dan tekstil (Ozay 1986). P eng libatan w anita sebagai pekerja pertanian telah berkurang dari 66.8% pada tahun 1970 kepada 46.3% pada tahun 1980 dan kepada 28.1% pada tahun 1990 (Rancangan Malaysia Keenam 1991). Sebaliknya penglibatan wanita sebagai pekerja pengeluaran, buruh dan berkaitan telah m eningkat dari 10.4% pada tahun 1970 kepada 17.6% pada tahun 1980 kepada 22.3% pada tahun 1990 (Rancangan Malaysia Keenam 1991). Arah aliran ini akan te ru s m en in g k a t pad a m asa akan d a tan g b e rd a sa rk a n k ep ad a p e rtu m b u h a n sek to r industri yang begitu pesat pada masa ini. Keadaan ini m enunjukkan bahawa wanita yang dahulunya bekerja di ladang sebagai pekerja pertan ian kini telah berhijrah ke bandar di m ana sebahagian besarnya bekerja di sektor pem buatan. Nam un begitu, disebabkan oleh pendidikan m ereka yang rendah dibandingkan d e n g a n p e k e r ja le lak i, m erek a lazim nya menjawat jaw atan dengan upah yang lebih rendah.

Dengan taraf pendidikan yang rendah yang seterusnya m enyum bang kepada pendapatan yang rendah, bagaimanakah tahap kehidupan pekerja migran wanita ini? Umumnya manusia b e r tin g k a h laku ke a rah m e n in g k a tk a n kesejahteraan. O leh itu d iandaikan bahawa p en g h ijrah an w anita dari desa ke b an d ar sebenarnya diiringi dengan peningkatan dalam tah ap k ese jah te raaan h id u p (te ru tam an y a

kesejahteraan material). Data pendapatan dan perb e lan jaan pekerja m igran w anita te lah dianalisis untuk m em berikan gam baran tentang k ecu k u p a n p e n d a p a ta n u n tu k m en y a ra kehidupan m ereka di bandar. Nam un begitu, perbandingan tahap hidup pekerja migran wanita ini pada masa dahulu dan sekarang tidak dapat dibandingkan kerana kekurangan data.

Kajian ini um um nya b e rtu ju a n u n tu k mengkaji corak pendapatan dan perbelanjaan pekerja migran wanita Sem enanjung Malaysia. B eb erap a analisis te lah d ija lan k an u n tu k m em bandingkan pendapatan dan perbelanjaan wanita migran m engikut sektor dan beberapa angkubah sosioekonomi.

Pendapatan sebagai Penentu Penggunaan Terdapat banyak teori yang dikem ukakan oleh ahli ekonoriii dalam usaha m enerangkan peranan p en d ap a tan sebagai p e n e n tu p en g g u n aan . Antara teori tersebut term asuklah ‘Absolute Income Hypothesis’ (Keynes 1936), ‘Relative Income Hypothesis’ (Duesenberry 1949), ‘Perm anent Income Hypothesis’ (Friedman 1957) dan ‘Life Cycle Hypothesis’ (Modigliani and Brumberg 1962).

‘Absolute Income Hypothesis’ m enerangkan bahawa penggunaan ditentukan oleh pendapatan b o leh g u n a (d isp o sab le in c o m e ). W alau bagaim anapun teori ini dikritik kerana ia hanya dapat m enerangkan penggunaan dalam jangka masa pendek. Selain dari itu kecenderungan m engguna marginal (m arginal propensity to consume) juga didapati tidak konstan bagi semua tahap pendapatan.

‘R elative Incom e H y p o th e s is ’ yang d ip e rk e n a lk a n o leh D u esen b e rry (1949) menyatakan bahawa penggunaan individu d a n / atau isirumah bergantung kepada pendapatan individu/isi rum ah lain dalam komuniti, dan tahap pendapatan sebelum nya. P enggunaan bergantung kepada kedudukan seseorang itu dalam agihan pendapatan. Dengan lain perkataan individu atau isi rum ah akan cuba mencapai tahap penggunaan yang dicapai oleh individu/isi rumah disekelilingnya. Selain daripada itu teori ini juga menerangkan bahawa adalah lebih mudah untuk menyesuaikan diri dengan pendapatan yang bertam bah dari pendapatan yang m enurun . Individu atau isi rum ah dengan m udah akan dapat meningkatkan penggunaan mereka apabila pendapatan bertambah, tetapi adalah sukar bagi individu atau isi rumah untuk merendahkan tahap


Pendapatan dan Pembelanjaan Pekerja Migran Wanita

p e n g g u n a a n m e rek a ap ab ila p e n d a p a ta n berkurang. Malahan individu atau isi rum ah akan berusaha untuk mengekalkan tahap penggunaan mereka sekarang, walaupun tidak meningkat- kannya.

Perm anent Income Hypothesis’ (Friedman 1957) menyatakan bahawa penggunaan bergantung kepada pendapatan tetap. Pendapatan merangkumi dua komponen utama iaitu pendapatan tetap dan tidak te tap . O leh k e ran a ind iv idu hanya m enggunakan kadar yang b e rte ru sa n dari pendapatan tetap mereka, maka pendapatan yang tidak dijangka seperti durian runtuh, bonus dan seum pam anya tidak akan m engubah corak penggunaan. Namun begitu* pendapatan tidak tetap ini akan mempengaruhi simpanan.

Akhirnya ‘Life Cycle Hypothesis’ (Modigliani and B rum berg 1962) m enerangkan bahawa individu m enggunakan kadar yang tetap daripada pendapatan mereka pada setiap masa. Umumnya ramai orang mempunyai pendapatan di tahap yang paling tinggi dalam agihan pendapatan semasa um ur pertengahan, dan ramai orang muda dan tua berada di tahap pendapatan yang lebih rendah.

Selain daripada teori yang diterangkan di atas, beberapa kajian empirikal yang lalu juga ada m enerangkan faktor-faktor yang m em pengaruhi perbelanjaan atau penggunaan sesebuah keluarga itu. Antaranya termasuklah saiz keluarga dan komposisi (Abdel-Ghanv and Schwenk 1993), um ur (C hen and Chu 1982; Lydall 1995) pendapatan (Chen and Chu 1982), pendidikan (Abdel-Ghani and Foster 1982; Abdel-Ghany and Schwenk 1993; H orton and Haftrom 1985) dan pekerjaan (H orton and H aftrom 1985)

Kesemua teori dan kajian empirikal di atas bo leh d ijad ik an asas dalam m en eran g k an b a g a im an a p e n d a p a ta n m e m p e n g a ru h i penggunaan seseorang. Kajian ini akan mengkaji bagaim ana faktor pendapatan , um ur, sektor p ek erjaan , dan p e n d a p a ta n yang b e rb eza m em pengaruhi perbelanjaan atau penggunaan penghijrah wanita yang dikaji.

M ETODOLOGIData untuk kajian ini telah dikum pulkan dari pekerja migran wanita Sem enanjung Malaysia. U n tu k tu ju an p e rsam p e lan , S em en an ju n g Malaysia telah dibahagikan kepada lima zon, iaitu utara (Perlis, Kedah dan Pulau Pinang), tengah (Perak dan Selangor), m etropolitan (Kuala L um pur), Selatan (Negeri Sembilan,

M elaka d an J o h o r ) d an tim u r (P a h a n g , Terengganu dan Kelantan). Teknik persam pelan rawak berlapis telah digunakan untuk memilih negeri dan daerah bagi mewakili setiap zon. N egeri yang terp ilih adalah Pulau Pinang, Selangor, W ilayah P erseku tuan , J o h o r dan Pahang. Manakala daerah yang terpilih adalah Pulau Pinang Bandar dan Seberang Prai Tengah (Pulau Pinang), Petaling Jaya, Ulu Langat dan Gombak (Selangor), Wilayah Persekutuan (Kuala L um pur), Kluang dan Jo h o r Bharu (Johor) serta Kuantan dan Bentong (Pahang).

Seramai 969 orang pekerja wanita berulnur antara 15 hingga 30 tahun yang telah berpindah dari tem pat kelahiran ke kawasan lain telah terpilih sebagai responden kajian. Dari jum lah tersebut, 369 orang adalah pekerja industri yang m ana kebanyakannya dari industri eletronik dan elektrik, 203 orang pekerja sektor jualan , dan 397 o ra n g p e k e rja s e k to r aw am . D ata dikum pulkan melalui tem u bual berdasarkan borang soal selidik di tem pat kerja dan di tem pat kediaman antara Septem ber 1993 hingga Mac 1994 oleh penem u bual terlatih. Data dianalisis m enggunakan program SPSSpc.

HASIL KAJIAN DAN PERBINCANGANLatar Belakang Responden

Hasil kajian m enunjukkan sebahagian besar pekerja wanita ini (87 peratus) berum ur antara 20 hingga 30 tahun. Hanya 13 peratus berum ur di bawah 20 tahun. Purata um ur m ereka adalah 23.8 tahun. Sebahagian besar wanita yang dikaji (90.5 peratus) berbangsa Melayu. Seramai 72.4 p e ra tu s m asih bu jang , 25.7 p e ra tu s te lah berkahwin dan seorang janda. Dari segi um ur m engikut sektor juga di dapati pekerja wanita sektor awam adalah lebih tua dibandingkan dengan sektor yang lain. Lebih ramai pekerja sektor awam yang telah berkahwin berbanding sektor industri dan jualan.

M elihat kepada taraf pendidikan, didapati kebanyakan wanita yang dikaji (68%) m endapat pendidikan Sijil Pelajaran Malaysia dan Sijil Tinggi Pelajaran Malaysia. M anakala 10.8% mem punyai kelulusan universiti. Hanya 14% wanita ini yang m empunyai pendidikan setakat Sijil Rendah Pelajaran. Umumnya pekerja wanita sektor awam mempunyai taraf pendidikan yang lebih baik dibandingkan dengan sektor jualan dan industri (Lihat Jadual 1).

Dari segi pekerjaan yang diceburi, bagi sektor awam, jenis pekerjaan term asuklah gum , kerani



JADUAL 1 latar belakang pekerja wanita mengikut

sektor

Latar belakang Sektor

Awam(41%)

Industri(38%)

Jualan(21%)

Jumlah(100%)

Umur (tahun):15-19 3.0 19.5 20.7 13.020-24 41.8 48.6 34.9 42.925-30 55.2 31.9 44.4 44.1

Taraf perkahwinan:78.4 72.4Bujang 55.7 81.1

Berkahwin 44.3 18.9 21.1 \27.5Janda 0 0 0.5 0.1

Taraf pendidikan:Darjah Enam 0 3.8 4.4 2.6SRP 1.5 20.1 30.5 14.7SPM/SPVM 40.9 62.9 56.2 52.3STPM 26.3 10.2 5.4 15.7Maktab/Politeknik 7.3 1.1 2.5 3.9Universiti 24.1 1.9 1.0 10.8

dan pem bantu am rendah. Di sektor industri, kebanyakan pekerja w anita adalah te rd iri daripada operator pengeluaran. Manakala di sektor jualan, lebih daripada separuh wanita bekerja sebagai jurujual.

PendapatanPendapatan dikira berdasarkan upah atau gaji bulanan yang diterima daripada pekerjaan utama. T erdapat perbezaan gaji yang ketara antara pekerja-pe kerja ini dengan ju la t pendapatan a n ta ra RM121 h in g g a RM 2300. P u ra ta p en d ap a tan m engikut sektor m enunjukkan pekerja sektor industri berpendapatan purata te re n d a h (RM 462.79) b e rb an d in g dengan pekerja sektor jualan (RM473.02) dan pekerja sektor awam (RM704.69).

Dari Jadual 2 didapati lebih ramai pekerja wanita di sektor industri m enerim a pendapatan yang rendah manakala lebih ramai pekerja wanita sektor awam m em perolehi pendapatan yang lebih tinggi. Keadaan ini boleh dikaitkan dengan um ur dan taraf pendidikan mereka. Kedua-dua fa k to r in i m e n y u m b an g k ep ad a ju m la h pendapatan yang diterima.

Hasil kajian ju g a m enunjukkan bahawa sebahag ian besar p en d ap a tan adalah dari pekerjaan utama. Hanya sebilangan kecil (kurang daripada 2%) pekerja wanita yang m em perolehi pendapatan dari pekerjaan sampingan. Lebih separuh daripada mereka yang terlibat ini adalah pekerja sektor awam. M em andangkan masa

JADUAL 2Pendapatan utama pekerja wanita m engikut sektor

Pendapatan Sektor

Awam(41%)

Industri(38%)

Jualan(21%)

Jum lah(100%)

<RM 251 0.8 4.6 9.9 4.1RM251-RM500 47.6 73.4 63.5 60.8RM501-RM750 24.4 15.5 18.2 19.2RM751-RM1000 5.0 5.4 6.4 5.5>RM1000 22.2 1.1 2.0 9.9

bekerja yang lebih teratur (tidak m engikut waktu syif seperti kebanyakan pekeija sektor industri) m em bo lehkan m ereka ini m em b u a t kerja sam pingan . Kerja sam pingan te rm asu k lah m engajar di kelas tam bahan, dan berniaga. W alaupun tidak ramai yang melakukan kerja sampingan nam un pendapatan yang diperolehi adalah lumayan. Pendapatan sampingan pekerja sektor jualan adalah jauh lebih tinggi (purata RM1687 sebulan) d a rip ad a p ekerja sek tor industri (pura ta RM300) dan sektor awam (purata RM550).

S um ber-sum ber p e n d a p a ta n yang lain te rm asu k lah b o n u s d an d iv id en . S u m b er pendapatan dari sewa, pajak dan seumpamanya tidak penting. Hanya sebilangan kecil pekerja yang m em perolehi pendapatan dari sum ber ini. Ini kerana wanita-wanita ini masih m uda dan belum mempunyai harta yang boleh disewakan atau dipajak.

Ujian Chi square digunakan untuk m enguji perbezaan jum lah pendapatan m engikut sektor, kum pulan um ur, taraf pendidikan, dan tem pat lah ir. Hasil kajian m en u n ju k k an te rd a p a t perbezaan jum lah pendapatan yang signifikan m engikut sektor (pc.001), kum pulan um ur (p< .001), dan ta ra f p e n d id ik a n (p< .001) (Jadual 3).

JADUAL 3Ujian Chi-Kuasa Dua: Jum lah pendapatan m engikut

kumpulan sektor, umur, taraf pendidikan, dan tempat lahir

Angkubah N X2 DF

Sektor 969 121.58** 8Umur 969 65.77** 8Tahap pendidikan 969 52.52** 8Tem pat lahir (asal) 969 22.49 12

** p< .0001

86 Pertanika J. Soc, Sci. 8c Hum. Vol. 5 No. 2 1997


Hasil kajian m enunjukkan bahawa tidak sem ua w anita yang dikaji m em b elan jak an p en d ap a tan m ereka u n tu k sem ua kategori perbelanjaan. Jadual 4 m enunjukkan purata bagi beberapa kategori perbelanjaan yang dilakukan oleh lebih daripada 50% wanita dari setiap sektor. Kategori-kategori perbelanjaan lain yang tidak dimasukkan ke dalam jadual adalah kategori p e rb e lan jaan yang d ilakukan o leh k u rang daripada 50% pekerja wanita m engikut sektor yang tertentu.

PerbelanjaanPerbelanjaan untuk m akanan m erangkum i

perbelanjaan makanan basah, kering dan makan di luar rum ah. Hasil kajian m enunjukkan bahawa perbelanjaan untuk makanan basah dan kering hanya penting (dilakukan oleh >50% wanita)

bagi sektor awam dan industri. Pekeija sektor industri membelanjakan jum lah yang lebih rendah dibandingkan dengan pekeija sektor awam.

Bagi pekerja sektor jualan , perbelanjaan makan di luar rum ah adalah lebih penting dari menyediakan makanan sendiri dan jum lah yang dibelanjakan juga adalah lebih tinggi dari yang dibelanjakan oleh sektor awam dan industri. Jika dilihat kepada purata perbelanjaan makanan keseluruhannya didapati tiada perbezaan yang ketara antara pekeija sektor awam dan jualan, iaitu masing-masing RM203.63 dan RM202.34. Namun jum lah yang dibelanjakan oleh pekeija sektor industri adalah jauh lebih rendah iaitu RM 127.41 sebulan. Keadaan ini dapat diterangkan dengan latar belakang m ereka di m ana lebih ramai pekeija sektor awam yang telah berkahwin (44.3%) dan mempunyai keluarga di samping

JA D U A L 4 Purata perbelanjaan m engikut sektor

Perbelanjaan Sektor Awam (N=397)

Sektor Industri (N=369)

Sektor Jualan(N=203)

RM n(% ) RM n(% ) RM n(% ))

MakananBahan kering 68.11 283 38.4 288

(71.3) (78.0)Bahan basah 76.83 243 39.40 273

(61.2) (74.0)Makan di luar 110.67 329 80.14 285 163.2 157

(82.9) (77.2) 8 (77.3)Perumahan

Sewa 132.23 285(71.8)

Bil air 12.33 282 7.45 187(71.0) (50.7)

Bil elektrik 17.42 276 8.42 190(69.5) (51.5)

Bil telefon 43.09G as/M inyak 9.67 242 5.14 231

(61.0) (62.6)Pengangkutan

Tam bang 43.94 310(78.1)

Perbelanjaan lainBarangan 36.73 373 25.83 359 34.59 165kegunaan (94.0) (97.3) (81.3)harianBahan bacaan 24.86 327 13.37 235 21.52 130

(82.4) (63.7) (64.0)

Pakaian 49.51 212(57.5)



m em punyai p e n d a p a ta n yang leb ih tinggi dibandingkan dengan pekerja sektor industri yang kebanyakannya masih bujang.

Bagi perbelanjaan perum ahan, item yang penting bagi pekerja sektor awam termasuklah sewa, bil dan gas. Ini dapat diterang dengan kebanyakan pekerja awam yang telah berum ah tangga. Bagi w anita sek to r in d u s tr i pu la perbelanjaan perum ahan yang penting adalah bagi bil dan gas, manakala bagi pekerja sektor jualan tiada satupun perbelanjaan perum ahan yang dilibatkan oleh lebih daripada 50% pekerja wanita yang dikaji. Pekerja sektor industri ramai yang tinggal di rum ah yang disediakan oleh pihak kilang. O leh itu sewa tem pat tinggal telahpun diselaraskan dalam bayaran gaji mereka oleh pihak kilang. Namun begitu m ereka ini kebanyakannya memasak makanan sendiri. Jika dilihat pada purata perbelanjaan perum ahan k e se lu ru h a n n y a d id a p a ti p e rb e la n ja a n perum ahan pekerja industri adalah lebih rendah (RM79.86) dibandingkan dengan pekerja sektor awam (RM203.68) dan sektor jualan (RM155.38). Sebanyak 82.5% pekerja industri membelanjakan k u ra n g d a r ip a d a RM 100 seb u lan u n tu k perum ahan, sedangkan bagi pekerja sektor awam h an y a 46.2% d an se k to r ju a la n 56.6% membelanjakan jum lah yang sama.

Perbelanjaan pengangkutan yang penting adalah tambang bagi pekerja sektor awam. Bagi pekeija sektor industri dan jualan kurang daripada 50% pekerja yang membelanjakan pendapatan mereka untuk pengangkutan. Bagi perbelanjaan pengangkutan secara keseluruhannya, didapati pekeija industri membelanjakan jum lah yang lebih tinggi (RM 182.62) dibandingkan dengan sektor awam (RM93.57) dan sektor jualan (RM93.49). Ini adalah kerana terdapat ramai pekeija industri yang tinggal jauh dari tempat keija dan sebahagian mereka kerap juga pulang ke kampung pada masa cud.

Jika dilihat dari kategori yang disenaraikan dalam Jadual 4 di atas didapati kategori simpanan dan m em beri ibu bapa tidak dimasukkan kerana ia dilakukan oleh kurang daripada 50% wanita yang dikaji. Simpanan dan pem berian kepada ibu bapa um um nya m enun jukkan leb ihan d a r ip a d a p e n d a p a ta n se te la h m e m e n u h i keperluan asas. O leh itu lebih 50% pekerja migran wanita yang dikaji tidak menyimpan atau m em berikan sebahagian daripada pendapatan m ereka kepada ibubapa.

Peratusan Perbelanjaan dari Pendapatan Selain daripada meneliti jum lah pendapatan yang dibelanjakan, pola perbelanjaan juga boleh dianalisis dengan m enentukan peratusan yang dibelanjakan untuk item yang tertentu. Garis pem isah yang digunakan di sini ialah 30% daripada jum lah pendapatan . Peratusan ini adalah peratusan yang diperkenalkan dalam peraturan Engel di mana perbelanjaan makanan yang melebihi 30% m enunjukkan tahap hidup yang rendah. W alaupun garis pemisah ini lebih sesuai untuk makanan nam un ia boleh juga m em berikan gam baran po la p e rb e la n ja an pekerja wanita yang dikaji.

Analisis mendapati kebanyakan pekeija wanita m em belan jakan 30% d arip ad a p en d ap a tan mereka untuk makanan terutamanya yang telah berkahwin (LihatJadual 5). Walau bagaimanapun hampir 25$> daripada mereka membelanjakan lebih daripada 30%. Makanan m erupakan antara keperluan asas yang perlu dipenuhi. Sekiranya peratusan daripada pendapatan yang dibelanjakan untuk m akanan adalah besar m enunjukkan bahawa seorang/sesebuah isi rum ah itu masih di tahap kehidupan yang agak rendah. Ini juga bermakna bahawa perbelanjaan untuk keperluan dan kehendak lain berkemungkinan terjejas atau tidak dapat dipenuhi.

Bagi p e rb e la n ja a n p e ru m a h a n d an pengangkutan, kebanyakan mereka (>75%) sama ada yang belum a tau p u n telah berkahw in m e m b e lan jak an ^ 3 0 % d a r ip a d a ju m la h pendapatan . P erbelan jaan un tu k sim panan m enunjukkan pola yang agak m enarik di m ana leb ih ram ai p ek e rja w an ita b u jan g yang menyimpan lebih daripada 30% pendapatan m ereka teru tam anya bagi pekerja industri. Seramai 40% daripada pekerja bujang dari sektor in d u str i m eny im pan leb ih d a r ip a d a 30% pendapatan mereka.

Sebaliknya pekeija wanita sektor industri yang telah berkahwin paling sedikit (hanya 3%) menyimpan melebihi 30% pendapatan mereka. Mungkin peratusan sebanyak 30% ini terlalu tinggi sebagai garis pem isah n am u n ia d a p a t memberikan gambaran bahawa pekeija wanita bujang lebih banyak menyimpan dibandingkan d en g an p ek erja yang te lah b erk ah w in . B erkem ungk inan ju g a m erek a yang te lah berkahw in m em punyai sim panan d a rip ad a pendapatan suami atau memerlukan perbelanjaan yang lebih untuk menyara anak-anak.



JADUAL 5Peratusan perbelanjaan dari jum lah pendapatan m engikut sektor dan taraf perkahwinan

Perbelanjaan Sektor Awam Sektor Industri Sektor Jualan(N=397) (N=369) (N=201)

B (%) K (%) B (%) K (%) B (%) K (%)

Makanan n=234 n=153 n=315 n=46

00CMIIc n=53

^ 30% 75.6 88.2 68.6 71.7 34.4 69.8> 30% 24.4 11.8 31.4 28.3 65.6 30.2

Perumahan n=212 n=149 n=256 IIc n=86 n=43^ 30% 86.8 96.6 94.1 97.9 77.9 79.1> 30% 13.2 3.4 5.9 2.1 22.1 20.9

Pengangkutan n=188 n=122 n=64 n=26 n=57 n=18^ 30% 85.6 86.1 85.9 84.6 96.5 88.9> 30% 14.4 13.9 14.1 15.4 3.5 11.1

Simpanan n=185 n -1 2 2 n=225 n=34 n=80 n=35^ 30% 88.1 96.7 61.4 97.0 77.5 91.4> 30% 11.9 3.7 39.6 3.0 22.5 8.6

Beri Ibubapa n=200 n=l 14 n=277 n=36 n=70 n=24^ 30% 93.0 100.00 79.8 97.2 60.0 91.7> 30% 7.0 0.0 20.2 22.8 40.0 8.3

Satu lagi penem uan yang agak m enarik adalah m engenai peratusan pendapatan yang d ib e rik an k ep ad a ibu bapa . H asil kajian menunjukkan bahawa lebih ramai pekerja bujang yang m em berikan pera tusan daripada p en d ap a tan m erek a yang leb ih tinggi (>30% pendapatan) dibandingkan dengan pekerja yang telah berkahwin terutam anya pekerja sektor jualan. Seramai 40% pekeija bujang sektor jualan m em berikan lebih daripada 30% pendapatan mereka kepada ibubapa dibandingkan dengan pekerja bujang sektor industri (20%) dan sektor awam (7%).

Ujian Chi square telah dilakukan untuk melihat perbezaan perbelanjaan mengikut sektor, um ur, taraf pendidikan, taraf perkahwinan dan tem pat lahir (L ihat Jadual 6). Hasil kajian m enunjukkan terdapat perbezaan yang signifikan bagi peratusan pendapatan yang dibelanjakan untuk m akanan, perum ahan dan pengangkutan m engikut sektor, um ur, taraf pendidikan dan taraf perkahwinan (Lihat Jadual 6). Hasil kajian m enyokong dapatan kajian lalu.

KESIMPULAN DAN CAJDANGANT erd ap a t perbezaan la tar belakang pekerja m igran wanita yang dikaji m engikut sektor. Perbezaan um ur, taraf perkahwinan, sektor dan taraf pendidikan menyumbang kepada perbezaan pendapatan dan pola perbelanjaan. Hasil kajian ini se la ri d e n g a n hasil ka jian la lu yang

m enunjukkan bahawa faktor pendapatan, um ur, dan tahap pend id ikan m em pengaruh i pola perbelanjaan.

Dari segi pendapatan dapat disimpulkan bahawa pekerja sektor industri m em punyai pendapatan yang ham pir sama dengan pekerja sektor jualan walaupun m ereka mempunyai tahap pen d id ik an yang lebih baik. D engan je n is pekerjaan yang di jalankan, m ereka sepatutnya m endapat pendapatan yang lebih tinggi.

Responden wanita yang berkahwin pula didapati mempunyai pendapatan isi rum ah yang lebih tinggi; nam un ini tidak berm akna mereka menikmati kehidupan yang lebih baik. Mereka ju g a m em b elan jak an seb ah ag ian d a r ip a d a pendapatan mereka untuk menyara anak-anak. Jum lah peruntukan itu agak tinggi terutamanya di bandar.

Kurang daripada 50% pekerja dari semua sektor yang dikaji m em beri sum bangan kepada ibu bapa. Dari hasil kajian ini dapat disimpulkan bahaw a p en g h ijrah an ke b an d a r sekurang- kurangnya dapat m enam pung perbelan jaan h idup wanita itu sendiri. W alaupun m ereka ini tidak m enyimpan nam un m ereka ini tinggal di rum ah yang agak sem purna dan dapat menikmati kem u d ah an yang te rd a p a t di p e rsek ita ran m e re k a . N am u n b e g itu , m asih te rd a p a t se b ila n g a n p e k e r ja w an ita b u ja n g yang menyimpan dan m enyum bang kepada ibu bapa m erek a d e n g a n ju m la h yang agak besar,



JA D U A L 6Ujian chi-kuasa dua: perbelanjaan m engikut sektor, umur, taraf pendidikan,

taraf perkawinan dan tempat lahir

Angkubah N X2 DF

SektorMakanan 969 79.59** 6Perumahan 969 110.63** 6Pengangkutan 969 86.58** 6

UmurMakanan 969 81.01** 6Perumahan 969 85.26** 6Pengangkutan 969 57.91** 6

Tahap pendidikanMakanan 969 45.63** 6Perumahan 969 45.28** 6Pengangkutan 969 29.20** 6

Taraf perkahwinanMakanan 968 130.20** 3Perumahan 968 160.00** 3Pengangkutan 968 132.18** 3

Tem pat lahir (asal) Makanan 969 17.36 9Perumahan 969 19.89 9Pengangkutan 969 7.23 9

** pc.OOOl

terutamanya pekerja sektor jualan dan industri. Ini adalah kerana kebanyakan m ereka berasal dari luar bandar dan berhijrah ke bandar untuk mencari pekerjaan dan m em bantu ibu bapa.

Sekiranya angkubah ta ra f perkahw inan diambil kira menggantikan angkubah sektor, dijangkakan hasil kajian akan berbeza. Peratusan perbelanjaan dari pendapatan jelas menunjukkan bahaw a ta ra f p e rk a h w in a n m e n e n tu k a n p era tusan p en d ap a tan yang disim pan atau disumbangkan kepada ibubapa.

U ntuk m em astikan bahawa wanita yang berhijrah ke bandar dapat hidup dalam keadaan yang m encukupi, pihak kerajaan dan majikan perlulah memperbanyak usaha meningkatkan kesejahteraan wanita ini terutamanya wanita yang bekerja di sektor industri. Sebagaimana yang ditunjukkan oleh hasil kajian di mana pekerja in d u s tr i m e n d a p a t u p a h yang te re n d a h , kem udahan tem pat tinggal dan pengangkutan yang m u rah akan sed ik it sebanyak d ap a t m em bantu m ereka m em enuhi keperluan asas yang lain.

RUJUKANA bdel-G h any , M. and A.C. Fo st e r . 1982. Impact of

incom e and wife’s education on family consumption expenditures Journal of Consumer Studies and Home Economics 6: 21-28.

A bdel-G hany, M. and S ch w enk , F.N. 1993. Functional forms of household expenditure patterns in the United States. Journal of Consumer Studies and Home Economics 12: 325-339.

B erg m ann , B.R. 1986. The Economic Emergence of Women. New York: Basic Books.

C h e n , Y.P. and K.W. C h u 1982. H ousehold expenditure patterns Journal of Family Issues 3(2): 233-249.

D uesenberry , J.S. 1949. Income, Saving and the Theory of Consumer Behavior. Cambridge: Harvard University Press.

F riedm an , M. 1957. A Theory of the Consumption Function. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.

H o r t o n , S.E. and J.L. H a fst r o m . 1985. Income elasticities for selected consumption categories: Comparison of single female-headed and two- parent families, Home Economics Research Journal, 13(3): 292-303.

K eynes, J.M. 1936. The General Theory of Employment, Interest and Money. London: Macmillan.

L ydall, H. 1995. The life-cycle in income, saving and asset ownership. Journal of the Econometric Society 23(2): 131-150.



Magrabi, F.M., Y.S. Chung, S.S. Cha and S-J. Yang.1991. The Economics of Household Consumption. New York: Praeger.

M o d ig l ia n i, R. and R. B rum berg 1962. Utility analysis and the consumption function: An interpretation of cross-section data. In Post Keynesian

Economics ed. K Kuribara. p. 388-437. New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press.

O zay, M . 1986. Pagar makan padi. Kuala Lumpur: Insan.

R \ n c a n g a n M alaysia K e e n a m . 1991.




Work-Family Conflict and Social Support: A Study o f Female Secretaries in Malaysia

AMINAH AHMAD W om en’s Studies Unit

D epartm ent of Extension Education Faculty of Educational Studies

Universiti Putra Malaysia 43400 UPM Serdang, Selangor Darul Ehsan, Malaysia

Keywords: role conflict, work-family conflict, social support, working women

ABSTRAKTerdapat semakin ramai wanita yang telah berkahwin terlibat dalam tenaga buruh dan mempunyai tanggung jawab di tempat kerja dan di rumah secara serentak. Dengan ini mereka sering mengalami konflik antara peranan kerja dan keluarga. Penyelidikan ini mengkaji intensiti konflik antara peranan kerja dan keluarga yang dialami oleh setiausaha wanita di negeri Selangor, Malaysia. Penyelidikan ini juga menganalisis sokongan sosial yang diterima di tempat kerja daripada ketua dan rakan sekerja, dan di luar tempat kerja daripada suami serta rakan-rakan dan saudara-mara. Data telah diperolehi daripada 120 setiausaha dengan menggunakan borang soal selidik yang diisi sendiri. Setiausaha dalam penyelidikan ini mengalami konflik kerja-keluarga dengan intensiti yang berbeza dalam usaha mereka untuk memenuhi tuntutan yang bercanggah bagi peranan kerja dan keluarga. Mereka menerima sokongan sosial yang paling sedikit daripada ketua dan paling banyak daripada suami. Implikasi hasil kajian bagi wanita bekeija yang sudah berkahwin, dari segi kemudahan, perkhidmatan sokongan dan sokongan sosial dibincang.

ABSTRACT

As more married women participate in the labour force and occupy both work and family roles simultaneously, they tend to experience conflict between work and family roles. This study examined the intensity o f work-family conflict experienced by female secretaries in the state o f Selangor, Malaysia. The study also analysed the social support that the secretaries received at the workplace from supervisors and co-workers and outside their workplace from husbands, and friends and relatives. Data were gathered through selfadministered questionnaires from 120 secretaries. The secretaries in this study experienced work-family conflict with varying intensities as they try to fulfil the conflicting demands o f work and family roles. They received the least social support from their supervisors, and the most from their husbands. Implications o f these findings for married working women in terms o f facilities, support services and social support are discussed.

INTRODUCTIONAs Malaysia moves towards industrialization and w ith g r e a te r access to e d u c a t io n , th e participation o f women in the labour force steadily increases. T he fem ale in take in to institutions of h igher learning expanded rapidly from 38.6% in 1980 to 47.5% in 1993 (D ep a rtm en t o f Statistics, M alaysia 1995). Female labour force participation rate was 39.3% in 1980 (D epartm ent of Statistics, Malaysia 1983) com pared with 46.5% in 1993 (D epartm ent of Statistics, Malaysia 1995). The labour force participation rate o f m arried women increased from 51.2% in 1980 to 58.2% in 1991

(D epartm ent o f Statistics, Malaysia 1995). As m ore m arried women are continually en tering the labour force and occupying both work and family roles simultaneously, it is im portan t to exam ine the psychological im plications. O ne of the m ost salient o f these is work-family conflict.

W ork-fam ily c o n flic t o ccu rs w hen an individual has to perform m ultiple roles: worker, spouse and in many cases, parent. Each of these roles imposes dem ands requiring time, energy and com m itm ent. Kahn et al. (1964) d e fin ed work-family conflic t as a form of in terro le conflict in which the sim ultaneous

Aminah Ahmad

occurrence o f two (or m ore) sets of pressures is such that compliance with one would make compliance with the o ther more difficult .

Based on the work of Kahn et al. (1964), G reenhaus and Beutell (1985) conceptualized work-family conflict as a form of interrole conflict in which the role pressures from the work and family dom ains are mutually incompatible, such that participation in one role makes it more difficult to partic ipa te in the o ther. They proposed that any role characteristic that affects a person’s time involvement, strain or behaviour within a role can produce conflict between that role and another role.

R e se a rc h e rs have d o c u m e n te d th e experience of work-family conflict among women, and have provided convincing evidence of the adverse effects of such conflict on their wellbeing in both the work and family domains (G reenhaus and Beutell 1985; Pleck 1985; G reenhaus and Parasuraman 1986; Voydanoff 1987; Burke 1989; Aryee 1992; M ohamed Hashim1993). In studies conducted on married working women in Malaysia, women not only experienced work-family conflict (Fatimah 1985; Aminah 1995), but work-family conflict was shown to lead significantly to lower jo b satisfaction as well as life satisfaction (Aminah 1996a, b). Work- family conflict also significantly leads to lower family satisfaction (Aminah 1996a).

The recognition o f negative psychological co n seq u en ces o f work-fam ily co n flic t has d irected attention towards the role of social support in reducing this conflict (MacEwen and Barling 1988; Frone et a l 1991; Parasuraman et al. 1992). Supportive relationships are also seen as critical social resources in dealing with work-family issues (G reenhaus and Parasuraman 1986; Suchet and Barling 1986; Ray and Miller1994). House (1981) defined social support as the dem onstration o f em otional concern, and the provision of instrum ental aid, inform ation, a n d /o r appraisal. Cobb (1976) focused on in fo rm a tio n p ass in g b e tw een o r am o n g individuals, inform ation that an individual is (1) loved, (2) esteem ed or valued, or (3) part of a g roup , the m em bers of which share inform ation and m utual obligations. Shum aker and Brownell (1984) defined social support as an exchange of resources between at least two individuals perceived by the provider o r the recipient to be in tended to enhance the wellbeing o f the recipient.

With regards to the conten t o f support, some researchers have distinguished effect, affirmation and aid as types of support (Abbey et al. 1985). Cohen and Wills (1985) identified esteem, informational, social com panionship and instrumental support; Eggert (1987) focused on em otional, in strum ental, in fo rm ational and appraisal support. Although there are certain distinctions among these approaches, all types of support are perceived to have an em otional component. This study focused on the emotional com ponent of support in line with Beehr’s (1985) view th a t em o tio n a l su p p o rt involves the provision of sympathy as well as behaviour that shows care, liking and willingness to listen.

According to Caplan et al. (1975), social support can be derived from sources at the workplace and outside the workplace. At the workplace, the sources of social support include the supervisor and co-workers, while sources o f extra-organizational support include family and friends. Several studies suggest the im portance of supervisor support (G anster et al. 1986; Jayaratne et al. 1988) and co-worker support (Shinn et al. 1984; Jayaratne et al. 1988; Ray and Miller 1991). Both supervisors and co-workers are in optimal positions to provide support because of their understanding of the stresses inherent in the workplace. A num ber of studies found that support from family and friends can have positive effects on a wide ran g e o f psychological outcomes (Albrecht and Adelman 1987; Cohen and Wills 1985). Results of research conducted by Ray and Miller (1994) indicated that the different sources of social support worked in unique ways to relieve the strain of work-family conflict. Hence it is recognized that social support can be derived from sources at the workplace and outside the workplace and that social support is of im portance to those experiencing work-family conflict.

The literature indicates that married working women are vulnerable to work-family conflict and that there is evidence of adverse effects of such conflict on workers’ well-being in both work and family domains. However, the limited empirical research on social support in relation to work-family conflict points to the need for such a study. This research determ ines the intensity of conflict that m arried working women experience in trying to balance their work and family roles, and the extent o f social support that they receive at the workplace and outside


Work-Family Conflict and Social Support: A Study o f Female Secretaries in Malaysia

their workplace. This research also attem pts to examine the relationship between work-family conflict and social support received from various sources.

M ETHODOLOGYParticipants and ProceduresParticipants in the present study were m arried women who lived with their husbands, had at least one child, and were full-time secretaries or stenographers. These criteria were established to ensure that the women in the sample had quite similar responsibilities in terms of work and family roles.

Q uestionnaires were mailed to 234 female secretaries (including stenographers) m eeting these criteria from two selected governm ent o rg an iza tions and the S ec re ta ries’ Society Malaysia. A total o f 120 retu rned the questionnaires within a period o f ten weeks, that is a return rate o f 51%.

T h e w om en in th is study averaged 39.3 years o f age (SD = 5 .09). Each fam ily h ad an av e rag e o f 3 .0 c h i ld r e n (S D = 1 .31 ). A m ajority o f th e w om en had co m p le ted u p p e r seco n d a ry (58 .8% ) a n d te r tia ry (35 .3% ) e d u c a t io n . T h e r e m a in in g 5 .9% h ad co m p le ted p re-university o r post-secondary certifica te level o f ed u ca tio n . T he w om en e a rn e d an average o f RM1532 p e r m o n th .

A bout a quarter o f the respondents (24.2%) re p o rte d th a t they sen t th e ir ch ild ren to babysitters and 13.4% had relatives to look after their children. Only 18.3% sent their children to childcare centres and 16.7% had domestic helpers to care for their children.

InstrumentationWork-Family Conflict. Work-family conflict intensity was m easured using the interrole conflict scale of Pleck et al. (1980). This scale consists of eight items based on the three most prevalent aspects of work-family conflict, namely excessive work time, schedule conflicts, and fatigue or irritability. Five-point scaled response options ranging from strongly disagree (1) to strongly agree (5) were used. The reliability coefficient (alpha) for this work-family conflict scale was0.84.

Social Support. Perceptions o f support from supervisor, co-workers, husband, and friends and relatives were m easured. Items developed

by Caplan et al. (1975) were used for all four sources o f support, inserting the appropria te source for each set o f items. The scale of Caplan et al. (1975) was used by Greenglass et al. (1989). Unlike some procedures which m easure social support indirectly (for exam ple, as num ber of social contacts), these sub-scales were chosen because they directly assess the re sp o n d en t’s perception regarding the level o f social support received. T here were four items in each o f the four sub-scales. Each responden t was requested to state the ex ten t of support received from each source using five-point L ikert scaled response options. The reliability coefficient (alpha) for the four social support subscales were 0.86 for supervisor support, 0.81 co-workers support, 0.86 husband support, and 0.89 for support from friends and relatives.

RESULTSTable 1 indicates that 72 (63%) of the 120 w om en who re sp o n d e d re p o r te d m ed ium intensity of conflict. Twenty-two (19%) reported high intensity of conflict while 20 (18%) reported low intensity o f conflict. The m ean score for work-family conflict on a five-point scale was 2.5 (SD = 0.71). The means and standard deviations o f items m easuring work-family conflict are presented in Table 2. The most highly endorsed item was “After work, I come hom e too tired to do some of the things I ’d like to d o ” (M = 3.1, SD = 1.07) and the item that was least endorsed was “ My work schedule often conflicts with my family life”(M = 2.1, SD = 0.81).

W om en received social support from all the four resources, namely supervisor (M = 2.6, SD = 0.96), co-workers (M = 2.8; SD = 0.78), husband (M = 4.0; SD = 0.93) and friends and relatives (M = 2.7; SD = 0.98) (Table 3). The ex ten t o f social support received from their husbands was the greatest, while that received from their supervisor was the least. Table 4 shows the m eans and standard deviations of items m easuring social support from the four sources. The m ean score of every item for support from husband was m ore than 3.5, while that from supervisor ranged only between 2.2 to 2.9.

T here were significant differences for four pairs o f support sources (Table 5). T he m ean for supervisor support d iffered significantly (p < .05) from that for co-workers (t = - 2.68), h u sb a n d (t = -13 .88). B esides su p erv iso r


Aminah Ahmad

TABLE 1Distribution o f respondents by work-family conflict intensity

Conflict Intensity Frequency %

High (>3.1) 22 19.3Medium ( 2.0 - 3.1) 72 63.2Low ( < 2.0 ) 20 17.5

TABLE 2Means and standard deviations o f items m easuring work-family conflict

ItemM SD

My work schedule often conflicts with my family life

2.1 0.81

After work, I com e hom e too tired to do som e o f the things I’d like to do

3.1 1.07

On the job I have so m uch work to do that it takes away time for my family interests

2.3 0.99

My family dislikes how often I am preoccupied with my work while I am at hom e

2.8 1.99

Because my work is dem anding, at times I am irritable at hom e

2.5 1.04 t

The dem ands o f my jo b make it difficult to be relaxed all the time at hom e

2.4 0.95

My work takes up time that I’d like to spend with my family

2.5 0.97

My jo b makes it difficult to be the kind o f spouse or parent I’d like to be

2.4 1.03

TABLE 3Means and standard deviations o f respondents by social support

Item Mean SD

Supervisor 2.6 0.96

Co-workers 2.8 0.79

Husband 4.0 0.93

Friends and Relatives 2.7 0.98


Work-Family Conflict and Social Support: A Study of Female Secretaries in Malaysia

TABLE 4Means and standard deviations o f item s m easuring social support

Supervisor Co-workers Husband Friends and RelativesItem

M SD M SD M SD M SD

How m uch does 2.4 1.05 2.5 0.92 4.1 1.02 2.8 1.04each o f these people go out o f their way to do things to make life easier for you

How m uch can each 2.9 1.12 2.8 0.92 3.6 1.25 2.3 1.04o f these people be relied on when things get tough at work

How m uch is each 2.2 1.14 2.7 1.04 4.1 1.08 2.8 1.19o f the followingpeople willing tolisten to your personalproblem s

How easy is it to talk 2.8 1.27 3.1 1.09 4.2 1.09 2.9 1.26with each o f the following people

TABLE 5Differences between sources o f social support

Social Support d f t P

Supervisor and co-workers 116 -2 .6 8 .01Supervisor and husband 116 -1 3 .8 8 .00Supervisor and friends and relatives 115 -1 .1 6 .25Husband and co-workers 116 -1 2 .8 0 .00Co-worker and friends and relatives 115 0.92 .36Husband and friends and relatives 115 -1 1 .9 2 .00

support, the m ean for husband support differed significantly (p < .05) from that for co-workers (t = -12.80) and friends and relatives (t = -11.92). There was no significant difference between supervisor and friends and relatives support, and co-worker and friends and relatives support (p < .05).

C orrelation analyses revealed that work- family conflict was related to supervisor support (r = -.186) and husband support (r = -.156) (Table 6). The correlation coefficients, although small, were significant (p < .05). There was no significant re la tionsh ip between work-family conflict and co-worker support as well as from friends and relatives.

DISCUSSIONRole theory postulates that the expectations surrounding each o f the different roles a person perform s can generate interrole conflict when they involve pressures which dom inate the time of the focal person and interfere with fulfilling the expectations associated with the o ther role (Katz and Kahn 1978). The fact that female secretaries experience work-family conflict with varying intensities as they perform different roles as wife, m other, housewife and employee is supportive of the role theory.

The findings of this study and o ther studies conducted on 86 female researchers (Aminah1995), and 100 professional women (Fatimah


Aminah Ahmad

Table 6Relationships between work-family conflict and social support

Relationship r P

Supervisor support - .1 8 6 .03and work-family conflict

Co-worker support -.0 7 2 .23and work-family conflict

Husband Support - .1 5 6 .05and work family conflict

Friends and relatives support .056 .28and work family conflict

1985) showed that m arried working women in Malaysia experience work-family conflict. The findings also support those of o ther studies conducted by Pleck et al. (1980), Greenhaus and Beutell (1985), Gutek et al. (1991) and Higgins and Duxbury (1992) in the U nited States.

It is evident that respondents of this study received the most support from their husbands and least from their supervisors. This could possibly be due to the limited time available at work for helping relations in the form of social contact o r com m unication with supervisors. B eehr (1995) stressed the im p o rtan ce o f com m unication with sources o f support in order to reduce jo b stress such as role conflict.

Correlations between work-family conflict and two of the four sources of social support, n am ely , h u sb a n d an d su p erv iso rs , w ere significant, although the correlation coefficients were low (-.156 and -.186, respectively). This indicates that increased social support from the husbands and supervisors tend to reduce work- family conflict. However, support from friends and relatives and co-workers does not relate with work-family conflict. An analysis of eight studies on relationships between social support and jo b stressors by Beehr (1995) found that 38 of 60 correlations were significant (p<.05). However, the m edian correlation was only -0.22.

Ganster et al. (1986) studied the role of social support in work stress-strain relations am ong 326 employees of a large contracting firm. The sources of social support studied include supervisor, co-worker and family and friends. They found that the sources from the workplace, especially supervisors, were the most im portant in affecting strains, including jo b and life dissatisfaction, som atic com plaints and

depression. Furtherm ore, support from family and friends was significantly associated with lower levels of psychological strain.

Beehr (1976) reported negative correlations between supervisor em otional su p p o rt and psychological strain among samples of employees from five different work organisations. House and Wells (1978), in a study of white male workers in a rubber and chemical plant, found that supervisor support buffered the relationship between role conflict and psychological strain. LaRocco et al. (1980), in a sample of males from 23 occupations, found buffering effects of social support on stressor-strain relationships.

These studies showed that the experience of social support may serve to reduce the severity of strains during the experiences of jo b stressors. Although these studies focused on work stress- strain relations and not on work-family stress or conflict, it may provide some insights into the association of social support with stress.

It can be summarized that m arried female secretaries in this study experienced work-family conflict in trying to m eet the expectations of work and family roles. They received social support from all the four support sources, namely supervisor, co-workers, husband, and friends and relatives. The extent o f social support received from their husbands was the greatest, while that received from their supervisors was the least. In c re a se d social s u p p o r t rece iv ed from supervisors and husbands tended to reduce work- family conflict.

Several implications can be m ade based on the results of this study. O ne o f the implications of the prevalence of the work-family conflict among m arried working women is that women need assistance in terms of facilities, education,



and advisory and support services in trying to cope with the conflict.

Supervisors should provide substantial social support to workers through behaviour that shows care and willingness to listen to problem s so that stressors inheren t at the workplace and problems faced by fem ale workers in relation to the interface o f work and family roles can be understood. This would assist women to reduce the conflict they experience in trying to balance the dem ands of work and family roles, and the negative effects o f the conflict.

Organizations can help reduce some am ount of work-family conflict by providing facilities such as quality on-site childcare program m es at subsidized rates and enhanced m aternity and parental leave. These family-friendly policies can be im plem ented as an effort to reduce work- family conflict for em ployees and enhance wom en’s career developm ent, but may also be developed to re ta in fem ale workers. T he effectiveness of these family-friendly initiatives should no t be evaluated based largely on cost- effectiveness and short-term organ iza tional benefits. A ttention should be given to the perspectives of employees and impact on families.

However the most well-intentioned of family- responsive policies can fail to reduce work-family load if, fo r exam p le , w om en re ta in sole responsibility for family work, and a w om an’s share of the provider role is no t reciprocated by the husband’s share o f family role. Husbands should continue to provide social support to their working wives to help reduce the pressures arising from work and family domains.

C ontinu ing education p lanners need to consider the problem s m arried working women face in m anaging m ultiple roles when planning continuing education program m es. Educators in th e a reas o f fam ily d e v e lo p m e n t an d organizational behaviour need to incorporate topical areas related to the interface o f work and family roles in the courses offered.

R esearchers, in th e ir serious effo rt to prom ote workers’ welfare must recognize that work is only one o f the significant dom ains of individual functioning. T he strain within the work dom ain may “spill over” into the family domain and vice versa. To help reduce the strain, future research on social support should focus no t only on em otional but also tangible su p p o rt such as in fo rm a tio n , advice an d suggestions. Besides research on social support,

r e s e a r c h s h o u l d b e c o n d u c t e d o n o r g a n i z a t i o n a l

p o l i c y f o r m u l a t i o n t o r e d u c e t h e s t r a in r e s u l t i n g

f r o m w o r k - f a m i ly c o n f l i c t .

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H ig g in s , C.A. and L.E. D ux b u r y , 1992. Interrole conflict for working women. Journal of Applied Psychology 64(1): 86-90.

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1992. Role stressors, social support, and wellbeing among two-career couples. Journal of Organizational Behaviour 13: 339-356.

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P leck, J.H., S taines , G.L. and L ang , L. 1980. Conflicts between work and family life. Monthly Labor Review 103(3): 29-32.

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S h in n , M ., M . R o sa r io . H. M o rch and D.E. C h e s t n u t .

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S u c h e t , M. and J . B arling 1986. Employed mothers: interrole conflict, spouse support and marital

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(Received 9 April 1997)



The Leadership Factor in Administrative Reform in Malaysia, with a Specific Study on the Leadership of Dr. Mahathir

Mohamad, Prime Minister o f Malaysia

AHMAD ATORY BIN HUSSAIN D epartm ent of Political Science Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia 43600 Bangi, Selangor, Malaysia

Keywords: leadership of Dr. Mahathir Mohamad, public administration, public management administrative science, administrative reform, management science, development administration, reorganisation, administrative strategy, administrative politics, politics and administration, political leadership, bureaucratic politics

ABSTRAK

Dalam banyak usaha, kepimpinan merupakan suatu unsur yang penting untuk mencapai kejayaan. Dalam hal ini, pembaharuan-pembaharuan yang dinamik yang sedang dan terns berlaku dalam perkhidmatan awam Malaysia banyak bergantung kepada kepimpinan Dr. Mahathir Mohamad. Ini merupakan suatu hujjah yang utama bagi perubahan-perubahan dinamik yang berlaku dalam birokrasi Malaysia. Ia boleh dilihat daripada banyak program-program yang diperkenalkan yang mana secara umumnya telah diterima dengan baik oleh pihak sektor awam dan juga swasta. Justeru itu, objektif rencana ini ialah untuk memberi tumpuan ke atas kepimpinan Dr. Mahathir Mohamad sebagai seorang yang dianggap “pemangkin" atau “penggerak” dalam perlaksanaan usaha-usaha pembaharuan pentadbiran. Ia juga mempamirkan kepimpinan yang dinamis dan ke arah berorientasi masa depan beliau dalam memainkan kejayaan gerakan pembaharuan tersebut.

ABSTRACT

In many reform efforts, leadership is an important elem ent in ensuring that the plan succeeds. In this respect, dynamic reforms which are conunuing to take place in the Malaysian public service owe much to the leadership provided by Dr. Mahathir Mohamad. This can be seen from the numerous programmes he has introduced which have generally been well received by both the public and private sectors. The objective o f this article is to focus on Dr. Mahathir Mohamad as a prime mover or catalyst in the implementation o f the administrative reform efforts in Malaysia. It highlights the leadership dynamism and forward-orientation o f Dr. Mahathir thus far, in playing a central role to ensure the success o f the reform movement.

IN TRODUCTIONMany factors have contributed to the success of administrative reform s in Malaysia since the 1970s. These include be tte r socio-econom ic conditions conducive to administrative reform, political stability, leadership support, bureaucratic support and the public dem and for reform. In a survey conducted by the writer on reform efforts under M ahathir since 1981, he concluded that m any p ro g ra m m e s a n d p o lic ie s in th e administrative reforms have achieved their target, and generally been successful (though more could have been done) in changing attitudes of civil servants towards the goals o f efficiency,

effectiveness and productivity. However, one has to bear in m ind that the leadership factor is of param ount im portance in ensuring the success of the reforms.

This article is no t a detailed analysis o f every single reform effort conducted in Malaysia during M ahathir’s era, no r does it analyse his leadership role in the UM NO/M alaysian politics, no r make com prehensive com parisons with past prim e ministers. However, for background purposes, b rief examples of structural, procedural and behavioural reform s are given as a backdrop to the analysis of M ahathir’s leadership role in the administrative reform.

Ahmad Atory bin Hussain

Therefore, this article is divided into two m ajor parts, the first covering the definition of administrative reforms, and the second detailing the contribution of Dr. M ahathir Mohamad.

Most of the data used in the first section was obtained from survey and secondary' sources, while data used in the second section is mostly based on personal interviews with several form er top civil servants. Several selected criteria are used to analyse M ahathir’s leadership, such as his style o f leadership, his attitude towards the bureaucracy, his strategies in managing the public secto r, his personal characteristics in the bureaucracy. By examining M ahathir’s leadership role in administrative reform programmes it is hoped to contribute to a further understanding of the concep t o f leadersh ip , o r the way leadership operates, in administrative science.

ADMINISTRATIVE REFORM IN MALAYSIA:THEORY AND PRACTICE, PAST AND

PRESENTDefinition of Administrative Reform The concept of administrative reforms means different things to different people, which is echoed by Caiden in following words: “to all im provem ents in adm inistration ...to general administrative overhauls in difficult circumsta n c e s ...to specific rem ed ies fo r adm in ist r a t io n . . . to any su g g estio n fo r b e tte r governm ent...and to intentions of self-styled administrative reform ers” (Caiden 1969: 43).

In Malaysia, administrative reform is defined on the lines of contem porary Western thinking. In Western public bureaucracy, administrative reform, or ‘reorganisation’ in a contem porary context, usually encompasses changes in the in ternal practices along with structure and p rocedures o f organisations. Therefore, this article defines adm inistrative reform as ‘a systematic and integrated effort to bring about fundam ental changes in public administration to enhance public administrative capability to achieve national development goals’ (Hanh 1970: 78). T h e d e f in it io n is also d es ig n ed to accommodate: (1) organisational improvements (bo th structural and p rocedura l), and (2) improvements in the behaviour of civil servants.

Background to Administrative Reform In M alaysia, a d m in is tra tiv e re fo rm was undertaken even during the colonial period in response to the political changes in the country

as a result of the freedom movement. When Malaysia achieved independence in 1957, she inherited the British colonial administration. The o rg a n isa tio n a l set-up o f th e g o v e rn m e n t machinery then was seen as no longer suitable for the aspirations o f the newly independen t state. Therefore, the Malaysian governm ent took im m ediate steps to reform the civil service. Various m easures were in troduced , such as la u n c h in g th e M alay an isa tio n p ro cess , reorganisation of administrative machinery, restructuring of work in central agencies and ministries, and the establishm ent of the Public Service Commission. These measures m et with limited success as the pace of developm ent was slow due to limited resources.

The period o f restructuring o f governm ent machinery extended over a decade and a half,i.e., 1966-1981. The administrative reforms based on the Montgomery-Esman proposal o f the U nited States played a role in the restructuring exercise. T he creation o f the D evelopm ent Administration U nit (DAU) in 1966 represented a very im p o rta n t in s titu tio n a l re fo rm in administrative developm ent in Malaysia. The main thrust of reforms during the 1966-81 period was g ea red tow ards in c reas in g efficiency , productiv ity and dev e lo p m en t o r ie n ta tio n , especially in land and district adm inistration. Since rural developm ent p lann ing was also heavily emphasised, the recom m endations of DAU obviously represented the desire on the part of the Prime Minister (Tun Abdul Razak) to gain greater control o f the bureaucracy.

The beginning of a m ore rigorous effort in administrative reform in Malaysia began in 1970, when the New Economic Policy (NEP) was introduced. Since then the institution-building approach has been employed, leading to the setting up of a dozen public corporations and statutory bodies. This has resulted in a huge num ber of new recruits into those agencies. During the six-year period of Hussein O n n ’s administration (1976-1981), there were im portant administrative reform efforts, particularly in institution building such as the form ation of the M alaysian A d m in is tra tiv e a n d M anpow er Planning Unit (MAMPU) in 1977 as a new administrative reform agency. It was established at what was considered a propitious time to focus on the efficiency and the effectiveness of civil servants. A nother significant reform effort was the introduction of a code of ethics for civil


The Leadership Factor in Administrative Reform in Malaysia

servants. At the en d o f H ussein O n n ’s administration, there was an expansion of the civil service (Operasi Isipenuh), but this was subsequently aborted at the beginning of the Mahathir era to reduce the size of the public sector. The reform efforts undertaken by the government under MAMPU can be considered as the beginning of the series of reforms that continued into the Mahathir administration. The previous reforms, which stressed mostly structural and procedural changes and institution-building during the Razak era, have shifted away to dein s titu tio n a lisa tio n d u rin g the M ahath ir administration. Since 1981, the establishment of public corporations, statutory bodies and institutions has been sharply reduced. However, a certain num ber of new m inistries and government agencies have been set up during the M ahathir adm inistration to m eet the objectives of expediting development plans due to heightened economic developm ent. Dr. Mahathir has attempted to infuse new values and behavioural characteristics among civil servants. In other words, the beginning of the 1980s saw the introduction of a new direction in administrative reform. Since Dr. Mahathir came to power, he has issued many policy statements, introduced new concepts, and implemented newr techniques and styles of management. Some of these directions were directed towards the larger society, others were geared towards changing Malay society, but most were targeted at shaping the public bureaucracy into an efficient, dynamic and productive instrument for the modernisation of Malaysia. While it is sometimes difficult to disaggregate the target audiences of Dr. Mahathir’s reforms, it is the writer’s view that the thrust of Mahathir’s reforms has been to change the behaviour, attitudes and values of the employees in the civil service.

Administrative Reforms under Dr. Mahathir

Nevertheless, reform efforts introduced in the early days of the Mahathir administration were targeted at all Malaysians, in order to change their thinking and influence them to be progressive, en te rp ris in g , hardw orking , productive, and efficient. It seems that a ‘holistic’ approach has been adopted to affect the reform efforts. V arious program m es have been introduced in order to upgrade the leadership quality, efficiency, effectiveness and productivity am ong the civil servants. Some of these

programmes are: (1) Improving Work System and Procedures; (2) Improving Services to the Public; (3) Changing Attitudes of the Civil Servants; (4) Inculcating Work Ethics; (5) Privatisation Policy; (6) Utilisation of Automation and New Technology; and (7) Budgetary Reform and Improving Financial Managemen System. The Mahathir administration has also provided training opportunities for all levels of civil servants; better terms of service, promotion prospects, and other fringe benefits, both extrinsic and intrinsic, such as opportunities for postgraduate studies and sabbatical leave, and job rotation, in order to give civil servants wider exposure to the various operations of their respective departm ents. Another major reform has been to reduce the size of the public sector; this was initiated in 1982 in order to control the number of employees in the public service at an appropriate and optimum level. This unprecedented move was also aimed at improving the capability of the public service and as a cost-saving measure to reduce the operating expenditure of the public sector.

In ad d itio n to the above reform programmes, Dr. Mahathir has also launched several concepts or slogans such as the Look East Policy which was aimed at looking at the Japanese and Korean styles of management and the fields of technical train ing, research development and industry. ‘Clean, Efficient and Trustworthy Government’ is another concept which is very much in line with the behavioural or cultural psychological perspective aimed at the propagation of ethics and moral values (Mohd. Rais 1988: 62).

Dr. Mahathir was concerned with instilling a set of ethics among civil servants in addition to the procedural codes of the General Orders that was established long ago by the colonial government (Mohd. Rais 1988: 62). The emphasis is on moral values and the attitude of civil servants, while the G eneral O rders were concerned more with general work procedures. The guidelines of the new work ethics are about the attitudes that civil servants should possess such as being ‘clean, efficient and trustworthy’. Increase in efficiency and effectiveness of the public service through administrative reform has been an important feature of the Mahathir administration. Empirical data dealing with M ahathir’s reform efforts confirm that his administration has attempted to use structural and behavioural strategies to reform bureaucracy



and increase efficiency and effectiveness of the public service. However, not all the reforms introduced have met success. This can be deduced from the analysis of survey data which polled opinions of civil servants directly involved in the reform exercises carried out from 1981.

Objective of opinion survey. The purpose of the survey was to bring into focus the opinions and perspective of those most affected by Mahathir’s reforms, namely administrative officials in government departments. The opinion survey was concerned with the following questions: To what extent has there been an increase in efficiency, effectiveness and productivity in the public bureaucracy since the introduction of various reform programmes in 1981? How are the types of reform related to the success or failure of administrative reform?

Descriptive data. Questionnaires were mailed to 980 senior civil servants, but. only 433 (44.3%)

TABLE 1

Distribution of respondents (N:433)

Central Agency Response No. Percentage

PM’s D epartm ent 114 26.32Finance Ministry 45 10.39State Secretariats 44 10.16MinistryEducation 23 5.31Agriculture 22 5.08Health 20 4.61Transport 18 4.15Rural Development 16 3.69International Trade 12 2.70H um an Resources 12 2.77Land 8c Cooperative 11 2.54Primary Industry 10 2.30H ousing 8c Local Gov’t 10 2.30Hom e Affairs 10 2.30Domestic T rade 9 2.07Inform ation 8 1.84Welfare and Unity 8 1.84Telecoms, Post & Energy 7 1.61Defence 6 1.38Science and Environ. 5 1.15Public Works 5 1.15Public Enterprise 5 1.15Youth 8c Sport 4 0.92Culture, Arts 8c Tourism 4 0.92Foreign Affairs 3 0.69Justice 2 0.46Total 433 100.00

Source: Survey data

completed questionnaires were returned. The q u estio n n aires were sen t random ly to government departm ents and agencies; the number ranged from 10 to 20, depending on the importance of the ministry or agency. It was, thus, a purposive sampling. Table 1 presents a ministry-by-ministry response rate—ranging from a high of 26.32% from the Prime Minister’s Department to a low of 0.46% from the Ministry of Justice. Overall, the response sample is representative of the Malaysian civil service.

Discussion. Generally, there is evidence to suggest that there is an overall improvement in the efficiency, effectiveness and productivity among civil servants and in the public bureaucracy as a result of the introduction of various forms of adm inistrative reform . T here is abundan t evidence of the public’s general satisfaction with the reduced time it now takes to apply for or renew passports, road tax discs and driving licences. In government hospitals, waiting time for patients seeking treatment has also been generally reduced.

The findings from the survey conducted among civil servants seem to confirm this general trend, that there is a general overall improvement am ong civil servants and in the public bureaucracy. However, there are differences in the degree to which th e re have been improvements in efficiency, effectiveness and productivity in one government departm ent or agency com pared to another, or between individual civil servants.

Because the administrative officers are closely associated with both the implementation of program m es and the ap p lica tio n o f administrative reforms, they were asked to evaluate the effectiveness of eight categories of procedures and techniques: improving work systems and procedures; improving service to the public; improving attitudes of civil servants; incu lca ting work ethics; effectiveness of privatisation objectives; effectiveness of utilisation of automation and new technology; effectiveness of budgetary reform; effectiveness of financial control. Individual comments are also analysed, since they better represent the true nature of the grievances of respondents.

As indicated in Table 2, of the nine work procedures and techniques that have been introduced in the public service since 1981, only two have not been favourably evaluated, namely quality control circle (QCC) and productivity



TABLE 2Effectiveness o f work systems and procedures (N=433)

Work SystemsPercentage Positive Evaluation Percentage Negative Evaluation

& Procedures ExtremelyEffective

QuiteEffective

Neutral QuiteIneffective

ExtremelyIneffective

Punch card 33.0 58.1 2.6 6.3Name tag 39.4 51.2 3.2 5.8 0.5Quality control circle 5.6 35.0 31.9 22.8 4.7

(QCC)Open-space 8c office 8.7 44.0 18.2 25.5 3.5

layoutWork procedures 16.4 54.7 13.6 13.3 2.6Deskfile system 14.1 54.1 13.6 15.0 3.3Postal correspondence 9.3 54.4 27.8 7.1 1.4M anagem ent th ru m eeting 22.8 57.0 10.0 9.3 0.9Productivity m easurem ent 7.3 38.5 30.3 18.5 5.4

program m e

Source: Survey data

measurement programme (PMP). Perhaps more time is needed before their benefits become obvious and, hence, their acceptance. Table 3 indicates a positive evaluation of one-stop payment, service and licence centres. This may indicate a great improvement in productivity and efficiency. However, one written comment on a questionnaire said that improvement of the one-stop centre was only in the form of physical facilities while actual delivery of service is still slow.

One of the main thrusts of reform under the Mahathir administration is the behavioural modification of civil servants. Towards this end, various slogans, such as ‘clean, efficient and

trustworthy government’, ‘leadership by example’ and ‘Malaysia Incorporated’ were unveiled. An excellent service award was also created in order to reinforce adoption of various desirable values that the government has identified (Table 4 ). In line with the good intentions of these strategies, survey data showed that the majority of the respondents thought that they were effective in instilling a more positive outlook among their staff. This positive view was also extended to programmes for inculcating work ethics (Table 5). For example, none of the 16 measures introduced was seen as not being effective in instilling better work ethics among

TABLE 3Effectiveness o f services to the public (N=433)

Services Percentage Positive Evaluation Percentage Negative Evaluation

Extremely Quite N eutral Q uite ExtremelyEffective Effective Ineffective Ineffective

One-stop paym ent centre 53.1 30.4 14.7 1.6 0.3One-stop service centre 39.5 38.7 19.7 1.8 0.3One-stop licence centre 32.4 34.9 29.9 2.5 0.3Suggestion box 6.5 35.5 24.9 27.1 6.0GIRO 17.1 39.2 34.5 7.5 1.7Efficient and courteous 20.3 56.9 14.7 7.1 1.0counter service

Source: Survey data



TABLE 4Effectiveness of improving attitudes of civil servants (N=433)

A dm inistrative/ Percentage Positive Evaluation Percentage NegativeBehaviouralTechniques Extremely Effective Neutral Q uite Extremely

Effective Ineffective Ineffective

Clean, efficient 8c 16.6 55.2 16.1 10.0 2.1 trustworthy

Leadership by exam ple 19.7 49.7 15.5 11.6 3.5Excellent service award 16.8 48.6 18.2 14.5 1.9Malaysia Incorporated 10.5 47.5 31.0 9.5 1.4

Source: Survey data

TABLE 5 Inculcation of work ethic$ (N=433)

Values Percentage Positive Evaluation Percentage Negative Evaluation

HighlyImproved

Improved Neutral SomewhatIm proved

NotIm proved

Accountability 13.3 65.7 7.7 11.0 1.9Self m anagem ent 4.7 57.9 19.1 15.8 2.6Co-operation 13.3 64.7 5.8 14.0 2.1Self-development 5.3 47.3 20.2 23.2 3.5Diligence 8.2 63.6 9.6 16.1 2.6Intellectual 7.5 47.3 24.6 16.9 3.7Team spirit 15.5 59.1 8.1 14.9 2.1T hrift 2.4 46.5 29.6 16.7 4.8Innovativeness 6.1 52.0 20.0 18.4 3.5Positive attitude 10.7 55.1 17.1 14.7 2.1Integrity 10.7 55.1 17.1 14.7 2.3Responsiveness 11.8 56.5 14.1 16.2 1.4Self-disciplined 7.9 59.7 12.6 17.5 2.3Client-oriented 13.3 57.6 10.5 15.7 2.9High perform ance oriented 9.1 48.9 21.1 18.5 2.3Professionalism 11.8 52.2 3.9 9.1 3.1Enterprising 4.3 39.9 30.6 20.0 5.2

Source: Survey data

the public employees. Survey data showed that the opinion of the majority of the senior civil servants interviewed was generally positive with regard to the behavioural approach in reform. However, their opinions were more favourable towards the effectiveness of the structural and procedural methods of reform. This can be seen from the positive evaluation by the civil servants of the effectiveness of privatisation objectives (Table 6), utilisation of automation and new technology (Tables 7 and 8), and improvement

of the budgetary and financial management systems (Tables 9 and 10).

Reform strategy. Analysis of the survey data found little difference among the three strategies (procedural, structural and behavioural) in terms of effect on increased efficiency, effectiveness and productivity among civil servants. Table 11 shows that all three types of reform are all highly effective, but the procedural programmes appear to be the most effective of the three approaches.



TABLE 6Effectiveness o f privatisation objectives (N=433)

Purpose Percentage Positive Evaluation Percentage Negative Evaluation

ExtremelyEffective

Q uiteEffective



To spur econom ic growth 25.1 51.6 16.9 5.5 1.0Relieving financial 30.5 47.7 11.7 7.4 2.4and administrative burden

To prom ote com petition, 16.9 17.9 20.0 11.0 4.3efficiency 8c productivity

To stimulate en trep reneursh ip 16.5 19.3 24.6 7.9 1.7To reduce the size 34.9 40.4 12.2 9.8 2.6of public sector

Meeting objectives o f NEP 14.4 42.8 27.8 11.2 3.8

Source: Survey data

TABLE 7Im pact o f privatisation on organisation (N=433)


StronglyAgree

Agree Neutral Disagree StronglyDisagree

The fear o f privatisation 3.1 21.2 2.9 48.2 12.6improved work discipline

Privatisation: m ore 7.8 44.2 16.1 26.0 5.9conscious about efficiency

Privatisation im proved 7.7 50.5 11.5 26.5 3.8service delivery

Privatisation prom otes 16.5 49.3 24.6 7.9 1.7en terpreneursh ip 8c investm ent

Privatisation: m ore conscious 7.1 45.8 15.6 27.4 4.2about public accountability

Privatisation: m ore conscious 12.7 58.7 7.0 18.1 3.5about productivity

Privatisation-led jo b insecurity 2.1 11.6 13.2 58.3 14.9

Source: Survey Data

For instance, the name tag identification and the punch card system were the most positively evaluated by the respondents (see Table 12).

O verall im provem ent. T able 11 shows the distribution of opinions of civil servants on the overall state of improvement in efficiency and capability in the public service. Respondents were asked to indicate how much they thought the civil service has improved in efficiency and capability since 1981. Responses were categorised

by percentages, beginning with category 10% and increasing by a constant of 5 % . To sum up, reform procedural measures undertaken by the Mahathir administration have been able to increase efficiency and productivity in the civil service by about 62% (see Table 11 ). However, more effort is still needed, especially in reexamining the set target.

Summary of findings. Civil servants appeared to be generally satisfied with the reform efforts



TABLE 8Effectiveness o f the utilisation o f autom ation and technology (N=433)


ExtremelyEffective

QuiteEffective

Neutral Q uiteIneffective


G reater speed in 17.5 54.0 15.2 9.1 4.2policy 8c decisions

Im provem ent in accuracy, 26.6 58.7 11.9 6.3 0.5standardisation, consistency8c co-ordination

G reater efficiency 29.1 56.3 11.1 3.3 0.2in counter service

Efficiency in 21.2 53.7 16.7 7.7 0.7correspondence

Efficiency in project 13.8 54.4 22.0 9.1 0.7im plem entation

Speedier program m e 17.3 53.3 18.9 8.9 1.6evaluation

Source: Survey data

TABLE 9Effectiveness of budgetary reform (N=433)


Extremely Quite N eutral Quite ExtremelyEffective Effective Ineffective Ineffective

Budgeting is now m ore 18.2 63.1 11.5 6.1 1.2program m e & perform anceoriented

Better evaluation o f the cost 12.2 60.8 16.7 8.5 1.9& benefits

Ensure greater 16.2 61.2 12.9 7.0 2.1financial accountability

More rationality in the 12.5 59.2 18.4 7.3 2.6budget process

Source: Survey data

undertaken by the Mahathir administration. But there are also many weaknesses that still require serious attention. This can be seen from the comments and suggestions given in response to several questions in the survey. Some civil servants are still sceptical of some reform programmes, particularly those related to behavioural aspects which are regarded as ‘slogan shouting’ and political gimmicks. Reform efforts pertaining to instilling positive values and work ethics continue to be externally driven, not internally directed. Therefore, these have been less successful in

bringing about any significant change in attitudes. Some reforms are taking place too fast. T h ere fo re , the effect o f th e ir institutionalisation cannot be accurately assessed. In this respect, one senior officer claimed that some efforts are more of a protocol and ceremonial nature rather than having real substance.

From the survey, it also appears that there is still some degree of dissatisfaction among civil servants regarding various aspects, such as prom otion o pportun ities , salary schem es,



TABLE 10Effectiveness of financial m anagem ent control (N=433}


ExtremelyEffective

Q uiteEffective



Led to m ore consciousncss 15.2 65.5 12.4 5.1 1.9More efficient, effective in financial accountability utilisation o f financial resources

13.2 65.5 12.1 7.5 1.6

More emphasis on upgrading skills

12.1 63.4 16.1 7.0 1.6

Im provem ent in financial procedure

10.0 64.4 16.6 7.2 1.6

More active role o f the PAC

17.6 53.4 20.4 7.0 1.6

More active role o f the ACA

14.3 49.5 23.4 10.0 2.8

Source: Survey data

yet to be found. There are likely to be adverse effects on the efficiency in the service unless these are properly addressed by the leadership.

LEADERSHIP IN MALAYSIA’S ADMINISTRATIVE REFORM: EVALUATING

THE CONTRIBUTION OF DR. MAHATHIR MOHAMAD

Mahathir Style of leadership

In Malaysia, Dr. Mahathir’s leadership is one of the important administrative reform agents. His political leadership role is an important external factor responsible for successful administrative reforms. In fact, his leadership has proven to be the most dynamic as well as controversial in Malaysia’s history (Noraini 1989: 155). When Dr. Mahathir took office in 1981, his leadership signalled the rise of a new dimension in Malaysian socio-economic and political developments. Amidst a sense of change and rapid development, his administration embarked on a series of policies and actions th a t im m ediately distinguished it from previous administrations.

Administrative reform is most likely to be successful if it is done through the initiative of the top leadership (Montgomery 1969: 427-471; Dror 1970: 19-35). This opinion concurs with Crozier, who argued that:‘Change in the bureaucratic organisation must com e from the top down and m ust be


Overall im provem ent of adm inistration reform

Percentage Rate of Im provem ent

PercentageEvaluation

N um ber of Respondents

10 1.5 615 0.7 320 3.4 1425 6.8 2835 1.5 640 5.1 2145 1.7 750 7.0 2955 2.4 1060 12.9 5365 6.6 2770 16.0 6675 5.8 2480 18.4 7685 2.4 1090 3.9 1685 2.4 1090 3.9 1695 0.5 2

100 2.4 10No Response 4.8 21

Source: Survey Data

neutrality of the civil service in politics, values and motivation of civil servants, especially the Malaysian Civil Service (MCS) officers’ tight control of other branches of the civil service. These are ongoing issues to which a solution has


TABLE 12Highest evaluation of selected reforms by strategies

Strategy Type o f program m e Effective%

Neutral%

Ineffective%

Structure Privatisation: Stimulate econom ic growth

77 17 7

Procedure

Relieve financial burden of governm ent

System and procedures:

78 12 10

Punch card system 91 3 6Name tag Services:

90 6 6

One-stop paym ent centre Utilisation o f technology;

84 15 2

Im provement, in accuracy, standardisation, consistency & co-ordination

81 12 7

Im provem ent in efficiency in counter service

Budget reform:

- 85 11 4

Progress & perform ance -oriented

81 12 7

More comprehensive budgeting Financial m anagem ent control,

78 6 8

Consciousness o f financial accountability

81 12 7

BehaviourUtilisation of financial resources Im provem ent o f attidude:

79 12 9

Leadership by example 69 16 15Clean, efficient 8c trustworthy Work ethics:

72 16 12

Accountability 79 8 13Co-operation 78 6 16

Source: survey data

universalistic, i.e. encom pass the whole organisation en bloc.’ (Crozier 1964: 196)

Improvement in the output capacity of the bureaucracy in Malaysia could only be done though intensifying administrative reform via direct political influence. As Mavis Puthucheary argued, ‘Political and administrative developments must take place side by side if there is to be a reform necessary to achieve administrative efficiency and public accountability/ (Puthucheary 1978: 119).

M ah a th ir’s ad m in is tra tio n began to undertake changes almost immediately upon assuming office. The targets of his reforms are wide ranging, for exam ple, civil servants, businessmen, the public and the ruling elite, including ministers and members of royalty. One

respondent suggested that given the opportunity and the right political support, the public sector can accept the challenges of change and reform. The administrative reform movement of the 1980s and the present econom ic/business management era have shown that administrative reform and political leadership priorities are inter-supportive and complementary (Asiaweek 19 March 1976: 12).

Some major reforms undertaken have been encouraged by the present top leadership. For example, the government began to liaise with the private sector under the concept of Malaysia Incorporated. This means that Malaysia should be viewed as a company in which the government and the private sector are both owners and coworkers. M ahathir also believes firmly in



‘leadership by example’, which has become the slogan of his administration. Another drastic change in his administration was the Look East Policy. Under this policy, the people of Malaysia were encouraged to change their traditional views of Western countries as role models and to look instead towards Japan and Korea as the Asean blueprint for economic success.

The ‘clean, efficient and trustw orthy’ concept of government emerged from the Look East Policy. Under this slogan, new systems, techniques and procedures of administration were introduced in search of increasing efficiency and effectiveness in the public service. Matters for re-examination included diligence and discipline at work, loyalty to the nation and to the enterprise or business where the worker is employed, emphasis on quality, productivity, and management systems which concentrate on longterm achievem ent ra th e r than short-term increases in dividends.

The management of the nation was geared towards more efficiency so as to achieve political stability and development. Work manuals and deskfiles were introduced. Civil servants were encouraged to be more punctual and efficient. All civil servants were required to wear name tags to make them more personally accountable to the general public. Time clocks were installed in every government office to ensure that the stated working hours were strictly adhered to. The shift in attitude towards the East was accompanied by a greater emphasis on Islamic values within the administration itself (Tilman and Tilman 1977: 143). A fresh move against corruption and mismanagement was launched, and steps were taken to weed out officials who were either known or suspected to be corrupt. Some civil servants resigned immediately on hearing that the new Prime Minister was planning to winkle them out of office (Tilman and Tilman 1977: 143).

In each of the areas of reform, Mahathir has shown his interest and commitment to achieve the desired goals of his policies. Nevertheless, as administrative reform is a continuing process,

political leadership is vital in determining the fate of any reform at any given time. In the absence of strong leadership traits such as political skills, vision, philosophy or managerial mind to engineer and reinforce continual commitment to results, administrative reforms are often doomed to failure.

Thus, it is suggested here that in the absence of strong administrative leadership to initiate major reforms, Mahathir emerged in the midst of bureaucratic inertia and exerted his leadership capability authoritatively in his policy reforms. Emphatically, Mahathir’s leadership has been important in ensuring the fate of many reforms. But we should bear in the mind that besides factors like his leadership qualities, reform policies and executive power, other favourable factors have enab led him to u n d ertak e administrative reform efforts. These include the style of his lead e rsh ip —ch arac te rised as transactional and charismatic leadership— bureaucratic support, political stability, good timing as well as integrity in the eyes of the people of different races. All these favourable factors have encouraged administrative reforms with minimum obstacles (Asiaweek 30 January 1976: 11). Mahathir’s administration has been able to forge a coalition of participating elite such as bureaucrats, military, politicians and businessmen to share rather than monopolise power for the development process.

Attitude towards the Bureaucracy

Mahathir’s political attitude started when he was still at school. His forthright way can be traced back to his early writings beginning in 1949. He wrote on political subjects under the pseudonym of C.H.E. Det (Adshead 1989: 25-26). According to two former top civil servants, one reason why Mahathir is critical of civil servants (Mehden 1981: 214), especially in the early days of his premiership, was due to his bad experience as a government doctor on Langkawi Island, the most backward area in Kedah State during the late 1950s. At that time, he was also conducting part- time business in real estate.1 Therefore, he was

1. This point was described by Datuk Abdullah Sanusi Ahmad, Former Director General of MAMPU and Secretary General of Public Enterprises Ministry. Retired in 1988; in 1989 was appointed Petronas Vice President. The interview was held on 24 December 1989 and 4 September 1992. In 1977. Dr. Mahathir called Datuk Abdullah to his office together with the then Chief Secretary to the Goverment Tan Sri Abdullah Salleh and another senior civil servant to discuss the administrative reform efforts in the public service.



used to dealing with civil servants; he saw that the civil service was so slow to react to what he claimed to be inefficiency in delivering services to the public.2

T h ere fo re , besides being a general practitioner, he also had a little administrative experience before becom ing M inister of Education in 1974. However, before being appointed to the Cabinet, he had proven his administrative capability as Chairman of Food Industries of Malaysia (FIMA). He was said to be able to take on heavy responsibility. This can be seen in a comment made by Asiaweek: '

‘His boundless energy makes up for that. He knows what he wants, and he is quick to make decisions. He is a stickler for decisions and his strong convictions sometimes make him look more uncompromising than he really is. Since becoming Education Minister, he had tried to live down his reputation. “I will try to do a good job - for all Malaysians” he promised on taking up that job in 1974.’ (Asiaweek 19 March 1976: 8).

T h ere fo re , his critical view of the bureaucracy had its roots long before he became a politician. His perception towards the civil service was somewhat different from that of his predecessors, particularly Tun Abdul Razak (the second Prime Minister). His perception is coloured by his Kedah experience. While in his clinic, he saw that the civil servants were more relaxed than those in the medical service.3 So when he became Prime Minister, he undertook to upgrade bureaucrats in order to be more dynamic, efficient and productive.1 He knew the bureaucracy is a strong pillar for the Malays and that the country’s economy could be improved if the bureaucracy was revitalised with more efficient civil servants.5

More active interaction with the Malaysian bureaucracy began during his deputy prime ministership (1976-1981). Mahathir held frequent meetings and dialogues with all top civil servants and was critical about bureaucratic inertia in the public service. In these numerous meetings with the top civil servants, he would ask question such as: What was the planning division at EPU (Economic Planning Unit), ICU (Implementation and Co-ordination Unit), PSD (Public Service Department) doing? What about the manpower planning and productivity level of the public servants? W hy were there so many grievances arising from the public regarding bureaucratic inefficiency, absenteeism and ‘colonial type of bureaucrat’.6

Mahathir was concerned about administrative problems, particularly at district level throughout the country. One problem was the delay in project implementation at the district level. Among the problems identified were inadequate facilities in most of the district offices such as the lack of computers, inefficient management system, poor inventory and financial systems and low quality of leadership of the officers. Mahathir directed that a Cabinet paper be prepared to formulate strategies for modernising the district offices.7 The establishment of MAMPU was aimed at working to modernise the district administration. Since Mahathir took office as Prime Minister in 1981, MAMPU has expanded its role to modernise the whole machinery of the civil service in response to the urgent need to expedite the implementation of development plans.8

During his deputy prim e m inistership, M ahathir could not start a comprehensive administrative reform plan because he was second in command.9 Due to his subordinate position

2. Interview in 29 August 1992 with Datuk Alwi Jan tan, a former State Secretary of Selangor, Director-General Economic Planning Unit, Prime Minister’s Deparunent; Director-General Public Service Department. He retired in 1990. This is also supported by Tan Radin Soenarno Alhaj, former State Secretary of Perak, Secretary-General Ministry of Lands and Regional Development, Director-General of Economic Planning Unit, Prime Minister Department. He retired in 1987.

3. According to Alwi Jantan, before Mahathir joined politicts, he saw the MCS officers were more relaxed than a medical doctor. They had ample time to play golf, to attend parties or gatherings, So, this gave him a different perception about the MCS officers.

4. Interview with Alwi Jantan.5. Interview with Radin Soernarno on 20 August 1992.6. Interview with Abdullah Sanusi Ahmad on 4 September 1992.7. Interview with Abdullah Sanusi Ahmad.8. Interview with Abdullah Sanusi Ahmad on 4 September 1992.9. Interview with Alwi Jantan on 29 August 1992.

114 Pertanika J. Soc. Sci. Sc Hum. Vol. 5 No. 2 1997


to Tun Hussein Onn (the third Prime Minister), Mahathir could not function as effectively as he had wanted.10 When he came to power, problems were already mounting. His immediate thought on taking office as the fourth Prime Minister on 16 July 1981 was to find ways to improve the efficiency of the governm ent m achinery (Adshead 1989: 74).

Mahathir differs from his predecessors, particularly in his relationship with civil servants. Unlike Tun Razak, Mahathir was not an MCS (Malaysian Civil Service) officer and was considered an ‘outsider’ by the bureaucracy. In the early days of his prim e m inistership, Mahathir’s relations with civil servants were not as close as Tun Razak’s had been. As a former government officer, Tun Razak was considered as one of themselves by the civil servants. Tun Razak was also more comfortable dealing with civil servants than politicians, especially at the implementation level. Although he was a Prime Minister, ‘he was like a top administrator at the same time’.11 In other words, Tun Razak relied on the civil servants to carry out his policy, especially in the rural development projects because he knew the psyche of the civil servants, in terms of their ethos, tradition and sub-culture, and he expected to refer to civil servants (Doh 1981: 64). He knew the boundary between the civil servants and politicians. To Tun Razak, success in the implementation of development projects was a function of a leadership with the right attitude and dedication (Doh 1981: 64). This was partly because, during Razak’s era, the public sector occupied a major role in the country’s economic development. Unlike Tun Razak, Mahathir was less appreciative of the roles played by MCS officers, especially in the early days of his premiership.12 This was because

the private sector played a significant role in the country’s economy.

According to one senior civil servant interviewed, Mahathir was initially indifferent with regard to the role of the MCS because he believed that ‘everybody can do a job in the public service’.13 This belief was reinforced when he asked opinions of non-civil servants like business and technical people to assist him in fo rm u la tin g econom ic policies or in implementing certain projects. A typical example is the privatisation policy which manifests his entrepreneurial thinking.11

Unlike Tun Razak, Mahathir did not place much faith in civil servants. This could be seen in a tussle between Mahathir and the bureaucrats in influencing public policy during the first three years of his premiership. Relations between Mahathir and the civil servants became strained.15 Mahathir criticised civil servants openly in public and upset a good number of them.16 He attacked civil servants for inefficiency and ineffectiveness, delays, red tape, mismanagement and absenteeism. His criticisms were published in the national newspapers and mass media.17 Another agency which had attracted his attention was the administration of Kuala Lumpur City. While some of M ahathir’s criticisms m ight have some elements of truth and were justifiable, civil servants thought that such criticisms should not have been made publicly, but instead should have been communicated diplomatically.18

As criticism of civil servants becam e increasingly apparent, an open dialogue was held in early 1984 between the Prime Minister and members of the Association of Malaysian Civil Servants to discuss the matter. The latter expressed their disappointment and grievances over the open criticism fielded by the Prime

10. Interview with Alwi Jantan. This view was also expressed by Ahmad Mustafa Hassan during an interview with the writer on 8 October 1992. He is Chairman of Namfa Corporation, former Kedah state civil servant, Political Secretary to Minister of Information (1965-1969), Press Secretary to Deputy Prime Minister Tun Razak 1970-1976, Tun Hussein Onn 1976-1980, and General Manager of Bernama (National News Agency of Malaysia).

11. This point is supported by Alwi Jantan.12. Opinion of Abdullah Sanusi Ahmad.13. Statement made by Radin Soenarno.14. Statement made by Alwi Jantan.15. Statement made by Abdullah Sanusi Ahmad.16. This is the view of Alwi Jantan and is also supported by Abdullah Sanusi Ahmad.17. Statement made by Abdullah Sanusi Ahmad.18. Opinion of Abdullah Sanusi Ahmad.



Minister and o ther politicians. During the dialogue, the Prime Minister was told that the Malaysian civil servants had contributed a lot to the nation since independence. They even claimed that civil servants had done remarkably well so far, had played their role in implementing the development policy of the government, had helped assist the setting-up of the various governm en t p rogram m es such as ru ral d evelopm ent pro jects, O p era tio n Room Technique, DAU (Development Administration Unit), Red Book Plan and MAMPU. Thus, in the view of the MCS Association, they had done their part and they should not be blamed totally for all discrepancies in the public bureaucracy.19

It was said that after the dialogue, the relationship between the Prime Minister and civil servants began to improve20 Amidst a leadership crisis in UMNO (the ruling party—United Malays National Organisation) in 1987, Dr. Mahathir sought the support of the bureaucrats, partly to strengthen his political position.

Initially, a number of administrative reform efforts introduced by the Mahathir administration reflected a new dimension in the bureaucracy. In the beginning, the civil service was wary of the many policies he introduced (Adshead 1989: 166), particularly those that might affect their routine life styles. It was apparent that senior staff were more worried than their junior or lower level counterparts about Mahathir’s reform efforts (Adshead 1989: 166).

Strategies in Managing the Public Sector: Executive Dominance

Since 1981, Dr. Mahathir Mohamad has been keen to adopt administrative reforms in the implementation of development plans vis-a-vis

policy implementation. Various administrative techniques21 and reform efforts have been introduced to implement policy developments. In addition, two distinct strategies in managing the public sector have probably characterised M aha th ir’s style of m anagem ent, nam ely transactional (Chee 1991: 15) and transforming or charismatic leadership.

Transactional versus transforming leadership. According to Burns, leadership ‘is an aspect of power’. Thus, leadership may be interpreted ‘as leader inducing followers to go for certain goals that represent the values, motivations, aspirations and expectations of both leaders and followers’ (Burns 1978: 8-9). From this leader-follower interaction, Burns identifies two fundamental types of leadership, namely transactional and transforming leadership. In the developmental state, leadership acts are increasingly in the nature of transactions, bargaining or exchange relationships between individuals, groups and larger collectivities. Because of the instrumental nature of transactions, transactional leadership tends to depend on the availability of exchange of values (Chee 1991: 1-5). One of the essential values for the transactional or functional leadership is dependency on the bureaucracy, which occupies a functional role in the society. Such dependency stems from the fact that the phase of development in the 1980s and 1990s is seen as the era of bureaucracy or technocracy ra th e r than charism atic o r p erson ified relationship as characterised in the transforming leadership (Chee 1991: 1-5). Transforming or charismatic leadership is characterised by a personified relationship between the leader and the bureaucracy.

19. Abdullah Sanusi Ahmad.20. Abdullah Sanusi Ahmad. A sign of positively amicable relationship was expressed in his speech during the UMNO

meeting with the Division Heads in 1985 where he complimented the civil servants. Among other things Mahathir advised the politicians and UMNO members not to criticise the civil servants too openly as they also had contributed to the country’s development.

21. Administrative is borrowed from Benze’s concept, which forms the basis of presidential management in the United States. The concept is broadly used to explain various reform efforts in American public bureaucracy such as reorganisation and civil service reforms. An increased focus on personnel (both political executive and career civil servants), an increased use of presidential staff in oversight and implementation capacities, and attempts to control the federal budget making process through PPBS, MBO and ZBB (see Benze 1980). Perhaps, owing to the broad concept of administrative technique, the term could also resemble the term administrative reform. By using administrative technique vis-a-vis administrative reform, the presidential objective has been to obtain centralised control over the implementation of policy (Rose 1976: 15: Benze 1980; Chalmers 1982: 355; 1987: 136-164).



In general, transactional leadership is more appropriate to describe Mahathir’s leadership style in energising adm inistrative reform . However, it is slightly difficult to characterise Mahathir’s leadership as either one or the other. He is probablv characterised by both leadership styles, transactional and charism atic. One example of him as a transactional leader is that since becoming Prime Minister, he has been able to show himself to be a dominant actor by introducing the privatisation concept as one of his development policies acceptable to both the bureaucrats as well as private entrepreneurs. In other words, being a good politician, Mahathir has been able to forge an alliance between contending elites within the bureaucracy and the private sector to accept his num erous administrative reforms.

M ahath ir has also b ro u g h t his own orientation towards affecting administrative reforms. As the ensuing discussion will show, Mahathir plays a central role in formulating public policies pertaining to administrative reform. Thus, due to this dom inant views, Mahathir has brought a new kind of charismatic or ‘transforming’ leadership into the public sector to change the attitudes of civil servants towards m ore dynamism, com petency and productivity. Because he is a transforming leader, Mahathir has brought the bureaucracy under his dominant control.

leadership qualities, policy statements and executive power. In the M ahathir adm in istra tion ,

administrative reforms have been used in an effort 10 modernise the civil service. His intention is to reform the bureaucracy which he thinks has not been able to implement development policies efficiently and effectively. In this case, two management techniques have been employed by Mahathir. The first is the ‘policy statement’ technique characterised by administrative reform policies such as personnel improvements, scaling down the size of the public sector, improving services to the public, Ix>ok East Policy, Malaysia In co rp o ra ted , privatisation and financial management in order to increase his ability to control the implementation of policy.

The second is the ‘leadership quality’ technique22 such as the collection of personal and political skills, philosophy, motivation mission, vision, courage, self-confidence, flexibility, managerial mind, and also what he perceives to be im p o rtan t adm inistrative problems and how administrative or reform techniques can be applied to solve these problems. Thus, M ahathir felt that if the bureaucracy is left on its own to implement the development policies, they might not be carried out according to his plans. Therefore, he has to impose some control by providing administrative reform policies in the public sector in order to change, innovate, move or create vision in public organisations.23

A part from being charac terised as a transactional and charismatic or transforming leader, two other additional variables, ‘reform policies’ and ‘leadership qualities’, are also

22. Leadership quality can also be termed ‘internal dimension of power’ as developed by Ben/e, to show that successful management depends not only on the application of administrative reform/techniques (the external dimension of power). Instead, the success of administrative reforms has been shown to depend on the use of leadership qualities or skills like a number of presidential personal characteristics (courage, intelligence, vision and self- confidence) and political skills (ability to relate to Congress, ability to assess political realities, skills in timing, issue positions, ability to maintain the public trust, and the ability to sell programmes). The extent to which a president has these skills and is able to use them effectively may determine the success of his administrative progremmes or reform. (Summarised from Benze 1980; 194-195). While reform policy could be termed ‘external dimension of power’, which is used to explain the implementation of presidential power, e.g. reorganisation plans, civil service reform and forth (see Benze 1980: 106-117, Another scholar, James E. Skok equates the term administrative technique vis-a-vis administrative reform as ‘strategic management’ in the public sector which can effectively resolve administrative problems. Following his definition, strategic management is best understood as purposive action through which agencies identify and realise organisation’s objectives within their operating environments. Strategic management for public agencies, therefore, should be seen as process designed to develop desired relationships with other participants in competitive situations in order to advance a preferred policy outcome and effectiveness. (Summarised from Skok 1989; 136-137.)

23. Personal interview with Tan Sri Zainal Mahmood, former Secretary General, Home Affairs Ministry, 5 October 1992 Executive Chairman of Pos Malaysia.



helpful in understanding Mahathir’s leadership style. As prime ministerial power is of utmost importance to ensure the fate of reform efforts in the bureaucracy, it is natural that the leadership qualities of his personal skills as the prime minister, especially his skills necessary for interacting with other elite and to reform policies, would form an important prime ministerial power and thus his management style.24

Although these skills (leadership qualities, reform policies and executive power) are considered to be important components of the prime ministerial power, it is obvious that different prime ministers will have these skills in different degrees and will employ them in different fashions.25 Mahathir is seen as displaying all of these three elements of power—reform policies, leadership qualities and executive power—over legislature, budget, information and technical personnel (Samonte and Hahn 1970: 89). This triad of elements is a synergism which describes different types of force moving together to become a movement of power of the Prime Minister to push for successive administrative reforms. Such concepts of prime ministerial power are listed in Fig. 1.

Executive Power Reform Policies Leadership Qualities

Over Parliam ent Privatisation Political and electoral skillsB udget/funding inform ation L eadershup by example PhilosophyTechnical personnel Personnel improvements Political and bureaucraticSecurity Malaysia Incorporated supportBudget reform Control, etc. Managerial m indFinancial m anagem ent Courage

MissionFlexibilityMotivationVision

Fig. 1 Triad elements of power or management style of the prime minister

24. This view is adapted from Clayton and Lammers (1978). The specific skills that Clayton and Lammers found are important and are quite relevant to this study where the leadership support in administrative reform has essential perimeters.

25. It is beyond the writer’s intention to compare a continuum of administrative styles of previous ministers in detail. However, for Mahathir’s leadership, in the words of Tan Sri Sallehuddin Mohamad: ‘No doubt, Mahathir is dynamic, has strong conception of power. He is also a thinker and implemented ’

Perhaps such a conceptual framework should therefore be closely watched for verification of Mahathir’s style of administration. As seen in Fig. 7, Dr. Mahathir has strong, decisive and charismatic leadership, both in the political arena and inside the bureaucracy. As such, he compelled the bureaucracy to implement his development policy—in other words, he is a transactional leader. Having identified Mahathir as being both a transactional and transforming leader, the other three characteristics of power necessary for his rem arkab le success o f administrative reforms are reform policies, leadership qualities and executive power. These elements move together for the Prime Minister to push for successive administrative reforms.

Mahathirs personal characteristics in the bureaucracy and general strategy of development. First, it is necessary to analyse the leadership qualities (the collection of attributes such as personal skills, attitudes, perception and philosophy) that Mahathir brings into the process of governing. Several scholars and senior civil servants concurred with the opinion that basically



Mahathir has vision, sophistication, passion and the ability to formulate goals.26

His philosophy of development strategy is quite different from that of previous Prime Ministers. For example, Tun Razak placed more emphasis on rural development in his efforts to upgrade the Malay economy.27 Dr. Mahathir, on other hand, emphasises the close relationship between the public and private sectors, which is a more business-oriented policy. Therefore, the Malays have to change their notions about progress so that they can be more successful and competitive. The campaigns on such themes as cleanliness, skill acquisition, honesty and discipline are attempts to change the value system of the Malaysian community in order that they become more progressive and successful.

Mahathir has an eye for detail. When he conceptualises projects, he expects everything to get done properly. In the implementation of a project, he takes a keen interest, makes personal visits and gives his finishing touch.28 This is quite different from Tun Razak, who would only inspect a project when it had been completed and looked more into the account of procedures and regulations or allocations. By the same token, Tun Razak knew exactly what was needed to be done because he was formerly an MCS officer.29 In contrast, Mahathir carries a reputation for wanting pragmatism. This tendency might have been inherited from his career as a medical doctor when quick decisions are necessary in emergencies; ‘sometimes one has to act first and explain later’ (Adshead 1989: 166).

Mahathir is a visionary leader and at the same time pragmatic, dynamic and highly intelligent.30 WTiile Tun Razak was a ‘problem-

oriented’ leader, Mahathir is ‘policy-oriented’, tending to look at programmes as means for long-term results. As a leader Mahathir not only knows what has to be done ‘to make a policy’, but also knows how to get it done, ‘to have programme or guidance’ to go by.31

It is perceived that Tun Razak did not have a long-term vision and the pragmatism needed to keep up with changing times. Thus, in one speech he stressed, ‘The time has come in our present phase of development for the Alliance Government to produce immediate and quick results in all fields of development’ (Doh 1981: 64). This led to programmes focusing on rural development, which accounted for the emphasis on the building of schools, roads, health centres, mosques, community halls, the digging of wells, the provision of utilities, the opening of land and so on (Doh 1981: 64). People were more loyal to him, admired and loved him as a leader rather than his ideas.32 Thus, Tun Razak’s leadership style exhibited characteristics of a transforming or a charismatic leader. This is an example of how leadership can make a system work. The famous Operation Room and Red Book Systems became successful, especially in monitoring the physical process of development projects, owing largely to his personal drive and efforts in the form of unscheduled visits to operations rooms at state and district levels, on the spot checks and exhortations to officers to change their attitude, to co-ordinate their work and to speed up the implementations of the development projects (Doh 1981: 65).

Mahathir is imaginative in the way he uses the governm ent officers. To ensu re the bureaucracy’s support for his policies, he placed

26. This observed pattern of behaviour is based on the writer’s view when undertaking research entitled ’The Split in UMNO Politics: A Study on the Leadership Crisis after 24lh April 1987’, sponsored by Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia, Bangi 1988. The writer first had an informal talk Dr, Mahathir on 24 September 1977. See also Ahmad Atory (1987a, b). Several books have been written by authors who relatively praise Mahathir’s standing as being the most capable leader in Malaysia such as Abu Hassan (1985): Nasarudin (1985); Hassan (1990); Aziz Zaria (1990); Idris (1990); Zakri (1990). In spite of the praise and acknowledgement of his standing, there has also been no less criticism by many writters, for example, Jomo (1994a, b); The most recent literature on Mahathir is Khoo (1994). Among its contents is the dynamism of Mahathir’s leadership since he came to power in 1981 towards more liberal policies on politics, economy and social issues for Malaysia’s economic development.

27. Opinion of Abdullah Sanusi.28. Opinion of Radin Soenarno.29. This point is made by Abdullah Sanusi and Alwi Jantan.30. Statement made by Radin Soenarno, Also the opinion of Tan Sri Sallehuddin Mohamad.31. Opinion of Sallehuddin Mohamad. Interview held on 13th October 1992. Tan Sri Sallehuddin was Chief Secretary ̂

to the Goverment 1985-1990. From 1990, the Employees Provident Fund’s Executive Chairman.32. Statement by Radin Soenarno.



his men in the strategic agencies of the government. He retained some Chief Secretaries of the Government, reassigned others among various ministries and took a personal interest in those who share his views. Mahathir also chooses to rely on professionals outside the civil service to assist him in formulating his policies in matters such as privatisation or industrialisation. For exam ple, he takes the initiative to bring consultants from the private sector to give lectures and seminars to civil servants on business, management and entrepreneurship.33

As Chief Executive, M ahathir provides leadership to the civil servants and is regarded as a proactive leader in formulating administrative reform efforts. In turn, the civil servants respond to his ideas because they can stand up with him. Thus, most of the reform efforts have been inspired and influenced by him; bureaucrats simply carry out the policies. They respect him as well as help him implement his policies. According to a former senior civil servant, Radin Soenarno, Mahathir really discusses ideas first with the civil servants before introducing programmes (especially in the early days of his premiership such as Look East Policy, Malaysia Incorporated or Leadership by Example). But when the Prime Minister realises that not all of them are able to think intellectually as they rarely give their views, even though some might have master’s or doctorate degrees, he would then make his presentation simple for them to understand.34 If a suggestion or a new idea is put forward by a civil servant, he/she is expected to convince the Prime Minister of h is/her plan. Otherwise, it might be turned down. Mahathir is also firm in the sense that when he agrees to certain things, he adheres to them.35

However, it is doubtful whether two-way communication and flexibility exist between him and civil servants in most major public policymaking processes because there is evidence to suggest that there has been little pondering among civil servants as a result of assertiveness.

Dr. Mahathir always believes that, to be worthwhile, an idea must be implemented, or at least personally supervised, by its originator. Only the originator knows exactly what is required and needs to be done to achieve the set objective. As an example of his keenness to remain involved, he always carries a small notebook on his frequent trips within the capital and around the country, in which he details things he has seen that appear to him to be wrong (Adshead 1989: 166).

To make leadership by example a reality, he himself sets examples even though they look simple. For instance, when he introduced the punch card and clock-in system in the public bureaucracy, he himself set the example by leaving his office between 6.30 and 7.00 pm, well after the 4.30 pm clock-out time. In his attempt to encourage civil servants to save energy, he sets an example by switching on the lights in his office himself and switching them off when he goes out for lunch or leaves for home. He never allows his office assistant to switch on the lights. Another example is that he himself gets involved in undertaking efforts to beautify Kuala Lumpur. He makes frequent trips around the city in an effort to make Kuala Lumpur the most beautiful and clean city—a city of lights. He even decides the most suitable shady trees and flower plants to be planted along the major streets and sidewalks within the city. He also encourages and takes the initiative in the building of fountains at the major roundabouts within the city (Adshead 1989: 166).36

He is a keen reader of management books, and asks his Cabinet members to do the same for the benefit of their organisation. Because he is a workaholic, well read and has many new ideas, he expects his administrative staff to follow his example.37 Thus, he wants to see new things and not just stick to old and obsolete ones.38 Because of his im patience in undertaking development projects, there is a great possibility of delay at the implementation level due to

33. Statement by Abdullah Sanusi Ahmad.34. Statement by Radin Soenarno.35. Statement by Radin Soenarno.36. Statement by Radin Soenarno. Also the opinion of Ahmad Mustafa Hassan.37. Opinion of Zainal Mahmood.38. Opinion of Zainal Mahmood.



inadequate m anpow er. For exam ple, Dr. Mahathir always queries or expresses doubt over red tape or delay in project implementation.39

His wide knowledge also stems from his frequent interaction with people of all walks of life. People come in and out of his office and they also write to him personally, not only for official purposes but sometimes just to give ideas and information. All these inputs certainly make him well-read and a knowledgeable person, so much so he is well versed and up-to-date on many subjects such as technology, m anagem ent, international politics, agriculture and environment.40

In UMNO politics, Dr. Mahathir is in direct contrast to the past UMNO presidents/prime ministers, especially Tun Hussein Onn. Dr. Mahathir revels in the rough and tumble of political intrigue. Tun Hussein Onn seemed to prefer to be reticent and withdrawn, but Mahathir has the courage to change things and dares to take risks.41 Hussein Onn was quite aloof, a military type and formal leader.42 He was straightforward, did not go around to get detailed information, but instead, the information had to be brought to him.43 Given these differences, it is small wonder that Dr. Mahathir has a different attitude towards governing than Tun Hussein Onn had.

Although quite unpopular among civil servants in the beginning, Mahathir has managed to get strong support from heads of government departments, particularly the support of the then Chief Secretary to the Government and the then D irecto r-G eneral of the Public Service Department.44 His direct involvement in the public policy-making process is clearly seen when he sends personal letters to the implementing Ministries or Agencies instructing them to carry out the reform efforts that were introduced.

Therefore, his use of administrative reform as a mean of gaining control over the civil service represents a genuine strategy in the application of policy im plem entation. This is fu rther supported by written comments accompanying the questionnaire, which suggested that major policies on estab lishm ents, salaries and allowances of the public service are decided by a Cabinet-level committee chaired by the Prime Minister himself.45 His involvement in the policymaking process has further enhanced him as a charismatic leader.

M ahathir’s strategy of developm ent is different from his predecessors. His greatest contribution is ‘moving beyond’—both inward- and outward-looking perspectives of development. The outward-looking aspect of Mahathir’s approach to development can be seen in terms of imitating selectively the good points, examples and experiences of other countries such as Japan and Korea.

During Dr. M ahathir’s era, initially the industrialisation policy was not well developed because of the narrow manufacturing base, the weakness of industrial linkages and the lack of bureaucratic-business interaction, not because of the lack of physical amenities such as roads, electricity and water supply. The manufacturing base was clearly lacking in terms of forward linkages such as business networks, markets and skilled labourers. This is evidenced from the many failures and reverses in industrial projects, such as Perwaja Steel. As the emphasis is on industrialisation, there was a need for heavy capitalisation which the government was then unable to provide. Like Tun Razak, Dr. Mahathir failed in his efforts to adopt the industrialisation policy because of lack of supportive infrastructure to attract a number of urban people to invest in the rural areas.

39. This statement was observed by the writer when undertaking research work entitled ‘The Split in UMNO Politics’ begun in 1988. Also the opinion of Radin Soenarno.

40. This statament is derived from Alwi Jantan.41. Opinion of Zainal Mahmood. According to Ahmad Mustafa Hassan, Hussein’s leadership was far behind Dr.

Mahathir’s. Hussein Onn was picked by Tun Razak to be deputy not because he could do the job but as a matter of destiny and being his brother-in-law; ‘The only Prime Minister who goes to the office with a bundle of working papers.’

42. This view is from Radin Soenarno.43. Opinion given in response to question on the influence of administrative reform outside the civil service.44. This view is from Radin Soenarno.45. Opinion given in response to question on the influence of administrative reform outside the civil service.



There are also differences in the method for g en e ra tio n o f financial sources for developm ent betw een the various prim e ministers. For example, Tun Razak and Tun Hussein Onn used externally-generated money for development. On the o ther hand, Dr. Mahathir has sought financial sources locally. Joint ventures are one way Dr. Mahathir uses to generate capital for development. Tun Razak encouraged agro-based industry by providing incentives such as pioneer status to attract foreign investors. There was a huge flow of foreign capital during the era of Tun Razak and Tun Hussein. Unlike Tun Razak, Dr. Mahathir gives pioneer status and incentives to local instead of foreign investors, and encourages capital- intensive industries so that local people can get involved in the manufacturing sector.

Tun Razak and Tun Hussein Onn regarded ‘control’ as the main weapon to effect policy development. On the contrary, Dr. Mahathir regards ‘accountability’ as his main tool. For example, during the period of Tun Razak and Tun Hussein, the policy of awarding scholarships to students for tertiary education was aimed at attracting them to serve in the public sector and statutory bodies. Dr. Mahathir, on the other hand, regards scholarships as a tool to serve government policies such as the industrialisation policy. Government-sponsored students are now tied to either the public or private sectors. In other words, the most important factor to Dr. Mahathir is not the ‘procedure’ but the ‘method’ for effecting his policy development.

In conjunction with the above, Dr. Mahathir has brought about a ‘mental revolution’ in his efforts to change the attitudes of government servants towards entrepreneurship. Education has become the basis to change the orientation from the rural-urban development which was laid down by Tun Razak to a new orientation, that is a metropolis centred-development in the context of the industrialisation policy in which the emphasis is satellite production. Dr. Mahathir has not only a vision but also a future orientation, as seen in his Vision 2020.

In conclusion, it is observed that the reform programme has succeeded (though more could have been done) in making a substantial contribution to enhance efficiency, effectiveness and productivity of the Malaysian bureaucracy towards realising the pace o f n a tional developm ent goals. H ence, Dr. M ahathir

leadership role is of paramount importance ineffecting such administrative reforms in Malaysia.

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Pertanika J. Soc. Sci. & Hum. 5(2): 125-137 (1997) ISSN: 0128-7702© Universiti Putra Malaysia Press

A Survey o f Methods Used by Malaysian Brokerage Firm Investment Analysts to Appraise Investments in Ordinary Shares

SHAMSHER MOHAMAD and ANNUAR MD NASSIR Department of Accounting and Finance Faculty of Economics and Management

Universiti Putra Malaysia 43400, Serdang, Selangor, Malaysia

Keywords: investment analysts, fundamental analysis, technical analysis, beta analysis, earnings multiplier approach

ABSTRAKKajian ini menjelaskan kaedah-kaedah yang digunakan oleh penganalis pelaburan yang bertugas dengan firma-firma broker di seluruh negara untuk menilai saham syarikat yang tersenarai. Lima puluh tujuh para analis pelaburan di sampel dan maklumat diperolehi meialui soal-selidik dan diikuti dengan temuramah untuk mendapatkan penjelasan yang terperinci. Penemuan kajian menunjukan para analis menggunakan lebih dari satu kaedah untuk menilai saham dan keadah analisis fundamental lebih kerap digunakan. Para analis juga menggunakan jangkamasa tiga tahun untuk membuat ramalan keuntungan dan perolehan, lebih mementingkan perolehan perakaunan dari aliran tunai, merujuk kepada banyak punca maklumat sungguhpun maklumat kewangan syarikat yang tersirat dalam penyata kewangan yang telah diaudit diutamakan. Maklumat kualitatif diperolehi meialui lawatan ke syarikat dan perbincangan dengan pihak pengurusan syarikat. Pada keseluruhan, sungguhpun penemuan kajian tidak menampilkan satu kaedah penilaian yang khusus, ramai para analis minat terhadap kaedah nisbah harga-perolehan sebagai kaedah untuk menilai saham syarikat yang tersenarai.

ABSTRACTThis study provides a broad description of the methods used by investment analysts attached to brokerage houses in Malaysia to appraise investments in the ordinary shares of companies. Fifty-seven investment analysts were sampled from all the brokerage houses in Malaysia and a mail questionnaire method was used to solicit the required information. The findings suggest that the sampled analysts used a combination of methods to assess the value of shares, though the emphasis is on the fundamental analysis. They use a three-year earnings forecast period, prefer accrual earnings to cashflows and use a variety of sources of information with the emphasis on financial information from audited financial statements, substantiated by qualitative information gathered through company visits. In general, though the findings are inconclusive regarding the most common methods used for share price valuation, the inclination is towards the earnings multiplier approach.

INTRODUCTION

Investment analysts perform three information- related activities: (i) private information search, that is they search for information that is not publicly available; (ii) prospective analysis, which allows them to analyse, process, and interpret information for the purposes of prediction, and (iii) retrospective analysis, where they interpret the events after-the-fact. Generally, investment analysts may be categorized into two groups, either as portfolio managers who invest in their own right or as information intermediaries who act as advisers to institutional and individual investors. Portfolio managers use the information gathered from their own appraisal to maximize portfolio returns subject to some acceptable level of risk. On the o ther hand, information

in te rm ed ia rie s provide share appraisal information to third parties, and consequently they compete with other analysts in gathering, in te rp re tin g and d issem inating financial information. Information intermediaries are usually .expected to be more specialized in their acquisition and analysis of information than portfolio managers because of their role in the provision of information to third parties such as other investment analysts and individuals who manage portfolios (Arnold and Moizer 1984b). To fulfil the need for specialized information by their clients, intermediaries inevitably spend more time and conduct more detailed research than portfolio managers. ;

Portfolio managers spend time monitoring the composition of their portfolios, organizing

Shamsher Mohamad and Annuar Md Nassir

the trading of securities and ensuring that changes in their clients’ preferences have been reflected in the portfolios. The differences in the role of portfolio managers and information interm ediaries suggest that the procedures followed, the information required, the depth and the time spent on analysis differ, implying that they are a heterogeneous group.

Investment analysis involves determining the levels of risk and expected return of either individual or group of financial assets before deciding on the most profitable opportunities available subject to bud g et constra in ts . Investm ent analysts usually try to identify mispriced assets such as shares using fundamental analysis and determine the timing of trade using technical and beta analysis. The competition among the investment analysts to gather, analyse and disseminate information inevitably leads to market efficiency, that is the prices of shares reflect all available information on the shares. Overall, the literature (Latham 1985) indicates that the capital markets are fairly efficient to numerous information sets though there are pockets o f ineffic iencies as m arkets are economically but not perfectly efficient. The role of investment analysts in m aintaining informational efficiency in the capital market is important in terms of continuously providing the essential information to be reflected in the share prices.

Investment analysts with insight can indeed transform public inform ation into valuable knowledge for their clients. To form useful insights they need to solicit timely information from company m anagem ent, investment banking contacts and others who are close to the source of information. This network helps them to solicit information from a common database concerning the general economic and firm outlook and most current analysis tools employed. The literature (Groth et al. 1979; Givoly and Lakonishok 1984) suggests that brokerage houses and investment advisory services do provide valuable investment advice to their clients. The clients were reported to earn positive abnormal risk-adjusted compared to readers of m ore widely dissem inated information.

This study attempted to provide a broad description of the methods used by investment analysts attached to brokerage houses in Malaysia to appraise investments in the ordinary shares of companies. Specifically, the following objectives

were identified: to gather details of procedures adopted in appraising ordinary shares; to identify the types and accuracy of forecasts used; to investigate the sources, use and importance of financial information in making decisions; and to ascertain the extent to which discussions with company management feature in the analysts’ decision-making processes.

REVIEW OF LITERATURE

Arnolds and Moizer (1984a) studied the appraisal methods used by UK investment analysts and concluded that the primary analysis techniques used were fundamental analysis and technical analysis; beta analysis was hardly used at all. Many analysts forecast some aspects of the performance of the company or its shares such as like earnings per share, pre-tax profit, dividends and price-earnings ratio. The most influential sources of inform ation are the company’s financial statements and its interim results as well as discussions with the personnel of the company being appraised. Despite the perceived influence of information provided by management, most analysts appear to be sceptical about management opinions.

Arnold and Moizer (1984b) extended their study of UK investment analysts by categorizing them into two groups, portfolio managers and information intermediaries. They found that although there is significant difference between the level of detail and frequency of analysis undertaken by the two groups, there is no significant difference in their approach to share appraisal. Information intermediaries made greater use of some information sources and m ore frequently discussed with com pany management whilst portfolio managers relied more on other investment analysts as a source of inform ation. T heir attitudes towards the criticisms of company annual accounts differ, probably due to their different objectives.

Brown et al. (1987) examined the relationship between financial analysts’ forecasts superio rity and the firm ’s in fo rm atio n environment. They concluded that the ex ante financial analysts’ forecasts superiority is positively related to firm size and the extent of agreement among analysts regarding the firm ’s future earnings numbers.

Bhaskar and Morris (1984) examined the accuracy of profit forecasts published in the circulars of British stockbrokers, and identified


A Survey of Methods Used by Malaysian Brokerage Firm Investment Analysts

several key variables which were expected to have an impact on forecast accuracy. The analysts’ forecasts out-performed those produced by simple prediction models, implying that professional analysts tend to underestimate future profits for the periods under review.

B jerring et al. (1983) evaluated the recommendations of a Canadian brokerage house by using a number of techniques. The results reveal that an investor following the reco m m en d atio n s would have achieved significantly positive abnormal returns, even after allowing for transactions cost. The recommendations were not “immediately” reflected in market prices.

Forbes and Skerratt (1992) examined the evidence relating to the quality of investment analysts’ earnings forecasts. They exploited a new data source which is able to identify the precise day when the analysts revised their forecasts and concluded that UK analysts’ earnings forecasts are not fully anticipated by the market.

Givoly and Lakonishok (1984) provided evidence that investors used analysts’ forecasts as a reasonable proxy for the unobservable expected earnings. The dispersion of analysts’ forecasts seems to be an important measure of risk, shadowing traditional measure such as beta and return variability.

Groth et al. (1979) suggested that the brokerage house’s recom m endations to its individual customers were genuinely valuable in selection rather than market timing, even after allowing for transactions’ costs and risk.

In their com prehensive survey of UK investment analysts, Lee and Tweedie (1981) concluded that of the many sources of available financial information the annual and interim financial rep o rts were extensively used, particularly the traditional profit and loss account and the balance sheet. However, respondents understood specific reporting practices and least understood the principles. Company visits were generally regarded in the range of considerable to moderate influence on investment decisions. They reported that firms analysed and verified available financial information speedily.

In general, the literature suggests that the most influential financial information sources are the annual profit and loss account, balance sheet and the interim results. Also of importance are the discussions with company personnel, the

chairman’s statement and the statement of source and application of funds.

There are significant differences between the behaviour of portfolio m anagers and information intermediaries. Portfolio managers undertake relatively brief analysis and analyse less frequently than information intermediaries, though a similar approach is used to appraise shares.

There is also evidence that the market response to forecasts of analysts based in a brokerage firm is less sensitive than that of independent analysts. This suggests that the market may regard broker firm analysts as constrained by agency problems, which reduces the reliability of their forecasts of a client company’s earnings.

Analysts predict earnings more accurately than mechanical models, and managem ent forecasting performances are not superior to those of analysts for companies where both management and analyst forecasts are available.

DATA AND METHODOLOGY

There are a number of methods that might be applied to investigate the behaviour of investment analysts and the procedures they use in appraising ordinary shares of companies, such as postal questionnaire surveys, structured and unstructured interviews, “laboratory” experim ents, and stru c tu red and u n s tru c tu red observations. Each has its own strengths and weaknesses, and no single method is likely to be completely successful. In this study, a postal questionnaire survey was used to obtain the relevant research information from investment analysts who work with the securities firms in Malaysia. This approach allows the researcher to reach a geographically dispersed sample at a relatively low cost com pared with personal interviews and telephone surveys. In addition, a mail questionnaire can be filled out whenever the respondent has time. Thus, there is a better chance that respondents will take time to think about their replies and perhaps collect facts that they may not recall accurately, which is crucial fo r co llec tion of qualita tive data . T he questionnaire was supplemented by interviews when necessary to ensure the accuracy and relevancy of the information obtained. Although the role of investment analysts as portfolio t managers is somewhat different from that of information intermediaries, this study did not



differentiate their appraisal methods by their different role.

Fifty-seven investment analysts based in all the brokerage houses in Malaysia were sampled. Each respondent was asked to provide general information about the nature of his job before he was asked for more detailed information on seven general areas relating to the procedures followed in making recommendations for buying or selling of shares for listed companies. Information was sought on various aspects such as the features of the respondent’s working environment; the frequency of the three methods of investment appraisal used and their perceived usefulness; the application of fundam ental analysis; experience with forecasting techniques; sources, im portance and in terpretation of information that may influence the investments appraisal; the p rocedures followed when recommending buying, holding or selling and the respondent’s discussions with the company management to formalize decisions.

RESULTSOf the 58 securities firms throughout Malaysia, 15 did not maintain a Research Department and neither employed any investment analysts to advise their clients nor conducted analysis to make investment decisions (if any advice was given it was solely based on gut feelings). Of the rem ain ing 43 firms, 63% rep lied to the questionnaires sent to them. Only 19% were female respondents.

Analyst's Working EnvironmentThe main characteristics of an average investmentanalyst’s working environment are summarized

in Table 1. On average, the analyst was a male working in an organization which employed just over five analysts and had spent just over three years working as an analyst. The analyst devoted about 84% of his working week to the analysis of Malaysian equities and analysed about 45 companies on a regular basis and a further 58 each year on an irregular basis.

Investment Appraisal Methods

There are a variety of techniques used by analysts to estimate the value of shares. Table 2 reveals that the primary share appraisal technique used by the respondents is the fundamental analysis followed by technical analysis; beta analysis is hardly used at all. On average, most analysts used more than one method. More than 90% of the respondents almost always used fundamental analysis, 70% used technical analysis and 19% used beta analysis. This also implies that technical analysis is used as a supplementary tool by most of those who use fundamental analysis as the main tool. Beta analysis is not a popular method, probably due to the analyst’s lack of knowledge on how to apply this tool, the ineffectiveness of this method in emerging share markets such as the Kuala Lumpur Stock Exchange, which is characterized by high volatility, thin trading and a relatively informationally inefficient market compared to the developed markets where this technique is well adopted.

The o th er inform al appraisal m ethod common among investment analysts is ‘gut feeling’. These analysts usually do not conduct any formal investment research and analysis to help them and their clients make investment decisions. They generate revenue for their

TABLE 1Features o f the analyst’s working environm ent

Mean Response Standard E rror

N um ber o f analysts employed 5.4 0.33N um ber o f years spent as an

investm ent analyst 3.3 0.41Percentage o f working week spent

analysing Malaysian equities 84.3 4.92N um ber o f com panies analysed

regularly 44.7 7.03N um ber o f com panies analysed

each year on an irregular basis 58.5 11.52


A Survey o f Methods Used by Malaysian Brokerage Firm Investment Analysts

TABLE 2Frequency o f use of m ethods of investm ent appraisal

Almost always (96-100%)

Usually(66-95%)

Sometimes(36-65%)

Seldom(6-35%)

Hardly ever (0-5%)

Average*(%)

Fundam entalanalysis 26 0 1 0 0 96.2

Technicalanalysis 7 12 4 4 0 71.7

Beta analysis0 1 6 5 15 19.4

“Gut feeling” 13 0 0 0 0 98.0

*Responses are sum marized as means, based on the midpoints o f each frequency interval

TABLE 3Perceived usefulness o f m ethods of investm ent appraisal

(5 point scale: 1 = extremely useful to 5 = o f no use)


Fundam ental analysis 1.1 0.07Technical analysis 2.1 0.17Beta analysis 3.8 0.19

employers mainly through the execution of customers’ orders for securities purchases and sales. They usually charge a lower rate of commission and capitalize on larger market share, which do not desire any information input. A q u a rte r o f the sam pled brokerage firms throughout Malaysia are in this category. However, due to the competitive nature of the business most firms in this category have expressed the desire to set up a proper research department to meet the increasing demand for information service as a long-term strategy for survival.

The extent to which each share appraisal technique is used is consistent with its perceived usefulness, as shown in Table 3. All respondents viewed fundamental analysis as either ‘extremely useful’ or ‘very useful’ whilst the equivalent percentage for technical analysis was 70% and only 11% for beta analysis.

Factors Considered in fundamental analysis

The factors considered by investment analysts in using fundamental analysis are summarized in Tables 4 and 5. When appraising a share by the use of fundamental analysis, analysts consider an

average of about five years’ financial results. Findings in Table 4 suggest that various financial ratios, the estimate of ‘true’ value of the price- earnings ratio and the estimate of the market value by applying price-earnings ratio to a forecast of next year’s earnings were three most important features of the analysts’ approach.

Ninety per cent of respondents estimated various financial ratios almost all the time when conducting fundamental analysis to help them anticipate future conditions and predict the company’s future earnings and dividends. Ratios generally show the relationship between financial statement accounts, which is critical to the successful application of the fundamental analysis.

Over 85% of analysts ‘almost always’ or ‘usually* attempt to estimate what a company’s present price-earnings ratio should be, based upon their evaluation of the past and future earnings of the company. In addition, 80% of respondents used the estimated price-earnings ratio to estimate the company’s market value. The discounted cash flow technique (net present value) and the company’s net asset value are also important whilst the estimate of future



TABLE 4Factors considered in fundam ental analysis

Almost Usually Sometimes Seldom Hardly Average*always ever

(96-100%) (66-95%) (36-65%) (6-35%) (0-5%) (%)

Various financialratios 17 8 1 1 0 88.2

Estimate of ‘tru e ’value o f PER 16 7 2 1 1 83.5

Estimate of m arketvalue by applyingPER to a forecastof next year’searnings 17 7 2 0 1 86.4

Esumate o f futuredividend yield 8 1 10 8 0 56.8

Esumate o f NPV offuture cash flows 5 10 12 0 0 70.4

Com pany’s net assetvalue 9 3 15 0 0 69.7

* Responses are sum marized as means, based on the m idpoints o f each frequency interval

TABLE 5Fundam ental analysis: frequency of use of alternative asset valuation bases

Usually Sometimes Seldom

Historical cost balance sheet value 16 8 3

Value adjusted for curren t cost offixed assets and stock 8 14 5

Value adjusted for general purchasingpower changes 2 9 16

Value on realization 5 13 9

dividend yield was only used infrequently. In general, all the respondents followed the same procedure to predict company’s share price by looking at the overall view of a share and examining the factors that affect the value of the share.

More than 65% of respondents emphasized the earnings, compared to the market value, essentially the estimation of two key numbers: the normalized earnings per share and the price- earnings ratio. For both the normalized earnings per share and the price-eamings ratio, the growth rate and pattern of earnings and dividends are crucial. If they knew the present level of earnings and the growth rate to be experienced over the

next period, the earnings for the next period could be estimated with a high degree of accuracy. By the same token, the central determinant of the price-earnings ratio is the expected earnings growth for the future.

The results shown in Table 4 indicate that 74% of respondents used the discounted cash flow technique and cash flow analysis. Measuring a company’s cash flow is a good way to estimate its economic income and the present value of an equity share’s free cash flow provides a good estimate of its intrinsic value. In estimating a share’s intrinsic value, many factors are evaluated subjecdvely and the three such factors identified



are the financial strength of the company (52%), managerial style (63%) and industry factors (37%).

Financial strength of the company includes the intrinsic value of the company, the liquidity, operating profitability, gearing capacity and a healthy balance sheet. Whereas management style includes quality o f m anagem en t (management growth potentials, namely has strong management), growth of the company and its production capacity (the nature of the business; its operations; viability and credibility of current on going projects and prospective, future projects). The industry factors comprise the degree of competition especially from firms in the similar industry, expected outlook on the related industry, future market conditions and environmental factors.

Table 5 shows that the most popular base for asset valuation is the historical cost in the balance sheet relative to current cost, realizable value and general price level. It could be that if enough inform ation is available and well understood by users on current cost, realizable value and general price level, the base for asset valuation may change.

Forecasts of AnalystsWhen appraising ordinary shares many analysts forecast some aspects of the performance of the

company or of its shares. Findings in Table 6 indicate that the average forecast period is 2-3 years and 85% of respondents felt that this length of period is sufficient to give investors confidence regarding the perform ance and future prospects of the company. A longer period is considered to diminish the degree of forecasts accuracy.

Respondents suggested that earnings are almost always an important input when making investment decisions. Among all the respondents who prepare forecasts ‘almost always’ forecast pre-tax profit (100%), earnings per share (100%) and price-earnings ratio (100%). Subsequently, the forecasting of post-tax profit (96%) and preinterest profit (96%) are ‘almost always’ or ‘usually’ conducted. This is consistent with the previous description of the importance of price- earnings ratios in share valuation. Among the remaining factors, ratio of turnover to capital employed (only 63%) is of least important but dividends (82%) are a relatively important factor. The forecasts of dividends together with earnings provide an estimate of the company’s future dividend cover and consequently the prediction of risk and growth which are important in determination of the company’s appropriate price-earning ratio. The importance of the accounting earnings numbers relative to cash flow forecasts suggests that the appraisal methods

Table 6 Features o f analysts’ forecasts


How many m onths ahead are forecast How often each o f the following factors

is forecast:*(%)

26.8 1.67

T urnover (sales) 93.6 2.06Pre-interest profit 94.3 2.00Pre-tax profit 98.0 0.00Post-tax profit 95.6 1.85Cash flows 85.8 3.26Dividends 82.4 4.24Earnings per share 98.0 0.00Ratio o f turnover to capital employed 63.3 6.19Return on capital employed 79.6 4.26Price-earnings ratio 98.0 0.00Market value o f the share 83.7 5.39

*Responses were given under five categories from ‘almost always (96-100%*) to ‘hardly ever 0-5% \ identical to those shown in Tables 1, 3, and 7. The m ean responses shown above are based on the m idpoints o f each frequency interval.



are biased towards accrual based earnings rather than cash flows.

Sources of InformationAnalysts utilize various sources of information to help them make an inform ed investm ent decision . Seventeen possible sources of information were identified and are listed in Table 7. The findings reveal that the most important source of information is the company’s annual and in terim financial statem ents, essentially the profit and loss account and balance sheet. The other sources considered important are the statistical and information services, governm en t industry statistics, com pany personnel, source and application of funds, and financial press (items with an average score of below 2). The remaining sources of information were all ranked as being of considerable to moderate importance for investment decisions with the sole exception of employee newsletters. Such newsletters are seldom sources of primary information, but invariably repeat, in a simplified form, data available in companies’ annual reports

to shareholders, which explains the relative lack of interest in employee newsletters.

Malaysian analysts spent more time and effort in analysing quantitative than of qualitative data. The popularity of numerical data and statistical analysis is probably due to the tangibility of the numbers and the easier interpretation and measurement of quantitative data than subjective factors. Moreover, it is readily available and considered a cheap source of information; some are even available free on a subscription basis. More important is that users can obtain accurate information on virtually all phases of the security business from the statistical and information services. The publications on industry statistics are oriented towards the national economy and the effects of its cycles and fluctuations upon various industries. Such information is extremely useful to the analysts in predicting the impact of future movements of the economy on security prices.

Am ong the qualita tive in fo rm ation recognized as important was that obtained from discussions with company personnel, which

TABLE 7Influence of various sources o f inform ation

(5 po in t scale: 1 = vital influence to 5 = no influence)Mean

ResponseStandard ■ E rror Rank

Lee and Tweedie Rank*

Com pany’s annual report:C hairm an’s statem ent 2.52 0.23 14 4D irectors’ report 2.70 0.21 16 9Balance sheet 1.48 0.15 3 1Profit and loss account 1.44 0.14 2 1Source and application

of funds 1.81 0.19 7 7C urren t cost data 2.07 0.21 11 10Value added statem ent 2.26 0.22 12 -

Unqualified audit report 2.48 0.18 13 -Qualified audit report 2.00 0.19 9 -

Quarterly and half-yearly results 1,41 0.12 1 3Employee newsletters 3.81 0.21 17 11Governm ent industry statistics 1.74 0.14 5 -

Statistical and inform ationservices 1.70 0.15 4 8

Financial press 1.89 0.17 8 6Trade journals 2.04 0.18 10 -Company personnel 1.78 0.17 6 5O ther investm ent analysts 2.56 0.14 15 -

^Source: Lee and Tweedie (1981), Tables 39, 45 and 51. No entry indicates inform ation no t included in Lee and Tweedie study



revealed information for verification purposes and was not always readily available in published form at the point of discussion.

The source and application of funds statem ent has significant influence on the investment appraisal because it shows the sensitivity of the available cash flows to the company’s business operations and helps plan the required financing and debt servicing capability for additional investments.

Financial press reports provide a good source of background information for analysts seeking to assess a company’s prospects as they reveal the current inform ation on earnings, which is important in ascertaining the expected future performance. In addition, the financial press is used to ascertain any ‘hidden’ (sometimes termed ‘surprising’) information about companies; that is, previously undisclosed inform ation of immediate interest. These are the probable reasons y^hy many respondents scan sources of information other than annual reports.

Other sources of information utilized by analysts to appraise investment in ordinary shares are chart trends, published information by or about the company, latest news from Kuala Lumpur Stock Exchange (KLSE) circulars or KLSE announcem ents, newspaper cuttings, library, com pany prospectus, com petitors, customers, and perhaps their own experience in the sector. In general, all information sources are useful as stocks are information sensitive.

It is also interesting to know how the available information is interpreted and used in making decisions. First, the credibility of the information is determined before it is analysed and interpreted in relation to the company’s growth and profitability, expected future earnings and consequently a pro-forma earnings per share and price-earnings ratio are determined and compared with the current market determined ratios, historical trend, and the average ratios of o th er com panies in the secto r and the competitors. Besides the quantitative information, analysts use their own judgem ent based on their knowledge of the industry and discussions with those ‘in the know’ about the company and the industry to arrive at a decision on the potential profitability of the shares.

Overall, the reported financial information in annual reports is considered the most important source of information in appraising shares of listed companies because of the

expected reliability of the audited statements about company operations, contains important financial data and provides a basis of past performance to forecast future performance.

Investment Appraisal

The common practice of predicting a company’s share price at some time in the future involves estimating earnings for the current year and applying an ‘appropriate’ price-earnings ratio to the estimated earnings in order to predict future market price. Comparison between predicted market price and current market price then determines the worthiness of the share from the investm ent’s perspective. The differences observed were in the area of estimating earnings. Most respondents used the common approach to the selection of an appropriate price-earnings ratio, considering the view of the company taken by the market over the preceding few years (29%) and the company’s balance sheet (26%). O ther factors considered were the industry average (which involved the comparison between particular company and the average of other similar companies in the industry), historical price-earnings ratio of the company, liquidity position, gearing ratio and growth prospects. Surprisingly, only 7% of respondents considered prospective earnings, quality of earnings, riskiness and peer comparison as important variables for selection of an appropriate price-earnings ratio.

A majority of the respondents (over 80%) agreed that market sentiment is affected by the ‘quality’ of the company’s earnings. The quality is measured in terms of stability of the earnings stream and hence lower risk. Companies with quality earnings will consistently get high ratings and the positive market sentiment will ensure a high share price. Companies with low quality earnings will have lower share price and a lower price-earnings ratio.

A majority of the analysts (85%) also examined the previous and curren t price- earnings ratios of the firm under consideration and of other firms of similar size and business, mainly for benchmarking purposes to assess relative performance of other industry players (valuation to the competition). Many analysts made judgements about the likely future price- earnings ratio for the firm being evaluated based on the forecasted future price-earnings ratio (normally two-year forecast). This m ethod provides some form of future valuation of the



share which is then compared to the current share price. For instance, underpriced shares would suggest poor m anagem ent, laggard industry while overpriced shares would suggest a fast-growth share a n d /o r m anipulation by insiders.

It should be noted that the analyst’s forecasted price earnings ratio may differ significantly from the market’s perspective. Over 60% of respondents agreed, suggesting that the difference could be due to differences in the information used, for example, the analyst’s estimation is based on the fundamental factors such as earnings prospects and growth rate whereas market price-earnings ratio is estimated based on market sentiments and investors’ expectations of the future earnings of the company. The difference could also be due to m an ipu lation of accounting inform ation , inefficiency on the part of the market or wrong evaluation of company as well as different opinions.

More than half of the respondents used price-earnings ratio (PER) to estimate the company’s market value and compared it to historical company PER, m arket PER and industry PER. Subsequently, 8 out of 27 respondents used discounted cash flow valuation (i.e., net present value) and cash flow analysis. Typically, asset backing such as net as§et valuation (for a property-based company), net tangible assets (look at revised net tangible assets; revised suggests that the analyst made a revaluation of the company) and market asset value remained a considerable elem ent in estim ating the company’s market value.

Most analysts seem to prefer a microeconomic ra th e r than m acroeconom ic approach in appraising company shares. The latter approach requires extensive efforts in terms of collection and interpretation of the information, and a wide prospective sometimes may not be applicable to certain industries or companies.

The findings discussed in this section imply that the procedures for estimating earnings varied considerably between analysts depending upon whether the analyst is an ‘analytical’ or ‘artistic’ type. An analytical analyst conducts a detailed analysis of the available financial information on the company and verifies the credibility of the available information through re liab le sources such as the com pany’s management. An artistic analyst, on the other

hand , follows no system atic fo recasting procedures and does not consider many micro and macro variables other than annual reports and refined gut feelings based on discussions with company officials.

Discussions with Company Management Two-thirds of the respondents (67%) discussed the company’s financial performance with its management 1-3 times a year and 29% of them arranged more frequent visits. Company visits are also arranged when a major development occurs in the company. Besides meeting with the company management, 89% of analysts who declared that their organizations conducted company visits also met and discussed relevant matters with other officials during such visits.

Company visits are conducted to ascertain the quality of management, to examine the validity and accuracy of the forecasts, estimates and assumptions made, to review the progress of on-going and new projects, and to confirm the company’s proposed business projects’ state of affairs and the future plans of the company. The overall aim of a visit could, therefore, be deemed to be an aid to the interpretation of the company’s financial results by the construction of a frame of reference of future expectations. Table 8 shows the frequency of thirteen items of information that are provided by company management during discussions.

It is interesting to note that the effects of the general economic climate were perceived to be the most frequently (80%) mentioned item by the company management during discussions, followed by long-term objectives and plans (79%), outlook of demand for the company’s products (74%) and details of changes in product range (71% ). Only a few re sp o n d en ts sough t information on costs and margins data (42%), and changes in key personnel (45%) during company visits. Most of the information solicited from company management was not given on a voluntary basis as m anagem ent provided information only to the questions asked by analyst.

In essence, 52% of the respondents declared that they did discuss the investment decisions with company management in their decisionmaking processes. Of these, 67% ultimately followed their own pred ic tions after the discussions (they were sceptical of management’s opinions). Another 18% of respondents tended



TABLE 8Frequency of provision of inform ation by company m anagem ent

Almost Usually Sometimes Seldom Hardly Average*always ever

(96-100%) (66-95%) (36-65%) (6-35%) (0-5%) (%)

Details o f changesin p roduct range 6

Details o f research anddevelopm ent projects 0

Long-term objectivesand plans 11

Changes in keypersonnel 1

Reasons for pasttrading perform ance 8

Reasons for balancesheet changes 6

M anagem ent com m ents on analyst’s own forecasts 4

Data on costs and m argins 3 Outlook o f dem and for

the com pany’sproducts 10

C urrent labour situation Effects of the general 8

econom ic climate 11Plans for future capital

investm ent 8Inform ation on

com petitors 4

13

12

8

6

9

8

11

810

14

6

4

10

8

10

7

10

129

83

5

13

4 0 71.1

3 2 56.9

0 0 78.7

5 5 4.5

0 3 69.2

3 0 66.6

62.442.0

74.0

69.580.6

62.2

53.1

*Responses are sum marized as means, based on the m idpoints o f each frequency interval.

to follow the company management predictions, whilst the remaining 15% stated that both parties’ predictions were taken into considerations. Specifically, a majority of these respondents (74%) declared that the earnings forecasts used by them were often the result of the discussions between the two parties. Besides meeting the company management, they (89%) also met with other company officials to obtain extra information about the company.

Comparison with Ijee and Tiueedie’s Study The findings of this study are compared to those of a similar study in the United Kingdom by Lee and Tweedie (1981), who used a prepared questionnaire to interview 136 senior investment analysts of financial institutions and 61 analysts of brokerage firms. The rankings from these studies (shown in Table 7) are remarkably similar. In both cases the most influential information

sources were the interim results, annual profit and loss account and balance sheet. Similarly, the discussions with company personnel, the statement of source and application of funds and financial press were also considered important sources of information while the employee newsletters were considered the least important.

CONCLUSIONMost analysts almost always use fundamental analysis in appraising shares even when other techniques are used. Fundamentalists usually provide their clients with a wealth of details, which is believed to give the client the psychological satisfaction that they are getting ‘value for their money’. Technical analysis is also used by analysts, but to a lesser extent than fundamental analysis; beta analysis is hardly used at all. F u n d am en ta l analysis and technicalanalysis complement each other in the


Shamsher Mohamad and Annual* Md Nassir

sense that the former identifing the mispriced share while the latter suggests when to trade on the share. Beta analysis is primarily used by a few analysts for evaluation o f p o rtfo lio management performance.

A lthough m uch less p o p u la r than fundamental analysis, technical analysis is used at least sometimes by a vast majority of investment analysts. Assum ing the m arket is fairly informationally efficient, stock prices will follow a random-walk and technical analysis will not be able to help generate profitable investment opportunities. However, technical analysis is still popular with investors, probably because of the belief in the economic viability of the tool as markets are only economically and not perfectly efficient. As analysts and investors compete to exploit their common knowledge of a stock’s price history, they necessarily drive stock prices to levels where expected rates of return are commensurate with risk, or what is commonly known as ‘fairly priced’.

It is interesting to note that although fundamental and technical analysis are perceived to be the principal techniques used by Malaysian brokerage firm investment analysts, a vast majority still practise the gut feeling technique and provide brokerage services to their clients without conducting analysis of relevant information.

Some fundamental factors were forecasted by analysts and essentially the three most important variables of the analysts’ approach were the use of various financial ratios, the estimate of ‘true’ value of the price-earnings ratio and the estimate of the market value by applying price-earnings ratio to a forecast of next year’s earnings. The procedures for estimating earnings, however, varied between analysts, which makes it difficult to conduct a comparative analysis.

On average, investment analysts forecast for two or at most three years ahead. This relatively short period is regarded as reliable compared to the normal period of five years, which is often considered too long for any reliable estimates. The three most frequently forecasted variables of analysis are the pre-tax profit, earnings per share and price-earnings ratio, consistent with the perceived importance of the price-earnings ratio in share evaluation.

Most analysts used accounting based earnings rather than cash flows to estimate the expected value of a share. They did not view the assessment

and prediction of cash flows and some analysts were ignorant about discounted cash flow techniques. A majority of analysts in this study can be classified as ‘analytical analysts’ who usually conduct a detailed analysis and base their conclusion primarily on this analysis. The others can be considered ‘artistic analysts’ who under take minimal analysis and base their decisions prim arily on th e ir u n in fo rm ed judgement.

Investment analysts made considerable use of many sources of available financial information. The most commonly mentioned sources were interim and annual financial reports, particularly, the profit and loss account and the balance sheet. This implies that audited financial statements play a prominent role in appraisal of share values.

' Company visits were made by most analysts to assess the quality o f the com pany’s m anagem ent and future prospects of the company. Contrary to expectations, most analysts regarded these visits as relatively unimportant, ranking them only sixth in influence behind annual reports and other sources of financial information. The most frequently discussed issues were the effects of the change in economic climate on the company’s performance, longterm objectives and plans, outlook of demand for the company’s products, and details of changes in product range. This information is considered im portant for verification and investm ent decision w ithin the analysts’ organizations. Generally, company management provides information on an involuntary basis, that is only providing answers to questions asked by respondents.

From the efficient market theory point of view, it is possible that even though the market reacts quickly and in the right direction to new information the resulting prices might still be far off the true value, creating pockets of economically exploitable inefficiencies. Second, even if market prices are set according to the share valuation models recommended in the literature, only a few analysts use those models. Consequently, the institutional investors by whom the analysts are employed or the clients to whom they make recommendations may be missing opportunities to make gains or to avoid losses when new information becomes available.

In conclusion, the findings of this study provide some insights into the methods used by



investment analysts in brokerage firms in Malaysia to appraise the value of ordinary shares. However, the findings are inconclusive on the issue of how recommendations regarding a particular share are arrived at. This requires direct observation, structured interviews and questionnaires for clarification purposes, which is the subject matter of on-going research.

REFERENCESA r n o l d , J. and P. M o iz f r . 1984a. A survey of the

methods used by UK investment analysts to appraise investments in ordinary shares. Accounting and Business Research 24: 195-207.

A r n o l d , J. and P. M o iz e r . 1984b. Share appraisal by investment analysts—portfolio vs. non-portfolio managers. Accounting and Business Research 25: 341-348.

B haskar , K.N. and R.C. M o r r is . 1984. The accuracy of brokers’ profit forecasts in the UK. Accounting and Business Research 36: 113-124.

B jerring , J.H., J. I a k o n is h o k and T. V erm aelen .

1983. Stock prices and financial analysts’ recommendations. Journal of Finance 1: 187- 204.

B r o w n , L.D., G.D. R ic h a r d so n and S.J. Sen w ager .

1987. An information interpretation of financial

analyst superiority in forecasting earnings. Journal of Accounting Research 25: 49-67.

F o r be s , W.P. and L.C.L. S kerratt , 1992. Analysts’ forecast revisions and stock price movements. Journal of Business Finance and Accounting 19: 555-569.

G ivoly, D. and J. I a k o n is h o k . 1984. The information content of financial analysts’ forecasts of earnings: Some evidence on semi-strong inefficiency. Journal of Accounting and Economics 1: 165-185.

G r o t h , R., W. L e w e l l e n , G . S c h l a r b a u m and R. L ease . 1979. An analysis of a brokerage house securities recommendations. Financial Analysts Journal 35: 32-40.

L a th a m , M. 1985. Defining capital market efficiency. Finance working paper 150, Institute for Business and Economic Research, University of California, Berkeley.

L ee , T.A. and D.P. T w eedie . 1981. The Institutional Investor and Financial Information. The Institute of Chartered Accountants in England and Wales.

(Received 28 February 1996)


Pertanika J. Soc. Sci. & Hum. 5(2): 139-144(1997) ISSN: 0128-7702 © Universiti Putra Malaysia Press

Measuring Labour Productivity through Labour Requirement Approach: The Malaysian Experience

ZAKARIAH ABDUL RASHID and CHAN KHAI YEW*Economics Department

Universiti Putra Malaysia Faculty of Economics and Management

43400 Serdang, Selangor, Malaysia

Keywoods: sectoral labour productivity, input-output analysis, direct and indirect labour requirements, comparative measurements o f labour productivity

ABSTRAKKertas kajian ini mengukur produktiviti. buruh dengan menganggar keperluan langsung buruh dan keperluan tidak langsung buruh bagi setiap unit output yang dihasilkan. Anggaran keperluan buruh ini diperolehi dengan menggunakan kaedah input-output. Kajian ini juga menggunakan dua jadual input-output untuk dua tahun yang berasingan supaya hasil kajian ini menjadi lebih man tap. Hasil kajian kemudian diuji dengan membandingkannya dengan indikator produktiviti buruh yang biasa digunakan seperti nilai ditambah setiap buruh, upah dan gaji setiap buruh dan output kasar setiap buruh. Hasil kajian ini menarik kerana walaupun keperluan langsung buruh memberikan ukuran yang mantap bagi keseluruhan ekonomi namun sektor- sektor tertentu menunjukkan pentingnya peranan keperluan tidak langsung buruh dalam mengukur produktiviti buruh.

ABSTRACTThe present paper measures labour productivity by estimating direct and indirect labour requirements per unit of output. Labour requirements are estimated by using an input-output technique. The paper uses two input-output tables for two different periods to ensure the results are more consistent. The results of the study were then tested by comparing them with the ordinary measures of labour productivity such as value- added per labour, salaries and wages per labour and output per labour. It is interesting to note that although for the whole economy direct labour requirement appears to be the consistent measure of labour productivity, for some sectors of the economy indirect labour requirement is also important.

INTRO DUCTIO N

In many production processes, labour costs represent a substantial proportion of total cost, with costs of materials. A rise in labour cost ordinarily alters many economic decisions with respect to technological changes and obsolescence of techniques (Zakariah 1989). An economy experiencing a rapid increase in its labour cost would lose its competitive edge in the world market unless its rate of increase in labour productivity at least compensates the increase in the labour cost. Improvement in labour productivity is measured as the amount of output per unit of labour which leads to a more competitive production process. Rising labour productivity, therefore, seems to be the only way to solve the problems of a tight labour market, which is normally found in a progressive economy.

In Malaysia, present labour shortages began in the plantation sectors of oil palm and rubber and have spread to o ther sectors such as construction and manufacturing. The crisis is felt most acutely in the manufacturing sector, the economy’s engine of growth, which accounts for 23.9% of total employment. As indicated in the Economic Report 92/93 (Ministry of Finance 1992), the manufacturing sector continued to achieve double digit growth of 13% in 1992. In terms of employment, the manufacturing sector still led other sectors in generating 74,000 new jobs in 1992. With a projected deficiency in the rate of growth of the labour force (2.9% per year) compared to the rate of job growth (3.1% per year), the current labour crisis will be persistent, at least in the short term.

Labour productivity, measured by added value per worker, has improved in recent years.

Zakariah Abdul Rashid and Chan Khai Yew

In 1991, it amounted to RM25,021 with a growth rate of 9.54% during (MITI 1994). Labour productivity in the manufacturing sector grew by 4.5% over the 1988-1992 period, compared with 3.4% in agriculture, and 3.1% in mining sectors, but slower than the construction and services sectors which registered 5.1 and 5.5%, respectively (Table 1).

O shim a (1989) shows th a t labour productivity grew at 3.8% in Malaysia in the period 1960-1980. The growth rate was higher than the average productivity growth of 2.7% for Southeast Asian countries as a whole during the same period, but lower than the average for the newly industrializing economies (NIEs).

Many studies on labour productivity describe average productivity of the whole economy or broad sectors of the economy. Maisom and Mohd Ariff (1994), however, computed labour productivity by sector (3-digit Malaysian Industrial Classification) to explain the contribution of labour productivity to total factor productivity growth of the Malaysian economy. By using traditional two-factor production function, the study does not take into account the interindustrial relationships that may influence labour productivity in a particular sector. An initial attempt of incorporating direct and indirect labour requirements to fulfil final demand by sectors was made by Zakariah (1991).

DATA AND METHODOLOGY

In this paper, industries in Malaysia are classified based on input-output classification, which has been reduced to 40 industries. The input-output tables published by the Department of Statistics are aggregated to 60 x 60. The present study adopts the input-output industrial classification

of the Department of Statistics except the service sectors (sectors 39, 40, 42-60) which have been aggregated to a single “service” industry. The input-output tables used in the study are for the years 1983-1987. Data on the amount of labour engaged, value-added, and salary and wages were collected from the Survey of M anufacturing Industries, published by the same department. Labour is defined as the number of persons engaged and classified according to Malaysian Industrial Classification (MIC) at 3-digit level. The conversion from MIC to input-output classification was done by information given by the Department of Statistics.

Labour coefficient may be defined as the quantity of labour per unit of output and is calculated by dividing the amount due to labour by its total output. It thus shows how much should be contributed directly to labour for each ringgit of output. It is the most widely used index of labour productivity. An increase in input of an industry will increase the demand for labour directly and other industries’ demand for labour indirectly. Through the input-output relations, the d irec t and ind irec t labour requirements per unit of output, which show a comprehensive picture of labour productivity, can be obtained.

Each element in the matrix of Leontief inverse, (I-A)*1, represents direct and indirect requirements of intermediate inputs for one unit increase in final demand. labour coefficient, on the other hand, represents the amount due to labour for each unit of output. Therefore, pre-m ultiplying the row vector of labour coefficient by the Leontief inverse yields the direct and indirect labour requirements per unit of output.

TABLE 1Productivity in the various sectors, 1988-1992

Sector 1988 1989 1990 1991 1992 *Growth rate 1988-1992

M anufacturing 15.9 15.9 16.6 17.7 18.5 4.5Agriculture 7.3 8.0 8.1 8.1 8.4 3.4Mining 183.9 194.3 198.9 203.9 202.0 3.1Construction 6.0 6.2 6.6 7.1 7.5 5.1Services 4.9 3.3 7.4 6.9 4.9 5.5

Note: *C om pounded average annual growth rateSource: MITI, Malaysia, Ministry of International T rade and Industry, Report 1994, p 278, Table 7.27


Measuring Labour Production through Labour Requirement Approach

Now, we can distinguish two concepts of labour productivity. First, direct labour, I, measures labour inputs required per unit of output of a sector. Second, given a complete structural description of the economy, the total (direct and indirect) labour content of structural deliveries to final demand, may be derived:

[i,, i 2 ... i n]

b b ... b II 12 in

b b ... b21 22 2n

b b ... bn l n2 nm

I , 1!

Z j1,

bii

b(2)

where the row vector in the left hand side of equation (1) shows the sectoral lab o u r coefficients while the matrix shows the Leontief inverse matrix, (I-A)'1. Since bij of the matrix represents the inter-dependence coefficients, the first column of the matrix shows the amount of sectoral output directly and indirectly required to fulfil one unit of final demand of the first sector; and the interpretation is accordingly applied to second and nth columns. The product of the above matrix multiplication, shown in the right hand side, thus can be interpreted as follows:

X.I.b.j as the amount of labour directly and indirectly required to fulfil one unit of final demand of the first sector. Similarly, ETb.g and subsequently ETb^ are, respectively, the amount of labour directly and indirectly required to fulfil a unit increase in final demand of the second and nth sectors. And the grand total IXIb.., therefore, represents the total amount of labour directly and indirectly required to fulfil one unit increase of final demand.

The above expression can be compactly written as:

I* = l(I-A )1 (2)

Aij: element in the Leontief inverse is the direct and indirect increase in output of sector i for each increase in final output of sector j

IA..: direct and indirect labour to produce one unit of sector j output

where I* is vector of man-years required to deliver a unit of labour of each sector’s product to final demand. Changes in 1 measure changes in the overall labour requirements of an economy in delivering various kind of final outputs. Such changes are the net result of changes in direct and indirect labour coefficient of many sectors and of shifting division of labour among sectors. Concurrent analysis of changes in direct and in total labour requirement for particular output gives some notion of the importance of shifting industrial specialization in the changing productivity picture.

Since direct requirements of labour describe the amount of labour required in a particular industry to produce a unit of output, whereas its indirect requirements are the amount of labour required as a result of expansion of other industries, the latter is a result of inter-industrial relationships among industries.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Table 2 shows the results of simple regressions of each of the direct and indirect requirements of value-added per labour cost and value-added per employee for 1990. The direct requirements of labour appear to be a better measurement of labour productivity compared to the indirect requirements of labour. The adjusted R square is higher and the coefficient of the independent variable is highly significant in the first measurement, whereas the coefficient in the second measurement is insignificant.

TABLE 2D irect and indirect labour requirem ents as m easurem ent of labour productivity, 1990

Value-added per labour cost Value-added per employee

R-Square Coefficient P-Value R-Square Coefficient P-Value

Direct 0.354 -1.835 0.0002 0.262 -0.00006 0.0018Indirect 0.043 -0.169 0.135 0.063 -0.000007 0.0934

Note: data on independen t variables are com piled from Industrial Survey, 1990.



The present study examined which of the two independent variables, value-added per labour cost or value-added per employee, explained better the direct requirements of labour. Both variables show the expected negative sign of the coefficients, implying that as labour productivity increases less labour is required directly. Table 2 reveals that the value-added per labour cost explained better the variation in the direct requirements of labour. The adjusted R square for value-added per labour cost is 0.354, compared to value-added per employee of 0.262. Both variables have highly significant coefficients.

Changes in the number of persons engaged and in salary and wages can be used to detect productivity changes. Since the former does not take into account differences in skill levels whereas the latter varies directly with skill levels, changes in salary and wages will capture productivity differences better among different categories of workers. This may be the explanation behind the different values of the adjusted R-square shown in the Table 2.

The size of the coefficients explains the sensitivity of value-added per labour cost, and value-added per employee variables (exogenous) on the labour requirements variable (endogenous). Given an increase in the labour productivity, as measured by a decrease in the amount of labour required per unit of output, a relatively larger increase in value-added per labour cost than those in value-added per employee would be expected.

Since direct requirements of labour describe the amount of labour required in a particular industry to produce a unit of output whereas indirect requirements are the amount of labour required as a result of an expansion of other industries, the latter is a result of an interindustrial relationships among industries.

Results of our analysis show that in the manufacturing sector, direct requirements are larger than indirect requirements of labour. About 70% of its total requirements represent direct requirements. However, some industries’ indirect requirements are greater than their direct requirem ents. The industries which indirectly require more labour include dairy products, oils and fats, animal feeds, beverages, industrial chemicals, paints, petroleum products, cements, and basic metals. These industries are resource-based industries and linked significantly with the rest of the sectors, their backward

linkage indices are generally higher than the average (Zakariah 1994). The direct influence of labour requirements tends to deteriorate, perhaps due to the non-improvement in the economy’s inter-industrial linkages (UNIDO 1992).

T able 3 shows the in d irec t labour requirements in 1971, 1981 and 1990 to fulfil final dem and in resource-based and n onresource-based industries. The results show that resource-based industries indirectly require larger amounts of labour than non-resource- based industries do. However, the difference in the average indirect requirements of labour between the industries is non-significant. The weighted average (Lespeyres indices sectoral gross outputs as weights) of the ind irect requirements of labour in the resource-based industries in 1971, 1981 and 1990 are, respectively, 27.218, 7,941 and 5,601 while those in the non-resource industries based are 22.119, 7.594 and 5.468.

The above results imply that improvement in labour productivity in the resource-based industries is more a result of an expansion of other industries, whereas improvement in labour productivity in the non-resource-based industries is a result of an expansion in its own industries.

The indirect requirements of labour in the non-resource based industry o f electrical machinery is particularly low, about one-half the average requirements of the non-resource based industries. The industry produces amongst the largest output, but has amongst the lowest backward linkages. The indirect requirements of labour in the resource-based industry of furniture and fixtures, on the other hand, are particularly high, about twice the average requirements of the resource-based industries. The industry has a fairly high backward linkage with the rest of the economy.

From the above analysis, resource-based industries have higher-backward linkages and large indirect requirements of labour whereas non-resource based industries have lower backw ard linkages and sm aller in d irec t requirem ents of labour. Testing the above hypothesis, the Spearman rank correlation coefficients between backward linkage indices and indirect requirements of labour for 1983 indices against 1981 requirements and 1987 indices against 1990 requirem ents of 0.208 (n=31) and 0.056 (n=31), respectively; were,


Measuring Labour Production through Labour Requirement Approach

TABLE 3Indirect requirem ents of resource-based and non-resource based industries

(1) (2) (3)Sectors 1971 1981 1980

Resoure-based1 Dairy Foods 26.476 9.853 7.6052 Vegetables and Fruit 22.806 7.773 5.8843 Oils 8c Fats 24.100 7.776 5.4044 Grain Milling 12.252 3.874 2.8285 Bakery and Confectionery 24.855 8.916 6.5996 O ther Foods 18.761 9.446 4.8237 Animal Feed 17.439 6.316 4.7808 Beverages 27.322 9.336 6.5829 Tobacco 16.857 6.456 4.786

10 Sawmills 19.833 6.681 4.99311 Furniture and Fixtures 42.822 14.766 10.15312 R ubber Process 8.663 2.799 2.15913 Rubber Production 22.470 7.213 5.60814 Textiles 38.061 12.359 7.75915 Industrial Chemicals 37.122 6.150 4.00716 Paints, etc 23.628 7.273 5.45617 O ther Chemical Products 28.824 8.960 6.40318 Petrol Production 62.284 5.847 3.11719 Plastic Production 20.107 6.681 5.08620 Glass Production 28.015 7.614 5.68521 C em ent 25.707 7.546 6.10622 Non-Metallic 29.235 8.283 6.01523 Basic Metals 43.666 10.731 6.25424 O ther Metals 31.934 10.942 6.337

Total 653.241 190.591 134.429Average

Non-resource-based27.218 7.941 5.601

1 W earing Apparel 27.558 9.014 6.2652 Paper and Printing 26.112 9.167 6.5173 Non-electrical M achinery 26.234 8.312 5.5084 Electrical Machinery 11.487 4.113 3.2525 M otor Vehicles 19.558 7.323 4.9936 O ther T ransport 24.822 8.562 6.5677 O ther M anufactured Products 19.059 6.668 5.173

Total 154.830 53.159 38.275Average 22.119 7.594 5.467

Source: C om puted from equation (1)N o te :(l) and (2) calculated by using 1983 input-output tables while (3) used 1987 input-output tables.

however, found to be insignificant at 5%. This may be explained by (i) the earlier finding that the indirect requirements of labour in resource based industries is not significantly larger than those in the non-resource based industries; and (ii) the correlation coefficients are calculated from different years (the linkage indices can only be calculated in the years in which input- output tables are published).

CONCLUDING REMARKS

Labour productivity is usually measured by value- added (or output) per unit of labour cost or per unit of employee, but it can also be estimated by labour requirem ents to fulfil a given final demand. The advantage of using the latter is not, it captures both the direct and in d irec t' requirements, incorporating the inter-industrial relationships of an increase in final demand,



whereas the former captures only the direct requirements of labour. The element of indirect requirements of labour on labour productivity changes is particularly important in resource- based industries. We may conclude that measuring labour productivity changes by looking only at the direct requirements of labour may grossly underestimate the “true” changes in labour productivity.

The results of our analysis show that, in general, direct requirements of labour are a better description of labour productivity of the whole economy than to its indirect requirements, thus affirming such studies. However, the role of indirect requirements of labour should not be overlooked, especially when studies are focused on resource-based industries. Although the results are statistically inconclusive as they are limited by the given input-output tables, they certainly provide a clear understanding of the extent of indirect requirem ents of labour, particularly in the strong resource-based backward linkage sectors.

REFERENCESM a i s o m , A . and M o h d . A riff H u s s e i n . 1994.

Decomposition of labour productivity in selected Malaysian manufacturing industries, 1973-1990. Paper presented at Seminar Ekonomi dan Pengurusan, organised by Jabatan Ekonomi, Fakulti Ekonomi dan Pengurusan, Universiti Pertanian Malaysia, at Port Dickson, 18-19 October.

M alaysia D epa r tm en t o f S t a t is t ic s . Input-Output Tables for various years: 1983 and 1987.

M a la y sia D e p a r t m e n t o f S t a t is t ic s . Survey of Manufacturing Industries, fo r v a r io u s y ea rs: 1971, 1981 a n d 1990.

M alaysia M inistry o f F in a n c e . Economic Report 92/93.

M alaysia , M in istry o f I n t e r n a t io n a l T rade a n d

In d u st r y . 1994. M a la y s ia n I n t e r n a t io n a l T r a d e

a n d I n d u s tr y R e p o r t 1994.

O shlma, H arry T. 1989. Savings and investment in Asian productivity growth. Malaysian Journal of Economic Studies 26:

U n id o 1992. Final report on dynamic input-output analysis and sectoral projections of the m anufacturing sector 1990-2000. Kuala Lumpur: Government of Malaysia.

Z ak ariah A b d u l R a s h id . 1989. Price structure, technological obsolescence and labour productivity - a vintage approach. Singapore Economic Revieiv 34:

Z akariah A b d u l R vshid . 1991. Costs of production and labour productivity: 1978 & 1983 Malaysian vintage technology. Jumal Ekonomi Malaysia. 26: 95 - 124.

Z akariah A b d u l Ra sh id and M.S.H. O t h m a n . 1994. Economic impact of oil trade in a developing country: A n empirical investigation of consequences of recent Gulf Crisis in Malaysia. Jurnal Ekonomi Malaysia. 26: 39-55.



Author Index for Volume 5, 1997

Abdul Latif Abdul Kadir 73-82 Abdul Rahman Md. Aroft 39-44 Ahmad Atory Bin Hussain 103-123 Aminah Ahmad 93-101 Annuar Md Nassir 45-57, 59-64, 125-137

Chan Khai Yew 139-144

Enisar Sanggun 1-13

Laily Paim 83-91

Maimunah Ismail 73-82 Marohaini Yusoff 65-71 Md Salleh Hj Hassan 1-13 Mohd. Majid Konting 29-37

Ngu Mee Hua 45-57 Nurizan Yahaya 83-91

Othman Mohamed 15-20

Ramlah Hamzah 21-27

Shamsher Mohamad 45-57, 59-64, 125-137

Zaidatol Akmaliah Lope Pihie 21-27 Zakaria Kasa 39-44 Zakariah Abdul Rashid 139-144 Zulkifli A. Manaf 65-71


i

Subject Index for Volume 5, 1997

Administrative reformleadership factor 103-123

Administrative service reform 103-123

Agricultural knowledge teaching 1-13

Agricultural skills teaching 1-13

Auditing firm reputation 59-64

Bahasa Melayu teachers 29-37, 65-71 Brokerage firms

investment analysts 125-137

Customs officersjob performance 73-82 training 73-82

Educational innovationBahasa Melayu teachers 29-37

Entrepreneurship education 21-27

Gender socializationsecondary school students 15-20

General sectorfemale migrant workers 83-91

Industrial sectorfemale migrant workers 83-91

Initial public offerings 59-64 Instructional notes

teaching of agriculture 1-13 Instructional videos

teaching of agriculture 1-13 Investments

appraisal 125-137

Kuala Lumpur Stock Exchange initial public offerings 59-64 second board 59-64

Labour productivitymeasurment 139-144

Labour requirements 139-144 Leadership factor

administrative reform 103-123 Learning style patterns

secondary scholl students 15-20

Mahathir Mohamad leadership 103-123

Migrant workers women 83-91

Public servicereform 103-123

Role conflictsecretaries 93-101

Sales sectorfemale migrant workers 83-91

Secondary school studentsgender socialization 15-20

. learning style patterns 15-20 Secondary shools

Bahasa Melayu teachers 29-37, 65-71 Secretaries

social support 93-101 work-family conflict 93-101

Share investments appraisal 125-137

Social sypportsecretaries 93-101

Student teacherssubject matter knowledge 21-27 work attitude 39-44 work values 39-44

Subject matter knowledge student teachers 21-27

TeachersBahasa Melayu 29-37, 65-71 education 29-37, 39-44 profesional development 21-27

Units trutsselectivity 45-57 timing: evidence 45-57

Womenmigrant workers 83-91

Work-family conflict secretaries 93-101

Working womensocial support 93-101 work-family conflict 93-101


Acknowledgement

The Editorial Board acknowledges the assistance of the following reviewers in the preparation of Volume 5 of this journal

Dr. Abang Ridzuwan Abang DamitDr. Abdul Aziz Abdul RahmanDr. Abdul Ghani ShafieDr. Abd. Majid IsaProf. Dr. Ahmat AdamAssoc. Prof. Dr. Hajjah Aminah AhmadAssoc. Prof. Dr. Arifin Hj. ZainalEncik Che’ Ibrahim SallehProf. Dr. ChotigeatDr. Daud HamzahProf. Dr. Fauziah Mat NorAssoc. Prof. Dr. Fong Soon YauAssoc. Prof. Halimah AhmadDr. Hashim Kamil

Dr. Jariah MasudAssoc. Prof. Dr. Jayum A. JawanAssoc. Prof. Dr. Mansor Mat IsaProf. Me RaeDr. Rahil Hj. MahyuddinDr. Rahmah HashimDr. Ramli MohamadDr. Rosnani HashimDr. Saiful Azhar RoslyProf. Dr. T. Subahan T. MerahAssoc. Prof. Tunku Mohani Tunku MohtarAssoc. Prof. Dr. Zainal Abidin MohamedDr. Zakaria Kasa

Pertanika J. Soc. Sci. 8c Hum. Vol. 5 No. 2 1997

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If two or more works by the same author are cited together, the author’s name is followed by the various years of publication arranged in chronological order e.g. (Sulaiman 1979, 1980, 1981). In the case of citing an author with several works published in the same year, the works should be distinguished by the addition of a small letter e.g. Choa (1979a); Choa (1979b).

When several authors are cited, they are to be arranged in chronological order and separated by semicolons, e.g. Zaharah 1960; Yong 1980; Lewis 1990.

Serials are to be abbreviated as in the World List of Scientific Periodicals. The abbreviation for Pertanika Journal of Social Science and Humanities is Pertanika J . Soc. Sci. Hum.

The following reference style is to be observed:

BookShamsher Mohamed, Shamsuddin Ismail & Annuar Mohd. Nassir. 1989. Asas Belanjawan Modal. 197p. Serdang: Universiti Pertanian Malaysia Press.

Chapter in Edited BookZahid Emby. 1990. The Orang Asli Regrouping Scheme - converting swiddeners to commerical farmers. In Margins and Minorities - The Peripheral Areas and Peoples of Malaysia, ed. V. T King & M.J.G. Parnwell, p. 94- 109. Hull: Hull University Press.

Unpublished Materials (e.g. theses, reports, documents) Shahwahid, H .O. 1989. Price competitiveness and demand behaviour of Malaysia Meranti lumber and hardwood plywood in the United States’ import market. Ph.D. Dissertation, State University of New York, Syracuse.

Ministry of National Unity. 1973. A socio-economic survey on the new villages in Perak and Melaka. 67p. Malaysia.

SerialsNoran Fauziah Yaakub. 1990. A multivariate analysis of attitude towards teaching. Pertanika 13(2): 267-273.

Conference ProceedingsAmir Awang. 1992. Counselling, human resources development and counseling services. In Proceeding of Asia Pacific Conference on Human Resource Development, ed. Sulaiman M. Yassin, Yahya M at Hassan Kamariah Abu Bakar, Esah Munji and Sabariah Mohd Rashid, p. 243- 246. Serdang: Universiti Pertanian Malaysia.

Pertanika Journal of Social Science & Humanities

Volume 5 Number 2 September 1997

Contents

Pengajaran Kemahiran Menulis Karangan Bahasa Melayu di Sekolah M enengah: Satu Penilaian Kualitatif - Marohaini Yusoff dan Zulkifti A. M an af

Hubungan Keberkesanan Latihan dengan Prestasi Kerja - Abdul L a tif x\bdul Kadir dan M aim unah Ismail

Pendapatan dan Pembelajaran Pekerja Migran Wanita: Suatu Perbandingan antara Sektor Awam, Industri dan Jualan - Laily Paim dan Nurizan Yahaya

Work-Family Conflict and Social Support: A Study o f Female Secretaries in Malaysia - Am inah Ahmad

The Leadership Factor in Administrative Reform in Malaysia, with a Specific Study on the Leadership of Dr. M ahathir M ohamad, Prime Minister of Malaysia - Ahmad Atory Inn Hussain

A Survey of M ethods Used by Malaysian Brokerage Firm Investment Analysts to Appraise Investments in Ordinary Shares - Shamsher Mohamad and A nnuar Aid Nassir

Measuring Labour Productivity through Labour Requirem ent Approach: The Malaysian Experience - Zakariah Abdul Rashid and Chan Khai Yexu

JSSH Vol. 5 (2) Sep. 1997

Documents

Transcript of JSSH Vol. 5 (2) Sep. 1997