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Journal of Popular Education in Africa October, November & December 2020, Volume 4, Number 10, 11 & 12

ISSN 2523-2800 (online) Citation: Atugonza, R; Baguma, P & Balojja, T.D. (2020). Predictors of Stress among Academic Staff of Makerere

University, Uganda. Journal of Popular Education in Africa. 4(12), 23 – 49.

23 Copyright © 2020 African Society for Research on the Education of Adults (ASREA), Nairobi, Kenya

http://www.jopea.org/index.php/current-issue

Predictors of Stress among Academic Staff of Makerere University, Uganda

By

Rose Atugonza,1 Peter Baguma2 &Tom Darlington Balojja3

College of Education and External Studies, Makerere University1

School of Psychology, Makerere University2

East African School of Higher Education Studies and Development, Makerere University3

P.O Box 7062, Kampala, Uganda

Corresponding author’s email: [email protected]

Abstract

This study examined the intra and extra- organisational predictors of stress among the academic

staff of Makerere University. Specifically, the study analysed the predictive influence of intra-

organisational factors, extra-organisational factors and the moderating influence of personal

factors on stress among academic staff. The study followed a Pragmatism paradigm and a

convergent parallel survey design. Data were collected from a sample of 253 respondents,

selected using disproportionate stratified sampling for colleges and staff, and purposive sampling

for administrators. Quantitative data were collected using a questionnaire and analysed using

descriptive and inferential statistics, whereas qualitative data were collected using a structured

interview and analysed thematically. The findings revealed that intra-organisational factors and

extra-organisational factors predicted stress and personal factors had a moderating influence on

stress among academic staff. The combined predictors and moderators contributed 41.9% of the

variance in academic stress (Adjusted R2 = .419). Findings showed that there is high stress at

74.38% reported by academic staff of Makerere University. The study concluded that intra-

organisational factors and extra-organisational factors have a bearing on stress amongst

academic staff, and personal factors interact with intra-organisational and extra-organisational

factors to cause stress among academic staff. A new model has been confirmed and interventions

suggested. The study recommended that managers and supervisors of academic staff in

universities ensure that intra-organisational factors have no bearing on stress amongst academic

staff, the government of Uganda and management of universities should consider the economic

status of academic staff improved to curtail stress among them, and the government of Uganda

and management of universities should put mechanisms to ensure personal health of academic

staff is well catered for.

Keywords: Stress, stressors, intra-organisational and extra-organisational factors

mailto:[email protected]






Predictors of Stress among Academic Staff of Makerere University, Uganda

By

Rose Atugonza, Peter Baguma &Tom Darlington Balojja

1. Introduction

The context of the study was Makerere University, which is the top university in Uganda and one

of the top universities of Africa (Kimbowa, 2013). The vision of the university is to be the

leading institution for academic excellence and innovations in Africa. The university consists of

one school and nine constituent colleges (MUK, 2019; Mugabi, 2014) with 1448 full time

academic staff (Mak, 2017 and Rwendeire, 2017). However, the economic, legal policy, political

and social environment in which academic staff operated in Uganda may be stressful.

The economic crisis severely affects the labour market and employees’ well-being (Mucci,

Giorgi, Roncaioli, Perez, & Arcangeli, 2016). These crises can be in form of insufficient funding,

low and delayed salaries and wages and other resources. Empirical studies in Italy demonstrated

that economic recession and its effects were linked to increased work-related stress, and in some

cases, to the development of mental illness (Giorgi, Shoss, & Leon-Perez, 2015)). For many

Ugandans, the transition of power be it government or institution administration and the rapid

speed of change may cause stress and anxiety about the political environment and the future of

our nation and institutions. Political uncertainty can be challenging, regardless of your beliefs or

where you might fall on the political spectrum (APA, 2019). Social environment related to

noise, lack of privacy, poor temperature control or inadequate facilities, work setting is critical in

increasing workplace stress. This study examined the intra and extra- organisational predictors of

stress among the academic staff of Makerere University.

2. Statement of the Problem

Research on stress among academic and general staff of universities from across the globe

indicates that the phenomenon of occupational stress in universities is alarmingly widespread and

increasing (Winefield, 2014). Stress in the workplace has been a source of controversy for

organizations and employees. A recent study conducted on behalf of the American Psychological

Association showed that between 2007 and 2010 about 70% of surveyed Americans perceived

“work” to be one of the major causes of stress (American Psychological Association, 2010). In

2009, about 40 percent of American adults reported that they feel tense and stressed out during a

typical workday (American Psychological Association, 2009). A survey conducted in the

European Union in 2005 found that on average 22% of workers experienced stress at work, with

substantially higher levels in some of the countries (European Agency for Safety and Health at

Work, 2009). Work-related stress was once associated with senior positions on the organizational

hierarchy, but now it is acknowledged that it is for employees at all levels (Beheshtifar, Malikeh,

Nazarian, & Rahele, 2013). At Makerere University, there is high prevalence of employee

turnover of academic staff, committing of counterproductive behaviours such as frequent strikes,

threats of strikes and absenteeism (Mugizi et al., 2015). All these might have resulted from






unrestrained stress among Makerere university employees. However, there has been lack of

clarity on the predictors of stress among academic staff of Makerere University. Consequently,

this study identifies the predictors of stress among the academic staff at Makerere University

underscoring intra-organisational, extra-organisational and personal factors.

3. Review of Related Literature

Operationally, stress can be defined as a process whereby an individual perceives and responds

to events appraised as overwhelming or threatening to one’s well-being. Stress has been defined

by Ivancevich, Konapaske & Matteson (2013) as an adaptive response, moderated by individual

differences, that is a consequence of any action, situation, or event that places special demands

on a person. Stress can be reported basing on the levels; low and high. As the stress level

increases from low to moderate, so does performance (eustress). At the optimal level (the peak of

the curve), performance has reached its peak. If stress exceeds the optimal level, it will reach the

distress region, where it will become excessive and debilitating, and performance will decline

(Everly & Lating, 2002), as illustrated in Figure 1.

Source: ( Everly & Lating, 2002)

Figure 1: Illustration of Stress Levels by Everly & Lating (2002

As the stress level increases from low to moderate, so does performance (eustress). At the

optimal level (the peak of the curve), performance has reached its peak. If stress exceeds the

optimal level, it will reach the distress region, where it will become excessive and debilitating,

and performance will decline (Everly & Lating, 2002). This can also be explained by the general

adaptation syndrome by Selye, who posits that stress consists of three stages: alarm reaction,

stage of resistance, and stage of exhaustion (Selye, 1936; 1976). If exposure to a stressor

continues over a longer period of time, the stage of exhaustion ensues. At this stage, the person is

no longer able to adapt to the stressor: the body’s ability to resist becomes depleted as physical






wear takes its toll on the body’s tissues and organs. As a result, illness, disease, and other

permanent damage to the body, even death may occur.

The first independent variable in this study was intra-organisational. Intra-organisational

derives from two words, “intra” and “organisation”. Intra originated from the Latin word intra

which means “inside or within” (Muchunsky, 1993 and Marriam, 2006). Intra-organisational

factors, therefore, are those factors within an entity or institution that influence its members.

According to the Asset Model, intra-organisational factors include work overload (Cartwright &

Cooper, 2002). However, in this study the intra-organisational factors were operationalised as

conceived by Muchinsky (1993) and referred to workload, responsibility to people, interpersonal

relationship and organisational culture.

The second independent variable in this study is extra-organisational. The concept of

extra-organisational derives from two words, namely “extra” and “organisation”. Extra comes

from the Latin, extrā which means outside (Marriam, 2006). Therefore, extra-organisational

factors refer to factors outside an entity of institution that influence its members. In this study,

extra-organisational factors were defined based on the Family Stress Theory as referring to

family relations and economic status stressors (Masten, 2018).

The moderating variable in this study was personal factors. These personal factors are the

moderating variables which are, in general terms, qualitative (e.g., sex, marital status, health, and

education) or quantitative (e.g., age, personality and work experience) variables that affect the

direction and/or strength of the relationship between the dependent and independent variables.

Personal factors refer to the individual factors that influence behaviours of individuals (Gifford

& Nilsson, 2014). Individual behaviours refer to personality and demographic characteristics

(Muchinsky, 1993). Personality characteristics are self-owned factors that influence one’s

response to a particular situation, event, or behaviours of an individual including personality

type, locus of control, self-esteem and optimism (Abdullah, Omar & Panatik, 2016).

Demographic factors according to Tarsi (2018) refer to socio-economic characteristics of a

population expressed statistically such as age, sex, experience, family size, marital status,

education level, and health status.

To cope with the stresses of life, a person must first experience the stress that comes with

it. Generally, stressors can be placed in one of two broad categories: chronic and acute. Chronic

stressors include long-term events and acute stressors include short-term focused events that

sometimes go on to experience a great after-event experience (Cohen, Janicki-Deverts, and

Miller, 2007). For this study, stressors were classified as Intra (internal) organizational factors

and other non-organizational (extra-organisation factors). According to Muchinsky (1993), intra-

organisational factors include individual and group factors such as workload and responsibility to

people and organisational factors such as organisational culture.

Workload

Work overload is another common individual stressor (MacDermid & Wittenborn, 2007).

Overload may be of two types: qualitative or quantitative. Qualitative overload occurs when

people feel they lack the ability needed to complete their jobs or that performance standards have

been set too high. Quantitative overload results from having too many things to do or insufficient






time to complete a job (Ivan, Konapaseke and Matteson, 2013). As organizations attempt to

increase productivity, while decreasing workforce size, quantitative overload increases (and so

does stress (Hymowitz & Silverman, 2001). From a health standpoint, numerous studies have

established that quantitative overload can cause biochemical changes, specifically, elevations in

blood cholesterol levels.

Responsibility for People

A person’s status in the workplace can also affect levels of stress. Stress in the workplace has the

potential to affect employees of all categories, and managers, as well as other kinds of workers,

are vulnerable to work overload. However, less powerful employees (those who have less control

over their jobs) are more likely to experience stress than employees with more power. Skakon et

al., (2011) examined managers' and employees perceived stress and work strain. The findings

depicted that managers experienced higher demands, a higher level of conflicts, and lower

degree of social support from peers. They tended to experience significantly lower emotional

stress, whereas this trend was insignificant with regards to behavioural, somatic and cognitive

stress.

Interpersonal Relationships

Interpersonal relationships are simply associations between people. Poor relationships at work

can be a source of stress. Poor relationships may include low trust, lack of cohesion, low

supportiveness, and lack of interest in listening to and dealing with the problems that confront a

group or group member (Ivan, Konapaseke and Matteson, 2013). Interpersonal contacts at

various levels are likely to improve individual well-being (Becchetti, Pelloni & Rossetti, 2007),

and for this reason, they could counteract stress coming from unfavourable work environments:

social relations on and outside of the job are likely to moderate the negative effects of other

psychosocial risks, the impacts of which are more marked when relationships provide little

support (ILO, 2016; Cohen & Wills, 1985).

Organizational Culture

Culture in an organization is perceived as a great force and social glue that holds organisational

members together (Schein, 2009). Like individuals, organizations have distinct personalities. The

personality of an organization is shaped largely by its top executives. A tyrannical and autocratic

executive team can create a culture filled with fear (Ma, Karri & Chittipeddi, 2004). Inspection

of the job stress literature revealed role stressors and the specific task being performed by the

employees, such as role conflict (conflicting information about jobs), role ambiguity and over

workload (too much work to be completed) and this has been found to be related to emotional

fatigue, depersonalization, commitment on job and turnover (Okamoto & Teo, 2011).

Extra-Organisational Factors

Extra-organisational factors are factors outside the organisation that have an influence on the

perorations of the organisation such as family relations and economic situation (Masten, 2018).

Saufi, Thai, Seok and Eranza (2013) indicate that extra-organisational factors are believed to be






related to stress. As such, these factors include family problems, health problems, financial

difficulties, and conflicts of personal and organizational beliefs as well as corporate interests

with family needs. Occupational health events can have a detrimental effect on the well-being of

the employee at work and as a result have led to a high level of conflict in the workplace.

Masten, (2018) included family relations and economic status stressors.

Family Relations

Our close relationships with friends and family, especially the negative aspects of this

relationship, can be a powerful source of stress. Negative aspects of close relationships can

include improper exchanges and conflicts, lack of emotional support or confession, and a lack of

appreciation by reciprocation. The stress produced outside work is likely to impact a person’s

work behaviour and performance (Ivancevich, Matteson, & Konopaske, 2013).

Socio-Economic Status

According to APA (2012), socioeconomic status is the social standing or class of an individual or

group. It is often measured as a combination of education, income and occupation. Examinations

of socioeconomic status often reveal inequities in access to resources, plus issues related to

privilege, power and control. At times, the financial burdens of multigenerational households or

living in overcrowded quarters can lead to stress that can trigger elder abuse (American

Psychological Association, 2012). Low income, poor health and low social support all

independently predict neglect (Acierno et al., 2009). Lower socioeconomic status is reliably

associated with a number of important social and environmental conditions that contribute to

chronic stress burden, including crowding, crime, noise pollution, discrimination, and other

hazards or stressors (Baum, Garofalo & Yali, 1999).

Personal Factors

The relationship between intra-organizational factors (workload, responsibility for others,

interpersonal relationships, and organizational culture), and extra-organizational factors (family

relationships and socio-economic status) and stress is not straightforward. This relationship can

be influenced by other factors called moderators. Moderators such as; personality traits (locus of

control, optimism and self-esteem) and demographics such as; age, gender(sex) and level of

education. A moderator is a valuable attribute that affects the nature of a relationship (Baron &

Kenny, 1986). While numerous moderators are extremely important, this study focuses on;

personality factors and demographics. Personal factors refer to distinguishing characteristics

among individuals that affect behaviour. Ivancevich and Matteson (1980) conceptualised

personal factors as; personality factors (locus of control, self-esteem, optimism), and

demographic characteristics including age, sex, educational level and health status health have a

moderating influence on stress. Eysenck and Eysenck (1985) posit that preferences for different

kinds of occupation and occupational success are both determined to some extent by personality.

Eysenck (1970) explains personality as, a stable and enduring organization of human nature, his

temperament, his ingenuity and his body determining his unique adaptation to nature. Scholars

(e.g. Bak, Andersen, Bacher & Bancila, 2012; Colacion-Quiros & Gemora, 2016; Desa et al.,






2014; De Silva & Thilakasiri, 2014; El-Amin, Abdul-Moniem & Singh, 2015; Kaewanuchit &

Muntaner , 2015; Reevy & Deason, 2014) have related personal characteristics and stress.

Locus of control

Locus of control refers to the tendency to see effects on life as a result of your actions and then

under your control (i.e., internal locus of control), as opposed to being determined by external

factors, such as opportunities or other dynamics (i.e., external locus of control) (Rotter, 1966;

Keenan and McBain, 1979). Control of health outcomes (i.e., internal locus of control) has often

been associated with good health and well-being, while reliance on opportunity and / or other

influences (i.e., external locus of control) has been associated with poor health and negative

stress (Reknes, Visockaite, Liefooghe, Lovakov and Einarsen, 2019). People with high internal

control often try to control their environment, while those with high external control levels often

feel helpless because they see that the effects on life are beyond their control (Keenan and

McBain, 1979). Jha and Bano (2012) analyzed the effect of locus of control on job stress in a

study involving workers from various fields in the state of Uttar Pradesh in India as analysis

units. Their analysis showed that the internal locus of control had a negative significant

relationship with organisational role stress.

Self-esteem

Self-esteem can be generally described as an individual’s overall global evaluation of themselves

as a person, from negative to positive (Coopersmith, 1967; Damon, 1983). Positive self-esteem

has been linked to successful adjustment across a wide variety of domains (Kling, Hyde,

Showers, & Buswell, 1999). Self-esteem has also been shown to be useful for people facing

various health challenges, including work pressures (Mossholder, Bedian, & Armenakis, 1981).

As a characteristic of self, self-esteem is used to describe people's perceptions of how they

respect themselves or accept themselves and their feelings (Rosenberg, 1965; Lou et al., 2011).

Workers who are low in self-esteem lack this ‘buffer’ against stressors and hence are more likely

to be sensitive to, and adversely affected by, the presence of negative environmental or

workplace events.

Optimism

Optimism is a psychological trait characterized by positive expectations about future outcomes

that have been associated with better psychological and physical well-being, particularly during

times of stress (Scheier & Carver, 1992; Smith & MacKenzie, 2006). Optimism is thought to

play a protective role in stress-related conditions such as the metabolic syndrome (Cohen,

Panguluri, Na, & Whooley, 2010), reduced immune functioning ( 2009; Roy et al., 2010), and

cardiovascular diseases (Giltay, Kamphuts, Kabmijn, Zitman, & Kromhout, 2006; Nabi et

al., 2010; Tindle, Davis, & Kuller, 2010).

https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1111/psyp.12806#psyp12806-bib-0050












Age

Mauno, Ruokolainen & Kinnunen (2013) examined whether an employee's age moderates the

relationships between job stressors (i.e., job insecurity, workload, work-family conflict) and self-

rated well-being (i.e., work-family enrichment, life satisfaction, job satisfaction, vigour at work).

They found out that, in a situation of high job insecurity, the younger employees reported higher

work-family enrichment, job satisfaction, and vigour compared to their older colleagues. Many

researchers have argued that age can affect several aspects of the workplace stress system

(Rauschenbach, Krumm, Thielgen, & Hertel, 2013). Negative emotions, such as stress and anger,

are similar in that they consistently decline with age. After 50 things start dropping off

dramatically in terms of worry and stress.

Sex

Extensive research has been carried out to compare the occupational stress of male and female

individuals in different scenarios. Researches revealed different outcomes where in some

research studies, it was found that gender differences have no effect on occupational stress

(Hasan, 2014) while in some researches it was revealed that males were more occupationally

stressed as compared to females (Sackey & Sanda, 2011). On the other hand, some research

studies exposed that females are more occupationally stressed as compared to the male

counterpart (Butt, 2009; Suandi, Ismail, & Othman, 2014).

Educational Level

Galanakis et al. (2020) studied occupational stress among primary school teachers, with a sample

of 167 teachers of all specialities from public primary schools in Greece, to link educational level

and tenure to job stress. The results showed high levels of stress among teachers who did not

receive a Masters's Degree. This compares with a study by Spiromitros & Iordanidis (2017), in

which those with bachelor's degrees have lower levels of stress compared to those with a master's

degree. The overall stress level of professors is now second only to the recently unemployed

when compared to other professions (Korotkov et al., 2008). Increasing numbers of academic

positions are now untenured, workloads have increased and academics are under increasing

pressure to ‘publish or perish’ (Dollard, Winefield, & Winefield, 2003).

It’s a requirement to attain a PhD to be a lecturer in universities and this is also a

stressful moment, working as one pursues studies. Through intensive research, researchers have

found that doctoral students’ attrition is associated with two key factors, stress (Lovitts, 2001)

and feelings of isolation (Ali & Kohun, 2006; Hawlery, 2003; Lewis, Ginsberg, Davies, &

Smith, 2004). First, in terms of stress, PhD students generally “... face great demands on their

time, energy, intelligence, endurance, patience, and planning skills” (Committee on the College

Student, 2000, p. 1); all of which increases their level of stress. PhD students are more stressed

than the general public, and report that their stress is largely due to their graduate programs

(Cahir & Morris, 1991). The pressures of PhD research include related poverty, anxiety, lack of

sleep, academic needs, fear of failure, trials, and time problems (Bowman & Bowman, 1990;

Esping, 2010). In addition, PhD students also find themselves having to manage their new roles,

develop and maintain new relationships, and build their identity (Golde, 1998; Lee, 2009;






Weidman, Twale, & Stein, 2001). Because of these requirements imposed on PhD students, their

stress levels continue, and even increase, as they continue with their programs (Cahir & Morris,

1991).

Health Status and Stress

Work stress has been identified as a risk factor for hypertension, diabetes, upper extremity

musculoskeletal problems, back problems and cardiovascular disease (APA, 2013). High

demands and low decision control have predicted heart disease in white-collar workers (Kuper &

Marmot, 2003). Job strain has been shown to increase blood pressure in men of low SES

(Landsbergis, Schnall, Pickering, Warren, & Schwartz, 2003). Exposure to cumulative job strain

in white-collar workers revealed modest increases in systolic blood pressure (Guimont et al.,

2006). Fatigue and sleep deprivation are correlated to mandatory and voluntary overtime and are

also associated with work-related accidents in blue-collar workers (Barger et al., 2005;

Cochrane, 2001).

4. Material and Methods

The study was guided by the pragmatism research paradigm. Pragmatism is a paradigm that

includes ideas, methods, approaches, principles, or a mix of these to explain a solution to

a research problem. Therefore, pragmatism accepts a flexible approach to solving research

problems. Pragmatism focuses on what can be achieved or what works rather than on the

positivist's principle of absolute truth or reality. It does not totally rely on interpretivist approach

not on the positivist approach. It is often associated with mixed-methods or multiple-methods

(Biesta, 2010; Creswell and Clark, 2011; Johnson and Onwuegbuzie, 2004; Maxcy, 2003;

Morgan, 2014a; Teddlie and Tashakkori, 2009), where the focus is on the consequences of

research and on the research questions rather than on the methods. This study adopted the

Convergent Parallel mixed methods design. According to Creswell & Pablo-Clark (2011), this

design involves that the researcher simultaneously performs quantitative and qualitative activities

in the same phase of the research process, balances methods equally, analyzes the two

components independently, and interprets results together.In this study, quantitative data were

used to test the hypotheses that predicted the relationship between the intra and extra-

organizational factors and stress among the academic staff of Makerere University. Appropriate

Qualitative data were used to answer research questions that needed to identify factors predicting

the stress of academic staff at Makerere University. This design helped in comparing the results

looking for patterns or contradictions and to generate insights. The target population of the study

was 1455 full-time academic staff of Makerere University distributed in nine constituent colleges

and one school working at Makerere University Campus with a sample of 304. The sample was

selected using two sampling methods namely; disproportionate stratified sampling for colleges

and staff, and purposive sampling techniques for administrators. For Makerere university staff

were sampled using simple random sampling, each individual was chosen by chance basing on

the sampling frame containing names of the academic staff. The study used two data collection

methods that are namely; questionnaire survey and interviews. The questionnaire survey was

used to collect data from academic staff. Using the questionnaire survey, the study collected






quantitative data necessary for quantitative results for generalisation. The sample that provided

interview data were from key informants namely Human Resources Managers whose mandate is

to handle all human resource practices and Principals of Colleges who supervise the staff.

The study used two data collection instruments, namely; a self-administered

questionnaire and an interview guide. The design of the interview items was a standardised open-

ended interview that allows the participants to provide detailed information because of the

probing questions it has means of follow-up. The interviews were conducted on Human

Resource Managers and Principals of Colleges.

Standardised research instruments (Questionnaire and Interview guide) were adopted.

Quantitative data collected were processed by, editing, coding, data entry, cleaning, preliminary

analysis, entering them into the computer using the Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS

24.0), summarising them using frequency tables to identify errors and editing them. Thereafter,

descriptive statistics were analysed at univariate level by considering namely; frequencies,

percentages and means which was calculated (Kothari, 2004). Inferential statistics namely;

correlation and regression (simple linear and multiple linear regression analysis) were done to

test hypotheses at both bivariate and multivariate levels (Kothari & Garg, 2014; Gupta & Gupta,

2011; Dawson, 2009). These inferential statistics produced data necessary for generalisation of

the findings.

5. Results and Discussion

The study was guided by the following hypotheses:

1. There is a significant relationship between intra-organisational factors and stress among

academic staff.

2. There is a significant relationship between extra organisational factors and stress among

academic staff.

3. Personal factors have a moderating influence on stress among academic staff.

Correlations and regressions were run and results are discussed according to hypotheses.

Hypothesis One:

There is a statistical significant relationship between Intra-organisational factors and

Stress among Academic Staff.

To establish whether there was a relationship between Intra-organisational factors and

stress among Makerere University academic staff, intra-organisational factors namely; workload,

responsibility for people, interpersonal relationships and organizational culture were correlated

with stress among academic staff. The results were given as in Table 1.






Table 1: Correlations between Intra organizational factors and Stress among Makerere

University Academic Staff

Predictors Stress of Academic Staff

Workload

Pearson Correlation .607

Sig. (2-tailed) .000

N 233

Responsibility for People



N 224

Interpersonal Relationships



N 229

Organisational Culture

Pearson Correlation -.079


N 221

Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed). Source: Field data, 2020.

The results in Table 1 show that there is a statistically significant relationship between

intra-organisational factors basing on workload and responsibility for people (Workload p=.000,

and responsibility for people p=.002; p<.05). However, there is no statistical significant

relationship between interpersonal relationships, organisational culture and stress among

academic staff of Makerere University for both factors (p>.05). These findings are consistent

with the findings of previous scholars. For instance, Asamoah-Appiah and Aggrey-Fynn (2017)

revealed that the intra-organisational factor of interpersonal relations was a major cause of stress.

Aliaset al. (2019) found out that the intra-organisational factor of workload had a positive and

significant influence on job stress. Barkhuizen and Rothmann (2008) reported that intra-

organisational factors including work overload caused stress among academic staff. These

findings were backed by qualitative findings where few of participants from human resource

reported that;

...the academic staff are fatigued, because of the big numbers of students in the

university from the start i.e., they are given a big workload and they no longer

have weekends and actually don’t have evenings.

Dobnik, et al. (2018) reported a positive and significant relationship between workload in terms

of inability to take time off in lieu after working on the weekend and an increased number of

workdays on Sunday.






Hypothesis Two:

There is a statistical significant relationship between Extra-organisational factors and

Stress among Academic Staff.

To establish whether there was a relationship between extra-organisational factors and stress

among academic staff, extra-organisational factors namely family relations and

socio-economic status was correlated with stress among academic staff. The results were

given as in Table 3.

Table 2

Correlations between extra-organisational factors and Stress among Academic staff

Predictors Stress of Academic staff

Family Relations

Pearson

Correlation -.052


N 232

Economic Status

Pearson

Correlation .467


N 233

Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed).**

Source: Field data, 2020

Table 2 findings indicate that there is a significant relationship between socio-economic

status and stress among Makerere University Academic Staff (r = 0.340, p = .000<0.05).

However, results show that there is no statistically significant relationship between family

relations and stress among Academic Staff in Makerere University (r = -0.067, p = 0.340 > 0.05).

The findings of the study showed that extra-organisational factor (socio-economic status) was a

positive and significant predictor of stress among academic staff, hence the alternative

hypothesis was retained. One participant (Participant 3) commented that:

...the academic staff have a low socioeconomic status because some of them

cannot afford fuel and lunch. The academic staff have a low because of the

peanuts they get which comes due to the salaries they get i.e., no allowances; few

people have accommodation i.e., 80% are renting.

These findings concurred with the findings of previous scholars. For instance, Bhatti et al. (2010)

revealed that economic conditions which are an extra-organisational factor contributed to

organisational stress. Similarly, Cervantes et al. (2015) also reported that family and socio

economic factors which are extra-organisational factors related to stress. Relatedly, Hjelm et al.

(2017) revealed that poverty was associated with perceived stress.






Hypothesis Three

Personal factors have a moderating influence on stress among academic staff.

A moderator analysis was used to determine whether the relationship between intra and extra-

organisational factors and stress is moderated by personal factors. Personal factors include;

personality factors (locus of control, self-esteem and optimism) and demographics such as; age,

sex and educational level are potential moderators. The relationship between stress and intra-

organisational factors (workload, responsibility for others, interpersonal relationships, and

organizational culture) and extra-organisational factors (family relations and socioeconomic

status) is not necessarily direct. These relationships may be influenced by stress moderators, such

as; personality factors (locus of control, self-esteem and optimism) and demographics such as;

age, sex, marital status, teaching experience, family size, and educational level are potential

moderators. Multiple regression analysis was done to establish how the combined predictors and

moderators predict academic stress. Findings were shown in Table 3.

Table 3.






Multiple regression of Predictors, Moderators and Academic Stress

Coefficientsa

Model Unstandardized

Coefficients

Standardized

Coefficients

t Sig. R2 Adj. R2

B Std. Error Beta

(Constant) 1.282 .519 2.469 .015 .487 .419

Age .014 .045 .027 .308 .758

Sex .084 .067 .091 1.251 .213

Marital status -.069 .065 -.084 -1.064 .289

Spouse’s Education level .058 .037 .142 1.578 .117

Your highest level of

education attained -.051 .053 -.098 -.959

.340

Health status .076 .040 .144 1.904 .059

Experience of teaching .026 .031 .054 .841 .402

Your family size .013 .028 .031 .477 .634

Educational level of

father .057 .036 .178 1.591

.114

Education level of

mother -.027 .039 -.082 -.702

.484

Economic Status .026 .038 .061 .673 .502

Family Relations .035 .049 .055 .716 .475

Responsibility to People .041 .034 .093 1.215 .226

Organisational Culture -.062 .048 -.103 -1.288 .200

Interpersonal

Relationships .016 .040 .031 .401

.689

Workload .242 .047 .457 5.170 .000

Locus of control .010 .004 .156 2.355 .020

Self-Esteem .011 .011 .085 .987 .325

Optimism -.012 .005 -.213 -2.473 .015

a. Dependent Variable: Stress of Academic Staff

Source: (Field data, 2020)

The model summary Table 3 shows that the adjusted R Square is .419 using all the

predictors and moderators simultaneously, meaning that 41.9% of the variance in academic stress

can be predicted from all the variables combined.

Regression analysis of predictors of stress

To establish how intra-organisational factors and extra-organisational factors predict stress, a

linear regression was computed, as shown in Table 4.

Table 4






Regression Analysis of Intra and extra-organisational factors on Stress

Coefficientsa

Model Unstandardized

Coefficients

Standardized

Coefficients

t Sig. R2 Adj.R2

B Std.

Error

Beta

(Constant) 1.938 .220 8.789 .000 .418 .400

Responsibility to People .075 .027 .157 2.786 .006

Interpersonal

Relationships -.024 .029 -.045 -.805 .422

Organisational Culture -.022 .034 -.036 -.627 .531

Workload .326 .044 .568 7.448 .000

Family Relations -.027 .035 -.043 -.756 .450

Economic Status .026 .034 .058 .747 .456

a. Dependent Variable: Stress of Academic Staff

Source: (Field data, 2020)

Table 4 shows the model summary by giving us the R square (.418) and Adjusted R square

(.400). Thus, this is a fairly good model explaining 40% of the variance in stress of Academic

Stress, which is associated with intra and extra organisational factors. When compared with the

model (Table 4) with both intra and intraorganizational factors and moderators, the adjusted R

square was .419. Therefore, the moderators have an impact because they increased the

prediction by 1.9%. Findings revealed that generally personal factors (locus of control as a

personality factor, sex, health status and education level of parents) had a moderating influence

on stress among academic staff. Therefore, the directional hypothesis was retained. These

findings were backed up by the qualitative findings where participant 4 reported as follows:

...the academic staff do not have locus of control because colleges do not take independent

decisions i.e., initially payments were being made by the centre so if you are doing

anything may be for your personal gain but if you are doing anything for the good of the

institution.

The findings that health influences stress among academic staff agree with the findings by Prasad

et al. (2015) that chronic back pain was a positive and significant cause of stress. Also, Yahaya

et al. (2011) found out that ill health and back pain, together with certain health-related activities

such as smoking and alcohol intake led to stress among employees. This means that people who

have health complications are more likely to suffer stress at work. These quantitative findings

were backed up by qualitative findings where one participant (Participant 5) and who seemed to

represent majority of the views of participants had this to say:






...the academic staff have not reported any health challenge because they have

relatively young staff and also the staff are not badly economically.

The findings that locus of control had a significant influence on stress agrees with

Kalyanasundaram et al. (2018) who found out that employees who have an internal locus of

control were less stressed by their jobs. These findings are backed by qualitative findings where

majority the participants from human resources reported that;

...the academic staff do not have internal locus of control because colleges do not

take independent decision. What is happening is externally affected i.e. they are

controlled directly from the main building.

Similarly, Chen and Silverthorne (2008) that individuals with a higher internal locus of control

were more likely to have lower levels of job stress. Likewise, Jha and Bano (2012) found out that

internal locus of control has significant negative correlation with organisational role stress.

Regarding the finding that optimism had an insignificant influence on stress agrees with Chan

(2004) revealed that individuals with an optimistic mentality had the ability to better buffer

themselves from the effects of perceived stress. However, some participants narrated;

…the academic staff are pessimistic because they believe that university

management is not doing enough to deliver to its expectations therefore, they are

more pessimistic.

The discussion above suggests that people who have an internal locus of control and are

optimistic are less likely to suffer from stress at workplaces. With respect to age being an

insignificant predictor of stress, these findings disagree with the findings of previous scholars.

For instance, Bak et al. (2012) reported that stress decreased as the economic situation improved

and people got old. Hjelm et al. (2017) revealed that age and education showed no consistent

association with stress.

6. Conclusion

The discussion led to the making of the following conclusions with respect to predictors of stress

among academic staff. Intra-organisational factors have a bearing on stress amongst academic

staff. This is because, in their responsibility to people, some feel undervalued, have to make

important decisions, work demand make social life difficult, have to manage others, the risk of

actual physical violence at work, lacking support from others and feel isolated at work. This is

also because their interpersonal relationships there is low level of teamwork, feeling undervalued

and less respected by supervisors, low harmonious working relationships, and some level of

discrimination. Further, the organisational culture is characterized by limited support to staff in

order to realise their full potential, offer them skills and develop them, and limited freedom to

express creativity. Thus, while concluding we can say that whether stress can spoil or increase

performance is dependent on moderating factors such as work complication, the skills and






expertise of the employee in performing a task, personal traits of individuals/employees

involved, etc. Organizations which encourage an open and honest communication develop an

environment in which employees are less likely to be stressed out, enabling the employees to

best utilize their abilities and skills and, thus, stimulating the employees to work performance.

Extra-organisational factors are potential stressors amongst academic staff. This is

because of some moderate socio-economic challenges lies less dependable means of transport,

limited time to oneself, children, friends, spouse and limited resources to buy special equipment

for their children. With the majority academic staff average socio-economic status of 72.2%,

putting them in high socio-economic status is not satisfactory since 27.8% is still struggling.

We, therefore, conclude that even relatively slight stress distracts an employee. Extended or

repeated exposure even to minor levels of stress may have detrimental effects on health and this

might lower employee’s work performance. People facing stress concentrate more on the

repulsive feelings and emotions rather than on the work/job at hand and consequently their work

performance suffers. Stress also affects people’s intellectual, emotional, and interpersonal

functioning.

Personal factors interact with intra-organisational and extra-organisational factors to cause

stress among academic staff. Such personal factors include; sex, health and education level of

parents. Demographic variables; sex, socioeconomic status, health status and education level of

parents, are positively associated with occupational stress. Higher socioeconomic status brings

greater resources for health: those in lower levels of socioeconomic status tend to have poorer

health outcomes because they are less able to take care of their health and even afford health

care, among other things. We conclude that though the majority of academic staff are well off

because their economic status is high, however, this economic status should be sustainable and

also cater for the minority that was found to be in low economic status.

7. Recommendations

Based on the findings of this study, we recommend that:

Managers and supervisors of academic staff in universities should ensure that intra-

organisational factors such as workload and responsibility for people have no bearing on stress

amongst academic staff. This should involve ensuring that academic staff feel valued, are

respected, involved in decision making, work allows flex-time, campuses are free from the risk

of violence, and cooperation is promoted. Also, they should promote teamwork, create

harmonious working relationships and promote equality. Further, they should offer support to

staff to realise their full potential, offer them skills and develop them, and allow them freedom to

express creativity.

The government of Uganda and the management of universities should consider the

economic status of academic staff to be improved to curtail stress among them. This should

involve paying them well such that they can afford basics like dependable means of transport,

holidays with their families, friends and to afford their children’s special equipment.

The government of Uganda and management of universities should put mechanisms to

ensure personal health of academic staff is well catered for. This should involve supporting staff

such that they are able to get treatment and remain healthy.






Furthermore, the regression model showed that the factors studied contributed 40% of

the variance in stress amongst academic staff. Therefore, more factors such as intra-

organisational factors that are namely physical environment including organisational safety and

environmental conduciveness, the individual-level factors of career goals discrepancy and group

satisfaction, and organisational levels factors such as management styles, organisational design

and job design in relation to how they cause stress (Muchinsky, 1993) should be studied.

Still, the study was based on data collected from Makerere University (a public

university) only. This implies that the generalizability of the findings of the study should be

considered with caution. Therefore, future studies should make effort to carry similar or related

studies on a larger number of public universities. Still, future studies should consider looking at

private universities because of their peculiarities.






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